Week 5 (CE 423)

GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING 2
CE 423
Outline
1. Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations
1.a. Ultimate Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow
Foundations
1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation
The lowest part of a structure generally is referred to as the

foundation. Its function is to transfer the load of the structure to the
soil on which it is resting. A properly designed foundation transfers
the load throughout the soil without overstressing the soil.
Overstressing the soil can result in either excessive settlement or
shear failure of the soil, both of which cause damage to the
structure. Thus, geotechnical and structural engineers who design
foundations must evaluate the bearing capacity of soils.
Depending on the structure and soil encountered, various types of
foundations are used. The most common types of foundations
include spread footing, mat foundation, pile foundation, and
drilled shaft foundation.
A spread footing is simply an

enlargement of a load-bearing wall or
column that makes it possible to
spread the load of the structure over a
larger area of the soil.
In soil with low load-bearing capacity, Figure 1. Spread footing
the size of the spread footings
required is impracticably large. In that
case, it is more economical to
construct the entire structure over a
concrete pad. This is called a mat
foundation.
Figure 2. Mat foundation
Pile and drilled shaft foundations are used for

heavier structures when great depth is
required for supporting the load. Piles are
structural members made of timber,
concrete, or steel that transmit the load of
the superstructure to the lower layers of the
soil. According to how they transmit their
load into the subsoil, piles can be divided
into two categories: friction piles and end-
bearing piles. In the case of friction piles, the Figure 3. Pile foundation
superstructure load is resisted by the shear
stresses generated along the surface of the
pile. In the end-bearing pile, the load carried
by the pile is transmitted at its tip to a firm
stratum.
In the case of drilled shafts, a shaft is

drilled into the subsoil and then is filled
with concrete. A metal casing may be
used while the shaft is being drilled.
The casing may be left in place or
may be withdrawn during the placing
of concrete. Generally, the diameter
of a drilled shaft is much larger than
that of a pile. The distinction between
Figure 4. Drilled shaft foundation
piles and drilled shafts becomes hazy
at an approximate diameter of 1 m (3
ft), and the definitions and
nomenclature are inaccurate.
Spread footings and mat foundations generally are referred to as

shallow foundations, whereas pile and drilled-shaft foundations are
classified as deep foundations. In a more general sense, shallow
foundations are foundations that have a depth-of-embedment-to-
width ratio of approximately less than four. When the depth-of-
embedment-to-width ratio of a foundation is greater than four, it
may be classified as a deep foundation.
1.a. Ultimate Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations
Figure 5. Ultimate soil-bearing capacity for shallow foundation: (a)

model footing; (b) load settlement relationship
When a uniformly distributed load of q per unit area is applied to

the footing, it settles. If the uniformly distributed load (q) is
increased, the settlement of the footing gradually increases. When
the value of 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑢 is reached, bearing capacity failure occurs; the
footing undergoes a very large settlement without any further
increase of q. The soil on one or both sides of the foundation
bulges, and the slip surface extends to the ground surface.
The bearing capacity failure just

described is called a general shear
failure. When the foundation settles
under the application of a load, a
triangular wedge-shaped zone of
soil (marked I) is pushed down, and,
in turn, it presses the zones marked II
and III sideways and then upward.
At the ultimate pressure, 𝑞𝑢 , the soil
passes into a state of plastic
equilibrium and failure occurs by
sliding.
Figure 6. Modes of bearing capacity
failure in soil: (a) general shear failure
of soil; (b) local shear failure of soil
According to Terzaghi, a
foundation may be defined as
a shallow foundation if the
depth 𝐷𝑓 is less than or equal to
its width B. He also assumed
that, for ultimate soil-bearing
capacity calculations, the
weight of soil above the base
of the footing may be replaced
by a uniform surcharge, 𝑞 =
𝛾𝐷𝑓 . Figure 7. Shallow strip footing
The failure mechanism assumed by

Terzaghi for determining the
ultimate soil bearing capacity
(general shear failure) for a rough
strip footing located at a depth 𝐷𝑓
measured from the ground surface
is shown.
Figure 8. Terzaghi’s bearing capacity

analysis
The soil wedge ABJ (Zone I) is an elastic zone. Both AJ and BJ make
an angle ∅′ with the horizontal. Zones marked II (AJE and BJD) are
the radial shear zones, and zones marked III are the Rankine passive
zones. The rupture lines JD and JE are arcs of a logarithmic spiral,
and DF and EG are straight lines. AE, BD, EG, and DF make angles of
∅′
45 − degrees with the horizontal. The equation of the arcs of the
2
logarithmic spirals JD and JE may be given as
If the load per unit area, 𝑞𝑢 , is applied to the footing and general
shear failure occurs, the passive force 𝑃𝑝 is acting on each of the
faces of the soil wedge ABJ. This concept is easy to conceive of if
we imagine that AJ and BJ are two walls that are pushing the soil
wedges AJEG and BJDF, respectively, to cause passive failure. 𝑃𝑝
should be inclined at an angle 𝛿 ′ (which is the angle of wall friction)
to the perpendicular drawn to the wedge faces (that is, AJ and BJ).
In this case, 𝛿 ′ should be equal to the angle of friction of soil, ∅′ .
Because AJ and BJ are inclined at an angle ∅′ to the horizontal, the
direction of 𝑃𝑝 should be vertical.
Now let us consider the free-body diagram of the wedge ABJ as

shown in Figure 8b. Considering the unit length of the footing, we
have, for equilibrium,
Thus,
Or,
The passive pressure is the sum of the contribution of the weight of

soil 𝛾, cohesion 𝑐 ′ , and surcharge 𝑞 and can be expressed as
Combining the equations, we obtain
where
The terms 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 , and 𝑁𝛾 are, respectively, the contributions of

cohesion, surcharge, and unit weight of soil to the ultimate load-
bearing capacity. It is extremely tedious to evaluate 𝐾𝑐 , 𝐾𝑞 , and 𝐾𝛾 .
For this reason, Terzaghi used an approximate method to determine
the ultimate bearing capacity, 𝑞𝑢 . The principles of this
approximation are the following.
By the method of superimposition, when the effects of the unit

weight of soil, cohesion, and surcharge are considered, we have
This equation is referred to as Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equation.

The terms 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 , and 𝑁𝛾 are called the bearing capacity factors.
The values of these factors are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors - 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 and 𝑁𝛾

For square and circular footings, Terzaghi suggested the following

equations for ultimate soil-bearing capacity:
The square footing is
The circular footing is
where B = diameter of the footing.

Krizek (1965) gave the following approximations for the values of 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 ,

and 𝑁𝛾 with a maximum deviation of 15%.
And
where ∅′ = soil friction angle, in degrees. Equations are valid for ∅′ = 0° to

35°.
Equation was derived on the assumption that the bearing capacity

failure of soil takes place by general shear failure. In the case of
local shear failure, we may assume that
And
The ultimate bearing capacity of soil for a strip footing may be given
by
The modified bearing capacity factors and are calculated by using

the same general equation as that for 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 , and 𝑁𝛾 , but by
ഥ 2
substituting ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
′ −1 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ . The values of the bearing capacity
3
factors for a local shear failure are given in Table 2. The ultimate soil-
bearing capacity for square and circular footings for the local shear
failure case now may be given as follows:
The square footing is
The circular footing is

For an undrained condition with ∅ = 0 and 𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐𝑢 , the bearing

capacity factors are 𝑁𝛾 = 0 and 𝑁𝑞 = 1. Also, 𝑁𝑐 = 5.7. In that case,
Table 2. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors - 𝑁𝑐′ , 𝑁𝑞′ and 𝑁𝛾′

The gross allowable bearing capacity can be calculated as
Where 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 is the allowable load per unit area to which the soil under
the foundation should be subjected to avoid any chance of bearing
capacity failure. It includes the contribution of (a) the dead and live
loads above the ground surface, 𝑊(𝐷+𝐿) ; (b) the self-weight of the
foundation, 𝑊𝐹 ; and (c) the weight of the soil located immediately
above foundation, 𝑊𝑆 . Thus,
where A = area of the foundation.

The net allowable bearing capacity is the allowable load per unit
area of the foundation in excess of the existing vertical effective
stress at the level of the foundation. The vertical effective stress at
the foundation level is equal to 𝑞 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 . So, the net ultimate load is
Hence,
If we assume that the weight of the

soil and the weight of the concrete
from which the foundation is made
are approximately the same, then
Hence,
Figure 9. Contributions to 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙


Example 1.
A continuous foundation is shown. Using Terzaghi’s

bearing capacity factors, determine the gross allowable
load per unit area (𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) that the foundation can carry.
Given:
• 𝛾 = 110 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
• 𝐷𝑓 = 3𝑓𝑡
• 𝑐 ′ = 200 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
• B = 4 ft
• ∅′ = 20°
• Factor of safety = 3
Assume general shear failure.

Example 2.
A square foundation is shown. The
footing will carry a gross mass of
30,000 kg. Using a factor of safety
of 3, determine the size of the
footing - that is, the size of B.
Prepared by:
ENGR. ANDREW D. CODILLA
0917-770-7216

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GEOTECHNICAL

The lowest part of a structure generally is referred to as the

A spread footing is simply an

Pile and drilled shaft foundations are used for

In the case of drilled shafts, a shaft is

Spread footings and mat foundations generally are referred to as

1.a. Ultimate Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations

Figure 5. Ultimate soil-bearing capacity for shallow foundation: (a)

1.a. Ultimate Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations

When a uniformly distributed load of q per unit area is applied to

1.a. Ultimate Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations

The bearing capacity failure just

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

The failure mechanism assumed by

Figure 8. Terzaghi’s bearing capacity

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

Now let us consider the free-body diagram of the wedge ABJ as

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

The passive pressure is the sum of the contribution of the weight of

Combining the equations, we obtain

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

The terms 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 , and 𝑁𝛾 are, respectively, the contributions of

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

By the method of superimposition, when the effects of the unit

This equation is referred to as Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equation.

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

Table 1. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors - 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 and 𝑁𝛾

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

For square and circular footings, Terzaghi suggested the following

The circular footing is

where B = diameter of the footing.

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

Krizek (1965) gave the following approximations for the values of 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 ,

where ∅′ = soil friction angle, in degrees. Equations are valid for ∅′ = 0° to

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

Equation was derived on the assumption that the bearing capacity

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

The modified bearing capacity factors and are calculated by using

The circular footing is

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

For an undrained condition with ∅ = 0 and 𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐𝑢 , the bearing

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

Table 2. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors - 𝑁𝑐′ , 𝑁𝑞′ and 𝑁𝛾′

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

The gross allowable bearing capacity can be calculated as

where A = area of the foundation.

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

If we assume that the weight of the

Figure 9. Contributions to 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

A continuous foundation is shown. Using Terzaghi’s

Assume general shear failure.

1.b. Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

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