BEARINGS:

Function of Bearing:
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a shaft. They transmit the
load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as frame or housing.
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum friction, and also
prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
Classification of Bearings:
On the basis of the contact between the rotating and the stationary member:
a. Sliding contact
b. Rolling contact
A. Sliding contact: The sliding contact bearings have surface contact between stationary member and
rotary member and come under lower kinematic pair.
B. Rolling contact: The rolling contact bearings have line or point contact between stationary member
and rotary member and come under higher kinematic pair.
SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS:
Sliding contact bearings are classified in three ways:
1. Based on type of load carried

2. Based on type of lubrication

3. Based on lubrication mechanism

Bearing classification based on type of load carried:

a. Radial bearings
b. Thrust bearings or axial bearings
c. Radial – thrust bearings
a. Radial Bearing: These bearings carry only radial loads as shown in fig 1. The load acts
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft or journal.
b. Thrust Bearing: Such type of bearings carry only axial loads as shown in fig 2. A collar is
provided to restrict the axial movement of the shaft or journal. The collar present in the bearing
tends to arrest the movement of the shaft in the axial direction. The collar is accommodated and
thus correspondingly engages with the surfaces in the thrust block.
In the multi collar thrust bearings more than one collar are used when thrust load is more as
shown in fig 3.

Radial Thrust Bearing:

These bearings carry both radial and thrust

Loads as shown in figure 4.

Bearing classification based on type of lubrication:

The type of lubrication means the extent to which the contacting surfaces are separated in a shaft
bearing combination. This classification includes
(a) The bearings having thick film lubrication
(b) The bearings having thin film lubrication
(c) The bearings having Boundary lubrication
 (a) The bearings having thick film lubrication: The surfaces are separated by
thick film of lubricant and there will not be any metal-to-metal contact as shown in fig 5.
The film thickness is anywhere from 8 to 20 μm. Typical values of coefficient of friction
are 0.002 to 0.010. Hydrodynamic lubrication is coming under this category. Wear is the
minimum in this case.
(b) The bearings having thin film lubrication: Here even though the surfaces are
separated by thin film of lubricant, at some high spots Metal-to-metal contact does exist ,
as shown in fig 6. Because of this intermittent contacts, it also known as mixed film
lubrication. Surface wear is mild. The coefficient of friction commonly ranges from
0.004 to 0.10.
(c) The bearings having Boundary lubrication: Here the surface contact is
continuous and extensive as Shown in Fig 7. The lubricant is continuously smeared over
the surfaces and provides a continuously renewed adsorbed surface film which reduces
the friction and wear. The typical coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.20.

Bearing classification based on lubrication mechanism:

a. Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings
b. Hydrostatic lubricated bearings
c. Elastohydrodynamic lubricated bearings
d. Boundary lubricated bearings
e. Solid film lubricated bearings

a. Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings:

In these bearings the load-carrying surfaces are separated by a stable thick film of lubricant that
prevents the metal-to-metal contact. The film pressure generated by the moving surfaces that
force the lubricant through a wedge shaped zone. At sufficiently high speed the pressure
developed around the journal sustains the load as shown in fig 8.
b. Hydrostatic lubricated bearings:
In these bearings, externally pressurized lubricant is fed into the bearings to separate the surfaces
with thick film of lubricant. These types of bearings do not require the motion of the surfaces to
generate the lubricant film. Hence they can operate from very low speed to high speed.

c. Elastohydrodynamic lubricated bearings:

Rolling contact bearings come under this category. The oil film thickness is very small. The
contact pressures are going to be very high. Hence to prevent the metal-to-metal contact, surface
finishes are to be of high quality. Such a type of lubrication can be seen in gears, rolling contact
bearings, cams etc.

d. Boundary lubricated bearings:

When the speed of the bearing is inadequate, less quantity of lubricant is delivered to the bearing,
an increase in the bearing load, or an increase in the lubricant temperature resulting in drop in
viscosity – any one of these may prevent the formation of thick film lubrication and establish
continuous metal-to-metal contact extensively. Often bearings operating in such situations are
called boundary lubricated bearings.

e. Solid film lubricated bearings:

For extreme temperature operations ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory. Solid film
lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide or their combinations which withstand high
operating temperature are used. These types of bearings are common in furnace applications, or
trunnion bearings of liquid metal handling systems, hot drawing mills etc.

Journal / Sleeve Bearings:

Among the sliding contact bearings radial bearings find wide applications in industries.
The radial bearings are also called journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft inside the
bearing is called the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific property. Depending
on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these bearings are classified as full,
partial and fitted bearings. As shown in Fig 9 (a), (b), (c).
 The bearing in which the angle of contact of the bearing with journal is 360 degree is called full
journal bearing. The bearing in which the angle of contact of bearing with journal is 120 degree
and the diameter of bearing is more than the diameter of the journal is called partial journal
bearing. The bearing in which the angle of contact of bearing with journal is 120 degree and the
diameter of bearing is less than the diameter of the journal is called partial journal bearing.

Solid or Simple Bearing:

Figure 10 shows a simple bearing with a rectangular base and above it there is a cylindrical block
with a hole through it to fit a shaft. It not only acts as a support to the shaft but also helps in
smooth running of the shaft. Thus, bearing provides a support such that the shaft should be
allowed to rotate freely.

To avoid frictional resistance which opposes rotation between the journal and the inner face of
the bearing, proper designing of the bearing is required and also there should be a provision for
the lubrication. Proper lubrication keeps the smooth running of shaft which causes less power
loss, less heat production, and also less noise production.
Bushed Bearing:
A bush made up of ductile metal such as gun metal, brass, or bronze metal is inserted in the
cylindrical block as shown in figure 11. The bush has internal diameter equal to the external
diameter of the shaft.
The bush is pressed tightly inside the bore such that it is prevented from rotation or movement.
The bush can be replaced periodically when it is spoiled due to friction. A small hole is made up
to the shaft at the top of the cylindrical block to provide lubrication.

Plummer Block/Pedestal Bearing:

Figure 12 shows a left half sectional view of a Plummer block. Plummer block bearing is a split
type of journal bearing. The entire assembly as shown in Fig. 12 is used for intermediate support
of a long line shaft. Regarding constructional details, it is actually classified into two parts. The
lower bottom part is made up of cast iron known as pedestal and the upper part is known as cap.
Both parts are attached with each other by means of two square-headed bolts.

If both the parts are joined together, it forms a hole in the central region equal to the external
diameter of the shaft. A gun metal bush which is made in two halves is fitted in the hole. A snug
is fitted at the bottom of the bush which prevents shifting of the bearing from rotation along with
the rotation of shaft. The pedestal base has two holes by which it is grounded on support.

Advantages of Sliding Contact Bearing:

(a) Operation can be done at high speed.
(b) Heavy radial loads can be carried.
(c) Ability to take up shock and vibration.
(d) Operation is noiseless.
Disadvantages of Sliding Contact Bearing:
(a) High friction losses at the starting point.
(b) Length of bearing is more.
(c) More lubrication is required.
(d) More maintenance is required.
Various terms used in slide contact Bearings:
Let
D is the diameter of the bearing
d is the diameter of the journal
L is the length of the bearing
O1 is the centre of the journal and
O2 is the centre of the bearing
The terms used in slide contact bearings are as below:

1. Diametral clearance: It is the difference between the diameters of the bearing and the
journal which is denoted by c, c= D- d
2. Radial Clearance: It is the difference between the radii of the bearing and the journal
and denoted by c1, c1= R- r or D – d /2
3. Diametral clearance Ratio: It is the ratio of the diametral clearance to the diameter of
the journal. Diametral clearance ratio = D- d / d
4. Eccentricity: It is the radial distance between the centre of the bearing and displaced
centre of the journal under load and denoted by the e.
5. Minimum Oil Film Thickness: It is the minimum distance between the bearing and the
journal under full lubrication condition and denoted by h0. h0 = c / 4
6. Eccentricity ratio: The ratio of the eccentricity to the radial clearance is called
eccentricity ration and denoted by ε, ε = e / c1
7. Short and Long Bearing: If the ratio of length of the bearing L to diameter of the
bearing D is less than 1 then the bearing is called short bearing, on the other hand if L / D
is greater than 1 then the bearing is called long bearing.
8. Bearing Characteristic Number and Bearing Modulus: The coefficient of friction in
design of the bearings has great importance because the power loss due to bearing friction
may be determined by using the value of the coefficient of friction. It is observed by the
experiment that the coefficient of friction for full lubricated bearing is the function of
three variables which are as below:
i. ZN / P ii. L / d iii. d / c
Therefore the coefficient of friction may be expressed as
µ = ɸ (ZN / p, L / d, d / c)
Where,
µ = Coefficient of friction
ɸ = Functional relationship
Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant in Kg / m-s
N = Speed of the Journal in RPM
P = Bearing Pressure on projected bearing area in N/mm2
= Load on the journal ÷ L x d
L = Length of the bearing
d = Diameter of the bearing
c = Diametral clearance
The factor ZN / P is called bearing characteristic number and is a dimensionless
number.
 Bearing Modulus:

. plot shows that from A to P

The
with the increase in bearing
characteristic number the friction
increases and from A to S with
reduction in bearing characteristic
number the friction again increases.
So A is the limit and the zone
between A to S is known as
boundary lubrication or sometimes
termed as imperfect lubrication.
Imperfect lubrication means that
metal – metal contact is possible
and some form of oiliness may be
present. Coefficient of friction is
minimum at A. The value of
bearing characteristic number
corresponding to A, the point of
minimum friction is called
Bearing Modulus.

Bearing Friction:
Coefficient of friction for journal bearing µ= 33 (ZN / P) (d/c) + k
10 8
k= factor to correct for end leakage. It depends upon the length to diameter ratio of the bearing.
The value of k is 0.002 for L/D ratios of 0.75 to 2.8

Rolling Contact Bearing/Anti-Friction Bearing:

A bearing which has a rolling contact present in between two surfaces is known as rolling
contact bearing. It is a well-established fact that smooth rolling surface such as that of a ball can
roll freely than a sliding surface. This basic principle has been used to fabricate such low friction
bearings.

In this case, the motion between the shaft surface and the bearing surface, either ball or roller, is
purely rolling. The rolling friction is much less than sliding and hence such bearings are called
anti-friction bearings.
Rolling contact bearings consist of four parts:
(a) Inner race of steel
(b) Outer race of steel
(c) Ball or roller of hardened steel
(d) Cage or retainer of gun metal
Following are the two types of anti-friction bearings:
(a) Ball bearing
(b) Roller bearing
(a) Ball Bearing:
A ball bearing assembly is shown in Fig. 14. It consists of two metallic rings known as inner ring
and outer ring. The inner ring is mounted on the shaft with its lower surface and the outer surface
of it has the groove made centrally all over the circumference known as inner race. The outer
ring has the outer surface fitted with housing of the bearing and the inner surface is grooved all
around circumference centrally known as outer race.

In between the inner race and the outer race, there are a number of steel balls placed. The number
of steel balls is decided by the size of the shaft. All steel balls are set equally in the spaces made
inside a special cage or retainer which is made by pressed steel. All steel balls equally spaced in
between the inner and outer race bounded by cage make the complete assembly of the bearing
shown in Figs. 14(b) and 14 (c).

If the shaft rotates, the inner ring along with balls also rotates with it. The outer ring fits tightly
in the housing of the bearing and does not rotate. The steel balls have a point contact with the
bearing surface which is suitable for high loads. Grease is used as a lubricant in the ball bearing
assembly.

(b) Roller Bearing:

A cylindrical roller bearing assembly is shown in Fig. 15. The constructional detail is similar to
that of ball bearing. Cylindrical roller bearing consists of inner and outer race and a number of
hardened steel cylindrical rollers in place of ball and a set of retainers. All cylindrical rollers are
free to roll in between the inner and outer race. The inner race is also rotated along with shaft.
Outer ring is fixed with the housing of the bearing.

The cylindrical rollers are in contact with the surface and hence they are capable of taking heavy
load compared to spherical ball bearing.

Grease is used as a lubricant in this bearing. All rollers equally spaced in between the inner and
outer race bounded by cage makes the complete assembly of the bearing shown in Figs. 15(b)-
15(d).
Advantages of Ball/Roller Bearings:
There is a smooth running of the bearing and hence low starting and low friction are present.
(a) It is best to take up radial as well as thrush loads.
(b) Alignment of the shaft is more accurate.
(c) Failures can be detected easily by loud noise.
(d) Sizes of the bearings are standardized and hence the selection of bearings can be easily done.
Disadvantages of Ball/Roller Bearings:
(a) At high speed, more noise is detected.
(b) Manufacturing cost of ball bearings is high.
(c) Low resistance in case of shock load.
(d) Housing of the bearing is complicated.
(e) Entry of dust, dirt, or metal chips spoils the bearings early.

Bearing life:
The life of individual ball or roller bearing may be defined as the number revolutions (or hours at
some given constant speed) which the bearing runs before the first evidence of fatigue develops
in the material of the one of the rings or any of the rolling elements.

Rating life: The life of a group of apparently identical ball or roller bearings is defined as the
number of revolutions (or hours at some given constant speed) that 90 percent of a group of
bearings will complete or exceed before the first evidence of the fatigue develops( i.e. 10 percent
of a group of bearings fail due to fatigue.
Basic load rating:

The basic dynamic load rating C is used for calculations involving the selection of bearings
which rotate under load. It expresses the bearing radial load which will give a basic rating life of
one million revolutions.
The basic static radial load rating Co is used when bearings rotate at very slow speeds, are
subjected to very slow oscillations, or stationary under load. It also must be considered when
heavy shock loads of short duration act on a rotating bearing. The basic static radial load rating is
defined in accordance with ISO and ABMA standards as the static radial load which corresponds
to a calculated contact stress at the center of the most heavily loaded rolling element/raceway
contact of 609000 PSI for all radial and angular contact ball bearings. For this contact stress, a
total permanent deformation of rolling element and raceway occurs which is approximately
0.0001 of the rolling element diameter.