A-level digitalteachers.co.

ug

PAPER 2: UNEB 2010

17.1 Section A

A study was conducted on the germination and early growth of sorghum. The grains were soaked in
cotton wool in a greenhouse and at two-day intervals, samples were taken and separated into two
components, of endosperm and embryo (seedling), which were then oven dried and weighed. Figure
1 shows the variation of total dry mass, dry mass of endosperm and embryo. Use the information to
answer the question that follow

(a) Explain the variation with time of

(i) Dry mass of endosperm.
(ii) Dry mass of embryo
(iii) Total dry mass of sorghum seedling.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

 (b) Explain why the following were done
(i) Oven-drying the seeds.
(ii) Separating in components.
(iii) Sowing seeds in a greenhouse.
(c) From the information given, name the method used to measure growth and give its
limitations.
(d) (i) Name two internal factors in the seed that would affect the results above.

(ii) Suggest precautions that could have been taken to ensure reliable results.

(e) What conclusion can be drawn from the graph after 8days?
(f) Explain what would happen if the experiment continued for another 10days.

Solution

(a) (i) variation

From 0-2 days dry mass of endosperm decreases gradually. It then decreases rapidly from 2-8
days and finally gradually between 8-10 days.

Explanation

As a result of inhibition and osmosis, the endosperm becomes hydrated. This activates enzymes
such as the enzymes of respiration.

Between 0-2 days, the respiration enzymes oxidize the available simple molecules such as
glucose for energy, hence the gradual decrease in dry mass.

The energy generated is used to synthesize digestive enzyme which breakdown starch, the main
food storage form, in the endosperm to glucose. The glucose then transported to the growing
regions of the embryo. This occurs rapidly between 2-8days and accounts for the rapid decrease
in dry mass of the endosperm during this period.

After 8 days, other sources of energy take effect as the effective mass of the endosperm
becomes exhausted. The little food left in the endosperm is digested slowly. Then the dry mass
of the endosperm reduces more gradually.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

 (ii) Variation

From 0-2 days, the dry mass of embryo is constant; it then increases rapidly almost linearly,
from 2-10 days.

Explanation

0-2 days is a period of mobilization of the seed for germination. No growth has yet taken place
in the embryo and its mass therefore remains constant.

From 2-8 days, the food molecules mobilized by digestion of food stored in the endosperm are
transported to the growing regions in the embryo. The embryo starts to grow and so increases in
dry weight.

From 8-10 days, the first leaf emerges and starts to photosynthesis. This increases the rate of
growth of the embryo.

(iii) Variation

Total dry mass decreases gradually in the first 7 days and then increases gradually thereafter.

Explanation

In the first 7 days, the overall loss in dry mass is due to aerobic respiration which consumes glucose
in both the endosperm and embryo. During this period, the rate of growth of the embryo less than
compensates for the loss, leading to an overall decrease in total dry mass.

At about day 7, the first leaf emerges ad starts to photosynthesize. The resulting increase in dry
mass then more than compensate for losses due to respiration so that a net increase in dry mass is
observed.

(b) (i) The seeds were oven-dried to make sure that all the water is dried out without decomposing
the organic matter in the seed.

(ii) The seed components were separated in order to stop growth and exchange of materials
between them.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

 (iii) The seeds were sown in a green house in order to expose them to the same conditions during
germination and growth. It is easier to control conditions in the greenhouse than those of the
natural environment.

(c). Measuring dry mass of the seed.

Limitations

- It involves killing of the plant. Therefore, serial measurement on the same plant are not
possible.
- It is very time consuming

Others

- It is a tiresome procedure.
(d) (i) – amount of food stored in the seed.
- Initial mass of the seed.

Others

- Difference in growth rate of the different components of the seed.

- Viability of the seed.

(ii) Use seeds of comparable size and weight.

- Seeds should be obtained from the same plant and should have been stored in the same
conditions for the same duration.

Others

- Seeds should be subjected to the same conditions during the period of the experiment.
- A large number of seeds should be used and a mean dry mass of the components determined.

(e). After 8 days, another source, other than the endosperm, provides food materials for the
growth of the seedling.

(f).The dry mass of the endosperm would decrease gradually to zero while the dry mass of the
embryo and the total dry mass of the seedling would continue increasing rapidly

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

 Explanation

All the food reserves in the endosperm would be exhausted due to oxidation to provide energy
for growth the number of leaves increases, so increasing the rate of photosynthesis. More food is
synthesized and the rate of growth of the embryo increases rapidly. The rate of synthesis of food
by photosynthesis by far exceeds the energy loss from respiration so that the total dry mass of
the seedlings continues to increase.

SECTION B

2. (a) Describe the structure of the vascular system in higher plants.

(b) How is the system in (a) adapted to its function?

Solution:

(a) The vascular in high plants consists of two types of vascular tissue, the xylem and phloem.
- The xylem contains two types of conducting cells: tracheid and vessel elements. Both types of
conducting are hollow, non-living and lack end walls, they are connected end to end to form a
continuous pipeline for water and mineral transport. The xylem elements have lignified side
walls which are perforated by numerous bordered pits.
- The conducting cells of phloem are the sieve-tubes, each associated with a companion cell.
Sieve-tube cells contain cytoplasm no nuclei. Strands of cytoplasm, called plasmodesmata,
extend from one cell to another through the sieve plates (perforated cell end walls)
- The vascular system extends from the roots to the leaves and vice versa. In the roots, the
vascular tissue is located in the vascular cylinder; in the stem, it forms vascular bundles; and in
the leaves. It is found in leaf veins.

(b) Adaptions of xylem to its function.

 Its cells have no end walls and so allow unimpeded flow of water.
 Lignin in the cellulose side walls makes it impermeable to water and solutes. This
prevents wastage during transport.
 Having spiral and annular thickening gives it a tensile strength and prevents the vessel
from collapsing.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

  Presence of pits allows passages of water in and out of the lumen.
 Lignin also strengthens the vessels in order to structural support to the plant.
 Have elongated cylindrical cells for continuous flow of water.
Others:
 The torus in bordered pits as a plug for controlling passage of water in some plants.

Adaptations of phloem to its function.

 The sieve tubes are elongated, cylindrical cells connected end to end. Their end walls have
sieve plates perforated with pores to allow continuous flow of materials.
 The sieve tubes have no nucleus to create more room for movement of materials.
 Within the lumen of the sieve elements are cytoplasmic filaments/ strands which are
continuous from cell to enable continuous flow of materials.
 The companion cells have nuclei and other organelles. They control the flow of materials
through the phloem sieve tubes.

3. (a) Explain what is meant by alternation of generations.

(b) Compare the life cycle of a moss and a fern.
(c) What is the importance of alternation of generations to the life of a moss and a fern?

Solution:

(a) Alternation of generations is the alteration between a diploid sporophyte generation and the
haploid gametophyte generation in a single life cycle of a plant.
(b) Similarities between the life cycle of a moss and a fern
- In both the diploid sporophyte produces spores and the haploid gametophyte produces
gametes.
- In both the female gamete is non-motile while the male gamete is motile.
- In both the sporophyte grows out of the gametophyte.
- In both gametes are produced by mitosis.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

Differences

Life cycle of moss Life cycles of a fern

- Gametophyte is dominant - Gametophyte is dependent

- Sporophyte is dependent - Sporophyte is dominant
- Sporophyte is very temporary and - Sporophyte is long-lasting and
photosynthesizes to a limited extent photosynthetically active
- Gametophyte is long-lasting - Gametophyte is a temporary organ

(c) Significance of alternation of generations

 There is rapid multiplication as spores are normally produced in large numbers
 Spores can survive harsh conditions and germinate when conditions are favorable
 Spores leads to formation of different varieties since meiosis takes place during their
formation.
 Fertilization restores diploid chromosome number. Production of gametes by mitosis
ensures that the haploid gametophyte state is maintained. This maintains the plant genome.
 Alternative between gametophyte and sporophyte generations ensures that the plant
colonizes different habitats in the ecosystem.
 Interdependence between gametophyte and sporophyte generation ensures existence of both
generations and avoids extinction of the plant species.

4. (a) Explain how organisms have overcome the challenges of being multicellular.

(b) Explain the movement of animals from place to place

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

Solution

(a) These challenges have been overcome in the following ways;

- There is division of labor, different cells being adapted to perform specific functions.
This has improved efficiently in co-ordination of life-sustaining processes.
- Specialized respiratory surfaces have been developed to enhance gaseous exchange.
These are usually highly folded to increase surface area for gaseous exchange. For
example, lungs and gills.
- A specialized transport system has been developed to move gases and other materials to
and from the body cells. For example, in higher animals and plants.
- In some, the body is flattened, thus reducing the distances between the two body
surfaces and enhancing the process of diffusion. For example, in flat worms and leaves
of plants.
- A specialized supporting system such as a skeleton in most animals has been developed
to support, protect and assist locomotion of the organism.
- In some, the body is constructed such that the tissues are thin. This reduces the diffusion
distance. For example, in hydra.
- In some, there exists a system by which the external medium is brought is brought into
the body so that it comes into intimate contact with all the tissues in order to enhance
exchange of materials by diffusion. For example, the tracheal system of insects.

(b) Animals move from place to place in order to fulfill the following needs.
- To find food, unlike plants, animals are not able to manufacture their own food. As a
result, they have to move from one place to another to find food to eat.
- To avoid being captured by predations. Animals which are fed upon by predators (prey)
have developed efficient locomotors mechanisms and move from place to place to avoid
being captured by predators.
- To find new and favorable habits. Many times, conditions in the habitant of an animal
become unfavorable. Animals in such conditions will have to move from one place to
another in order to find a new favorable habitant.
- To find suitable mates. In order to reproduce, animals move from place to place in order
to find a suitable mate, with which to reproduce.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

 - To avoid overcrowding and therefore competition for the available resources.
5. (a) Describe the characteristics of receptor cells.

(b). Describe the role played by each of the following in the maintenance of balance in a human
body.

(i) Semi-circular canals.

(ii) Utriculus and sacculus.

Solution

(a) Characteristics of receptor cells include;

- Transduction; receptor cells are capable of changing physical stimuli into an electrical
impulse.
- Sensitivity; receptor cells are able to detect the slightest change in their environment
(stimulus)
- Adaptation; if a stimulus is maintained, receptor cells are able to adapt to it so that the
stimulus no longer causes an impulse, however strong it is.
- Inhibition; receptor cells can be stopped from firing impulses by special synaptic
connections. As a result, certain impulses are transmitted only when required.
- Precision; receptors are able to transmit the information precisely without alteration.

(b) (i) semi-circular canals are important in dynamic equilibrium.

The ampulla in the semi-circular canals consists of groups of sensory cells whose hairs are
embedded in dome-shaped gelatinous, capulla. The canals are filled with fluid called endolymph.
There are three in number, arranged in three planes; vertical canals detect movement in upward
direction; horizontal canals detect backward and forward motion while lateral canals detect
sideways movements of the head.

When the head moves in any one of these planes, the fluid in the relevant canal also moves,
displacing the capulla. Due to inertia, the capulla is deflected in the opposite direction to that of
movement of the head.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

This puts strain on the sensory cells, causing them to fire impulses in the different nerve fibres to the
brain.

The pattern of impulses is interpreted by the brain which detects the direction and speed of
movement and sends instructions to relevant organs than maintain dynamic balance.

(ii) The utriculus and sacculus contain maculae which are regions containing receptor cells. These
have their hair-like processes attached to otoliths.

By varying the position of the head, the pull of gravity over the hairs on the otoliths tilts them
accordingly.

The different influences of the pull of gravity result in a pattern of impulses to the brain. The brain
interprets the position of the head in space and accordingly sends instruction to relevant muscles to
restore balance.

6. (a) Explain what is meant by variation

(b) How does meiosis contribute to variation?
(c) Describe the role of variation in evolution.

Solution

(a) Variation refers to the existence of different functional, physical or behavioral

characteristics among organisms of a population. It may arise by gene mutation,
chromosomal mutation or recombination
(b) Crossing over between chromatids of homologous chromosomes occurs during prophase I
of meiosis. This shuffles linked genes and provides a source of genetic recombination.

During metaphase I of meiosis, chromosomes are distributed randomly at the equator and
subsequently segregate independently during anaphase I. this leads to further mixing of genes
which are then expressed in the gametes.

(c) In the presence of variation, organisms respond to change in different ways.

- In presence of a selection pressure, organisms which are more suitably adapted with survive
i.e. with favourable variation, survive and reproduce while organism with unfavourable

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709

 variations die and may be weeded out. As a result, a new strain of organisms with favourable
variations arises.

- Also certain variation may limit successful sexual reproduction among organisms of a
population. As a result, the population may be split into two differently intern-breeding
populations which may later evolve into a new species of organisms.

- Some variations may be so lethal that organisms containing them do not survive to the next
generations, even without a selection pressure. As a result, such organisms become extinct in the
subsequent generations, leaving a strain of organisms with non-lethal variations.

Sponsored by: The Science Foundation College +256 753 802709