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General
 The design of the foundations for a structure
comprises three stages.
ECV 411  The first stage is to determine from an inspection of
the site the nature of the ground and, having
Foundation Engineering II selected the stratum upon which to impose the
load, to decide the safe bearing pressure.
 The second stage is to select the type of foundation,

Design of and the suitability of one or more types may have to

be compared.
Foundations – BS  The third stage is to design the selected foundation

8110 to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure

to the ground. Reference should be made to
CP2004 'Foundations'.
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Allowable Bearing Capacity Allowable Bearing Capacity

 Failure of a foundation may be due to consolidation  Allowable bearing pressures are established from
of the ground causing settlement, or rupture of the principles of soil mechanics on the basis of load tests
ground due to failure in resistance to shearing. and other determinations.
 Unless they bear on rock, foundations for all but  These values along with other important information
single storey buildings or other light structures should and data are typically summarized in a
be taken down at least 1 m or 3 ft below the ground geotechnical report.
surface since, it is seldom that undisturbed soil which  In the absence of site-specific data, allowable
is sufficiently consolidated is reached at a shallower bearing pressures may be available from local
depth. building authorities (see table 1).
 In a clay soil a depth of at least 1.5 m or 5 ft is
necessary to ensure protection of the bearing
stratum from weathering.

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Allowable Bearing Capacity Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial

Table 1: Typical Allowable Bearing Values
Loading
 Once the bearing capacity of the soil has been
Rock or Soil Typical Bearing value
(kN/m2) established, the next step is to determine the
Massive igneous bedrock 10,000 pressure distribution at the base of the footing.
Sandstone 2,000 to 4,000  In ordinary construction, the load on a wall or
Shales and mudstone 600 to 2,000 column is transmitted vertically to the footing, which
Gravel, sand and gravel, 600 in turn is supported by the upward pressure of the soil
compact on which it rests.
Medium dense sand 100 to 300  Elastic analyses and observations reveal that the
Loose fine sand Less than 100 stress distribution beneath a symmetrically loaded
Hard clay 300 to 600 footing is not uniform.
Medium clay 100 to 300  The actual stress distribution is highly indeterminate
Soft clay Less than 75 and depends on the rigidity (or flexibility) of the
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial

Loading Loading
 For footings on coarse grained soil, like loose sand, soil
near the edge of the footing tends to displace laterally,
whereas soil located in the interior region is relatively
confined (see Fig. 1a). This is attributed to the fact that
individual grains in such soils are somehow mobile, so, the
soil located close to the perimeter can shift slightly
outwards in the direction of lower soil stresses.
 The pressure distribution for cohesive soils, like clay, is
depicted in Fig. 1b. This is because, in such soils, the load (a) Footing on granular/ (b) Cohesive/clayey soils
produces a shear resistance around the perimeter that course
adds to the upward pressure. The high stresses at the grained/cohesionless
edges of the footing are a result of shears that occur soils
Figure 1
before settlement takes place.
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial

Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial
Loading
Loading
 If the load is symmetrical with respect to the bearing
area, the bearing pressure is assumed to be
uniformly distributed (Figure c).

𝑃
𝑃 𝑞=
𝑞= 𝐿 𝐵𝐿
𝐵𝐿

Figure 1c
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial

Loading Loading
 This means that:
 It is customary to disregard these non uniformities
1) single footings should be placed concentrically
because:
under the column;
1) their numerical amount is uncertain and highly
2) strip footings should be placed concentrically
variable depending on the type of soil and
under the walls;
2) their influence on the magnitude of BM and SF in
3) For combined and strap footings, the centroid of
the footing is relatively small.
the footing area should coincide with the
 On compressible soils, footings should be loaded resultant of the column loads.
concentrically to avoid tilting which will result if
 Therefore, as much as possible, the centre of area of
bearing pressures are significantly larger under one
a foundation or group of foundations should be
side of the footing than the other opposite side.
arranged such that they coincide with the centre of
gravity of the imposed loading.
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial

Soil Pressure Distribution – Axial
Loading
Loading
 If this is not possible, the effects on the structure of
rotation and settlement of the foundation need to be
considered.
 Where foundation support is provided by a number of
separate bases these should, as far as practicable, be
proportioned so that differential settlement is minimal.
 The total settlement of a structure may interfere with some
special aspect of its functions, e.g. the effect on services,
but it is the differential or relative settlement which, in
general, produces the secondary stresses which are of
such importance in the completed structure.

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Soil Pressure Distribution – Soil Pressure Distribution –

Eccentric Loading Eccentric Loading
𝑀=0
 When a foundation is subjected to a concentric
𝑀
load, that is when the centre of gravity of the 𝑒= =0
superimposed load coincides with the centroid of Soil pressure distribution 𝑃

the foundation, the bearing pressure on the ground for footing subjected to
is for practical purposes uniform and its intensity is an axial load and zero
𝑀 𝑃
equal to the total applied load divided by the total moment 𝑒 = = 0 . 𝑞=
𝑃 𝐵𝐿
area, i.e.
𝑃
𝑞=
𝐴
 Where 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐿 is the bearing area of the footing and 𝐵
𝑃 is the applied load.

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Soil Pressure Distribution – Soil Pressure Distribution –

Eccentric Loading Eccentric Loading
 The variation of pressure between these two extremes
 Although it is always desirable to load footings axially to
depends on the magnitude of the eccentricity and is
ensure uniform settlement and to minimize soil pressures,
usually assumed to be linear.
footings are often designed for both axial load and
moment.  The total combined stress at the base of the footing is
equal to the sum of the stress due to the axial load P
 Moment may be caused by lateral forces due to wind or
(axial load/footing area) and the bending moment M
earthquake, and by lateral soil pressures.
(bending moment/section modulus of footing).
 If the resultant of the loads acting at the base of the
 Depending on the extent of the eccentricity of the load
footing does not coincide with the centroid of the footing
relative to the dimensions of the base area, one of the
area, the footing will be eccentrically loaded and the
following cases may occur:
distribution of the soil pressure will not be uniform but will
vary from a maximum at the side nearer the centre of 1) Case (a): 𝑒 < 𝐿/6
gravity of the load to a minimum at the opposite side, or 2) Case (b): 𝑒 = 𝐿/6
to zero at some intermediate point. 3) Case (c): 𝑒 > 𝐿/6
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Soil Pressure Distribution –

Eccentric Loading Eccentric Loading
Case (a): 𝒆 < 𝑳/𝟔

 The resultant lies within the middle third of the length Soil pressure
of the footing. In this case the pressure distribution on distribution for
the soil is given by the equation for axial load plus footing subjected to
bending: axial load and
𝑃 𝑀𝑦 𝑃 𝑀𝑦 bending moment
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± = ± when e < L/6.
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝐼 𝐵𝐿 𝐼
 Where I is the second moment of area of the base
about the axis of bending and 𝑦 is the distance from
the centroidal axis to where the pressure is being
calculated.
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Soil Pressure Distribution –

Eccentric Loading Eccentric Loading
 This formula permits the determination of the bearing
Case (b): 𝒆 = 𝑳/𝟔
pressures at the two extreme edges, as shown.
 When the eccentricity 𝑒 is equal to 𝐿/6 [𝑒 = 𝐿/6) , the
 Substituting 𝐵𝐿3/12 for 𝐼 and 𝐿/2 for 𝑦, the maximum and
minimum pressure 𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 along one edge of the footing is
minimum pressures becomes:
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 as shown in Fig. (a) below. The maximum pressure
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the other edge is equal to 2𝑃/𝐴 = 2𝑃/𝐵𝐿.
𝑃 6𝑀
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿2 Soil pressure
distribution for footing
 Substituting 𝑃 × 𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒 for 𝑀, we get:
subjected to axial
load and bending
moment when 𝑒 =
𝑃 6𝑃𝑒 𝑃 6𝑒 𝐿/6
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± = 1±
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿2 𝐵𝐿 L
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Soil Pressure Distribution – Soil Pressure Distribution –

Eccentric Loading Eccentric Loading
Case (c): 𝒆 > 𝑳/𝟔
𝐿  The maximum pressure is determined as a function of the
 Any further increase in eccentricity [𝑒 > ] will result in axial load, eccentricity, and plan dimensions of the
6
negative pressures (tension) along one edge of the footing. footing:
However, tensile stresses cannot be transmitted between the
soil and the concrete footing. In this case, the pressure 2𝑃
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
equation is no longer applicable, and the bearing pressure is 3 0.5𝐿 − 𝑒 𝐵
distributed as shown.
 In all cases, the maximum pressure under the footing
Soil pressure distribution should be checked against the allowable bearing
for footing subjected to capacity and maximum pressure q𝑚𝑎𝑥 must not be larger
axial load and bending than the allowable pressure 𝑞𝑎 .
moment when 𝑒 > 𝐿/6

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Soil Pressure Distribution – Soil Pressure Distribution –

Eccentric Loading Eccentric Loading
 In some cases, the footing may be subjected to  Eccentrically loaded footings can be used on highly
eccentricities in both directions. This produces biaxial
compacted soils and on rock.
moments on the footing. Only one corner point is
subjected to maximum stress. The soil stresses may be  It follows that, one should count on rotational
obtained using the stress equation as follows: restraint of the column by a single footing only when
such favourable soil conditions are present and
𝑃 𝑀𝑥 𝑦 𝑀𝑦 𝑥 when the footing is designed for both column load
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± +
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦 and the restraining moment.
 Even then, less than full fixity should be assumed,
 Such are calculated using computer programs. except for footings on rocks.

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Soil Pressure Distribution Soil Presssure Distribution

Example

Figure 5: Soil pressure distribution for a combined rectangular footing.

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Soil Presssure Distribution Soil Presssure Distribution

 In the case of combined footings, it is desirable to
design the footing so that the centroid of the footing
𝑃1 𝑥1 + 𝑃2 𝑥2
area coincides with the resultant of the column loads. 𝑥=
𝑃
 This produces uniform bearing pressure over the entire
 A uniform pressure at the base of the footing is
area of the footing and helps in preventing the footing
obtained by setting the footing dimension L equal to 2x.
from rotating.
 For the combined rectangular footing shown in Fig. 5,
the columns are supporting axial loads 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 at the
locations 𝑥1 and 𝑥2, measured from the edge of the left
column.
 The resultant force P is equal to 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 , and the
distance 𝑥 from the edge of the footing to 𝑃 is obtained
by summing moments about this point and solving for 𝑥:

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Gross and Net Soil Pressure Gross and Net Soil Pressure
 The soil pressure may be expressed in terms of gross or net
pressure at the foundation level.
 The gross pressure is the total soil pressure produced by all
loads above the foundation level – service column load at
the ground service, the weight of the plain and reinforced
concrete footings and the weight of the soil from the
foundation level to the ground level.
 On the other hand, the net soil pressure does not include
either the weight of the soil above the base of the footing or
the weight of the footing.
 In design, the area of the footing is chosen such that the
applied gross pressure does not exceed the allowable soil
pressure. The net soil pressure is used to calculate the
reinforcement and to check the shear strength of the footing.

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Gross and Net Soil Pressure Important Considerations in

Example Design of Footings
 Footings are the structural elements which transfer
loads from the building or individual columns to the
earth.
 If these loads are to be properly transmitted, footings
must be designed to prevent excessive settlement or
rotation, to minimize differential settlement and to
provide adequate safety against sliding and
overturning.

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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Depth Design of Footings – Depth
 The thickness of footing at its edge shall not be less
 The depth to which foundations should be carried than 150 mm on soils, or less than 300 mm for footings
depends on three principal factors: on piles.
a) reaching an adequate bearing stratum;  Depth of foundation below ground level can be
b) in the case of clay soils, penetration with obtained by using Rankine’s formula:
2
suitable precautions (see 3.2.8) below the zone 𝑝 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
where shrinkage and swelling due to seasonal ℎ=
𝛾 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
weather changes, trees, shrubs and other
 Where:
vegetation are likely to cause appreciable
 h=minimum depth of foundation
movement
 p=gross bearing capacity
c) penetration below the zone in which trouble  𝛾=density of soil
may be expected from frost.  ∅=angle of repose or internal friction of soil.
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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Plan area Design of Footings – Plan area
of footing of footing
 Since settlement of the structure takes place during its
working life, the design loading to be considered when  In general, a footing area is determined so that the
calculating the base areas should be those that apply maximum computed bearing pressure 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 is equal to
to serviceability limit state and typical values that can or less than the allowable soil pressure 𝑞𝑎.
be taken are:  For a concentrically loaded isolated spread footing,
the required area of the footing 𝐴 is determined by
 Dead plus imposed load = 1.0𝐺𝑘 + 1.0𝑄𝑘 dividing the total service load 𝑃 by the allowable soil
 Dead plus wind load = 1.0𝐺𝑘 + 1.0𝑊𝑘 pressure 𝑞𝑎.
 Dead plus imposed plus wind load= 1.0𝐺𝑘 + 1.0𝑄𝑘 +
0.8𝑊𝑘 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Plan area Design of Footings – Plan area
of footing of footing
 The total load is a combination of dead load, live
𝑃 6𝑀
load and any other load without multiplying it with 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + ≤ 𝑞𝑝
𝐴𝑓 𝐵𝐿2
any load factor.
 In the case of square footings, the length or width is
 The required footing size must also be determined by
equal to 𝑃/𝑞𝑎
trial and error in cases where the eccentricity is greater
 For spread footings subjected to an axial load P and than L/6, on the basis of the maximum pressure along
a moment M or, equivalently, to an axial load P at the edge of the footing:
an eccentricity e where e is equal to or less than L/6,
the footing area is found by trial and error, using the 2𝑃
condition that the maximum combined pressure qmax 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≤ 𝑞𝑝
3 0.5𝐿 − 𝑒 𝐵
is equal to or less than qa:
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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Plan area Design of Footings – Plan area
of footing of footing
 Assuming that the length L is established on the basis
 For combined rectangular footings, the length L of the
footing is equal to 2x, where x is determined such that of column size and spacing, the dimensions 𝐵1 and
uniform pressure is obtained at the base of the footing. 𝐵2 can be determined so that a uniform soil pressure
In this case, the width B of the footing is obtained as occurs at the base of the footing.
follows:
𝑃
𝐵=
𝐿𝑞𝑝
𝐵1 𝐵2

 The dimensions of a combined trapezoidal footing can

be determined using similar methods.
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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Strength of Design of Footings – Strength of
the Foundation the Foundation
 The calculations to determine the strength of the  Having calculated the factored loads it is then
foundation, that is the thickness of the base and necessary to establish the factored foundation
the areas of bending reinforcement should be pressures, and to determine the resulting
based on loads and resultant (net) ground moments and shears in the foundation elements,
pressures corresponding to the ultimate limit state. which should be designed in accordance with
The typical values that can be taken as: the appropriate British Standard (BS 8110).
 Dead plus imposed load = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.6𝑄𝑘  While the loads already utilized to establish that
 Dead plus wind load = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.4𝑊𝑘 the allowable bearing pressure is not exceeded
 Dead plus imposed plus wind load = 1.2𝐺𝑘 + are unfactored service loads, the factored loads
1.2𝑄𝑘 + 1.2𝑊𝑘 are required for the design of the members.
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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Strength of Design of Footings – Strength of
the Foundation the Foundation
P =1.4Gk+1.6Qk
 Some discipline is therefore required when
designing the superstructure to keep the dead,
imposed and wind loads separate so that they
can be easily extracted.
 The thickness of the footing and the required
area of flexural reinforcement are determined
using the strength design (limit state) method
which utilizes factored loads.
 Shear requirements must be satisfied using
𝑞 = 𝑃/𝐵𝐿 factored shear forces and design shear strength.

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Important Considerations in Important Considerations in

Design of Footings – Strength of Design of Footings – Maximum
the Foundation Bending Moment
 In cases where piles are used in conjunction with
footings (i.e., piles are embedded into the  The bending moment will be considered at the
bottom of footings; these elements are face of column, pedestal or wall and shall be
determined by passing through the section a
commonly referred to as pile caps), the number
vertical plane which extends completely across
and arrangement of the piles is determined the footing, and over the entire area of the footing
using unfactored loads. or one side of the said plane.

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Important Considerations in Design

Important Considerations in
of Footings – Maximum Bending
Design of Footings – Maximum
Moment
Bending Moment

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Selection of types of shallow Selection of types of shallow

foundation foundation
The selection of the appropriate type of shallow foundation
will normally depend on the magnitude and disposition of  Adjacent pad foundations can be combined or joined
the structural loads, the bearing capacity and settlement together with ground beams to support eccentric loads,
characteristics of the ground and the need to found in to resist overturning or to oppose horizontal forces.
stable soil.  Walls between columns may be carried on ground
 A pad foundation is used for the purpose of distributing beams spanning between the pad foundation.
concentrated loads.  Where the allowable bearing pressure would result in
 Unless special conditions control the design, relatively large isolated foundations occupying the majority of the
heavy column loads make it advantageous to use pad available area, it may be logical to join them to form a
foundations. raft and spread the loads over the entire area.
 However, strip foundations may be more appropriate  The combination of isolated foundations to form a raft
where column loads are comparatively small and closely sometimes results in a complex design and a large
spaced or where walls are heavy or heavily loaded. increase in the reinforcement requirement.

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Pad Foundations
Pad Foundations
 In the design of a separate base, the plan (base) area of
 For buildings such as low rise dwellings and lightly framed
structures, pad foundations may be of unreinforced a concentrically loaded base is determined by dividing
concrete provided that the angle of spread of load from the maximum service (i.e. unfactored) load on the
the pier or baseplate to the outer edge of the ground ground by the safe bearing resistance.
bearing does not exceed one (vertical) in one  The thickness of a footing of the common shape is
(horizontal). determined from a consideration of the resistance to
 For buildings other than low rise and lightly framed
shearing force and bending.
structures, it is customary to use reinforced concrete  The maximum bending moment at any section shall be
foundations. the sum of the moments of all the forces on one side of
 The thickness of the foundation should under no
the section.
circumstances be less than 150 mm and will generally be  The critical section for the bending moment on a base
greater than this to maintain cover to reinforcement supporting a reinforced concrete column is at the face of
where provided. the column, but for a base supporting a steel stanchion it
is at the centre of the base.
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Pad Foundations Pad Foundations

 In one way shear, the footing acts basically as a wide
 When designing in accordance with BS 8110, it should be beam, with a potential diagonal crack in a plane across
remembered that the maximum permissible bearing the entire width. The critical section for this condition shall
pressures employed represent service loads. be assumed as a vertical section located at a distance
 Consequently, when designing the resulting sections for equal to the effective depth of the footing from the face
ultimate limit-state conditions these values must be of the column in accordance with BS 8110.
multiplied by the appropriate partial safety factor for load  For one way shear action, the nominal shear stress in
(i.e. or corresponding to the load concerned to obtain calculated as:
the appropriate ultimate bending moments and shearing 𝑉
forces. 𝑣=
𝐿𝑑
 Where:
 𝑣=shear stress
 𝑉=factored vertical shear force
 𝐿=width of the critical section
 𝑑=effective depth of the footing
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Pad Foundations Pad Foundations

 It is required that: In two way shear (or two way bending action or
𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑐 punching shear) of foundation, the following should be
 Where: checked in punching shear. Punching shear shall be
around the perimeter at a distance of 1.5 times the
 𝑣𝑐 =design shear strength of concrete based on %
effective depth away from the face of the column. For
longitudinal tensile reinforcement.
two way shear action, the nominal shear stress is
calculated in accordance as follows:

𝑉
𝑣=
𝑏0 𝑑
 Where:
 𝑣=shear stress
 𝑉=factored vertical shear force
 𝑏0 =perimeter of the critical section
 𝑑=effective depth of the footing
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Pad Foundations Continuous Wall Foundations

 When the load on a strip footing is uniformly distributed
𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑐 throughout its length, as in the general case of a wall
footing, the principal bending moments are due to the
 Where:
transverse cantilever action of the projecting portion of
 𝑣𝑐 =design shear strength of concrete based on % the footing.
longitudinal tensile reinforcement.
 If the wall is of concrete and is built monolithically with the
footing, the transverse bending moment at the face of
 The code also requires the consideration of punching the wall is the critical bending moment.
shear around the column perimeter, using the  If the wall is of brick or masonry the maximum bending
procedure for concentrated loads on slabs. moment occurs under the centre of the wall.
 When the projection is less than the thickness of the base
 It is general practice to make the base deep enough so the transverse bending moments can be neglected, but
that shear reinforcement is not required. in all cases the thickness of the footing should be such
that the safe shearing stress is not exceeded.

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Continuous Wall Foundations

Raft Foundations
 On sloping sites strip foundations should be on a horizontal
bearing, stepped where necessary to maintain adequate  When the columns or other supports of a structure are
depth. closely spaced in both directions, or when the column
 The thickness of reinforced strip foundations should be not loads are so high and the safe ground pressure so low
less than 150 mm, and care should be taken with the that a group of independent bases almost or totally
excavation levels to ensure that this minimum thickness is covers the space between the columns, a single raft
maintained. foundation should be provided.
 For the longitudinal spread of loads, sufficient
reinforcement should be provided to withstand the  The analysis of a raft foundation supporting a series of
tensions induced. symmetrically arranged equal loads is generally based on
 It will sometimes be desirable to make strip foundations of the assumption of uniformly distributed pressure on the
inverted tee beam sections, in order to provide adequate ground, and the design is similar to an inverted reinforced
stiffness in the longitudinal direction. concrete floor upon which the load is that portion of the
ground pressure that is due to the symmetrically arranged
 At corners and junctions the longitudinal reinforcement of loads only.
each wall foundation should be lapped.
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Raft Foundations Raft Foundations

 Suitably designed raft foundations may be used in the c) Where mining subsidence is liable to occur.
following circumstances. d) When buildings such as low rise dwellings and lightly
a) For lightly loaded structures on soft natural ground framed structures have to be erected on soils
where it is necessary to spread the load, or where susceptible to excessive shrinking and swelling,
there is variable support due to natural variations, consideration should then be given to raft
made ground or weaker zones. In this case the foundations placed on fully compacted selected fill
function of the raft is to act as a bridge across the material used as replacement for the surface layers.
weaker zones. Rafts may form part of compensated e) For heavier structures where the ground conditions
foundations. are such that there are unlikely to be significant
b) Where differential settlements are likely to be differential settlements or heave, individual loads
significant. The raft will require special design, may be accommodated by isolated foundations. If
involving an assessment of the disposition and these foundations occupy a large part of the
distribution of loads, contact pressures and stiffness available area they may, subject to design
of the soil and raft. considerations, be joined to form a raft.
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Foundation Piers Blinding Layer

 When a satisfactory stratum is found at a depth of 1.5 to  For reinforced concrete footings or other construction
5m or 5 to 15ft below the natural ground level, a suitable where there is no mass concrete at the bottom forming
foundation can be made by building up piers from the an integral part of the foundation, the bottom of the
low level to ground level, and commencing the excavation should be covered with a layer of lean
construction of the columns or other supports on these concrete in order to provide a clean surface on which to
piers at ground level. place the reinforcement.
 The piers are generally square in cross-section, and can  The thickness of this layer depends upon the
be constructed in brick, masonry, or plain or reinforced compactness and wetness of the bottom of the
concrete. excavation, and is generally from 25 to 75mm or 1 to 3 in.
 The safe compressive service stress in the concrete should
be not less than the maximum bearing pressure on the
ground.

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 10/13/2023

Assignment
A reinforced concrete foundation, 3 𝑚 long, 2.5 𝑚 wide
and 600 𝑚𝑚 thick, is designed to carry a total load of
1 𝑀𝑁 (excluding its self-weight), placed with an
eccentricity of 300 𝑚𝑚 in the 3 𝑚 direction. Determine
and sketch the variation of pressure beneath a The End
reinforced concrete foundation and check the safety of
the developed soil pressure given that the allowable soil
pressure is 230 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 and the unit weight of concrete is
24 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3.
Any Questions?

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