INTRODUCTION

A bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative motion

between two components or parts, such as the shaft and housing,
with minimum friction.

Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a
shaft. They transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member
known as frame or housing.

They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum
friction, and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.

MATERIAL OF BEARING

Babbitt:

SAE 11 Babbitt is used for bearings which are subjected to heavy pressures. SAE
10 Babbitt is also suited for heavy pressures; it is very fluid and can be applied for
thin linings of bronze-backed or steel-backed bearing shells like those used in
automotive and aircraft engines.

Lead-base Babbitt may be used for larger bearings when maximum pressures are
below 500 psi. however, a lead-base alloy with the trade name Magnolia Metal, the
analysis of which is about the same as that of SAE 14 Babbitt, seems to give good
service even in heavy-duty bearings if they are subjected to pounding.
Brass is used where the pressure is too high for Babbitt but where the service is not
severe enough to call for a more expensive bearing metal. Bronzes are used where
the pressures are so high that thin-film lubrication may occur.

Copper-Lead Alloys:

Copper alloys having a high lead content 20 to 50% are of special interest. These
alloys, put on the the market under different trades names. have a low efficient of
thin-film-lubrication friction, about 0.005; and like Babbitt, they do not score a journal
when lubrication fails. The allowable pressure is 1,000 to 5,000 psi. In order to
obtain a good cooper-lead bearing alloy, it must be casted centrifugally.

Plastics:

Celoron, Formica and Micarta bearings are made from a special woven duck
impregnated with phenolic resin. The materials are fused together under a very high
pressure and at a high temperature. These materials have good mechanical
properties and great resilience. Such bearings can be lubricated with oil, grease or
water. they are used on heavy rolling mills as a replacement for bearings of bronze
or lignum vitae without any changes in the roll stand itself. With water lubrication
they can stand pressures up to 5,000 psi and pheripheral velocities of 2,000 feet per
minute (fpm), with a friction coefficient () less than 0.007.

Rubber:

In hydraulics turbines, in stern bearings of ships and in other machines where water
is available, rubber bearings lubricated with water are commonly used. Rubber
bearings are particularly suitable for use on shafts running at high speeds.
Cast Iron:

For hardened steel journals, cast iron is a very good bearing material in regard to
friction an wear, even if lubrication is in the thin-film region. However, this
combination is suited only for light service where the pressure does not exceed 40
psi.

Aluminium Alloys:

Aluminium alloys are remarkable for their great resistance to scuffing, their low
friction and their high wear resistance under conditions of boundary and thin-film
lubrication. the high coefficient of heat conductivity (k) helps to carry away the heat
of friction. However, aluminium begins to lose its strength at about 225 F. aluminium
bearings can operate with pressures up to 3,000 psi, or even 4,000 psi and with
peripheral velocities up to 2,000 fpm.

CLASSIFICATION OF BEARING
The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact
they have between the rotating and the stationary member

a. Sliding contact

b. Rolling contact
SLIDING CONTACT
BEARING
The sliding contact bearings having surface contact. A plain bearing is any
bearing that works by sliding action, with or without lubricant. This
group encompasses essentially all types other than rolling-element
bearings. Plain bearings are often referred to as either sleeve
bearings or thrust bearings, terms that designate whether the
bearing is loaded radially oraxially

Sliding contact bearings do best when the materials in contact are dissimilar. A steel shaft
should not run in a steel bore, but it can run in a bronze lined bore (e.g., a bronze bushing). If
similar materials must be used, such as often the case in construction equipment where a steel
pin runs inside a steel bore, one of the elements should be harder than the other. Due to it wear
would be concentrated in only one element, which can then be replaced instead of two. In
addition, any abrasive particles tend to get forced into the softer material where they stay and
instead of continually abrading the parts, they just wear a groove in one of the parts.

CLASSIFICATION OF SLIDING
CONTACT BEARING
Sliding contact bearings are classified in three ways.

1. Based on type of load carried

2. Based on type of lubrication

3. Based on lubrication mechanism

CLASSIFICATION based on type of

load carried

a. Radial bearings

b. Thrust bearings or axial bearings

c. Radial thrust bearings

(a) Radial bearings (SLEEVE

BEARING/JURNEL BEARING)
These bearings carry only radial loads. Among the sliding contact bearings radial
bearings find wide applications in industries The radial bearings are also called
journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft inside the bearing is called
the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific property. Depending
on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these bearings are
classified as full, partial and fitted bearings
 (b) Thrust or axial bearings

These bearings carry only axial loads

(c) Radial thrust bearings

These bearings carry both radial and thrust loads.

classification based on type of

lubrication
The type of lubrication means the extent to which the contacting surfaces are
separated in a shaft bearing combination. This classification includes (

a) Thick film lubrication

(b) Thin film lubrication

(c) Boundary lubrication

(a) Thick film lubrication

the surfaces are separated by thick film of lubricant and there will not be any
metal-to-metal contact. The film thickness is anywhere from 8 to 20 m.
Typical values of coefficient of friction are 0.002 to 0.010. Hydrodynamic
lubrication is coming under this category. Wear is the minimum in this case.

(b) Thin film lubrication

Here even though the surfaces are separated by thin film of lubricant, at
some high spots Metal-to-metal contact does exist Because of this
intermittent contacts, it also known as mixed film lubrication. Surface
wear is mild. The coefficient of friction commonly ranges from 0.004 to
0.10.

(c).Boundary lubrication

Here the surface contact is continuous and extensive The lubricant is

continuously smeared over the surfaces and provides a continuously renewed
adsorbed surface film which reduces the friction and wear. The typical
coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.20.
classification based on lubrication
mechanism
a. Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings

b. Hydrostatic lubricated bearings

c. Elastohydrodynamic lubricated bearings

d. Boundary lubricated bearings

e. Solid film lubricated bearings

(a) Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings

In these bearings the load-carrying surfaces are separated by a stable thick film
of lubricant that prevents the metal-to-metal contact. The film pressure
generated by the moving surfaces that force the lubricant through a wedge
shaped zone. At sufficiently high speed the pressure developed around the
journal sustains the load.

(b) Hydrostatic lubricated bearings

In these bearings, externally pressurized lubricant is fed into the bearings to

separate the surfaces with thick film of lubricant. These types of bearings do not
require the motion of the surfaces to generate the lubricant film. Hence they can
operate from very low speed to high speed

(c) Elastohydrodynamic lubricated bearings

Rolling contact bearings come under this category. The oil film thickness is very
small. The contact pressures are going to be very high. Hence to prevent the
metal-to-metal contact, surface finishes are to be of high quality. Such a type of
lubrication can be seen in gears, rolling contact bearings, cams etc.

(d) Boundary lubricated bearings

When the speed of the bearing is inadequate, less quantity of lubricant is

delivered to the bearing, an increase in the bearing load, or an increase in the
lubricant temperature resulting in drop in viscosity any one of these may
prevent the formation of thick film lubrication and establish continuous metal-to-
metal contact extensively. Often bearings operating in such situations are called
boundary lubricated bearings.

(e) Solid film lubricated bearings

For extreme temperature operations ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory.
Solid film lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide or their
combinations which withstand high operating temperature are used. These
types of bearings are common in furnace applications, or trunnion bearings of
liquid metal handling systems, hot drawing mills etc.
ADVANTAGES of sliding contact
bearing
These bearings have certain advantages over the rolling contact bearings. They are:

1. The design of the bearing and housing is simple.

2. They occupy less radial space and are more compact.

3. They cost less.

4. The design of shaft is simple.

5. They operate more silently.

6. They have good shock load capacity.

7. They are ideally suited for medium and high speed operation.

DISADVANTAGES OF SLIDING
CONTACT BEARING

The disadvantages are:

1. The frictional power loss is more.

2. They required good attention to lubrication

. 3. They are normally designed to carry radial load or axial load only
Rolling contact
bearing
Rolling contact bearings are also called anti-friction bearing due to its low
friction characteristics. These bearings are used for radial load, thrust load and
combination of thrust and radial load. These bearings are extensively used due
to its relatively lower price, being almost maintenance free and for its
operational ease. However, friction increases at high speeds for rolling contact
bearings and it may be noisy while running. These bearings are of two types,

Rolling Contact bearings are of two types they are:

1. Ball bearing
2. Roller bearing

The rolling contact bearings illustrated below represent a small set of the huge
variety of ball and roller bearings.

Thrust Ball Bearing:

A thrust ball bearing can support an axial load in one direction. These bearings are designed not
to accommodate radial loads. The components of these bearings can be easily separated.
Deep Groove Bearing:

In deep groove bearings, balls are fitted well into the deep grooves, enabling the bearing to
support axial loads in both directions. The bearing illustrated left side has a single row of balls.
Tapered Roller Bearing:

In tapered roller bearings, the inner & outer rings and the rollers are tapered in order to
simultaneously support axial and radial loads. In these bearings, the ratio of the axial and radial
loads supported depends on the angle between the roller and bearing axes. Higher the angle
helps to support a larger axial load.

Angular Contact Ball Bearing:

Angular contact ball bearings are able to withstand a large thrust load in a single
direction, in addition to radial loads.
Self-aligning Ball Bearing:

In Self-aligning ball bearings, there are two sets of balls which one run on a pair of grooves on
the inner ring, with a single outer ring concave surface.
Needle Roller Bearing:

Needle roller bearings have long and thin rollers, these bearings are used for applications where
radial space is limited.

Spherical Roller Bearing:

In spherical roller bearings, there is angular contact between the rollers and raceways, the
bearings are able to withstand both axial and radial loads. the double set of rollers in spherical
roller bearings permits the bearing to accommodate shaft misalignment. Notice that the rollers
of the bearing illustrated left side are not cylindrical and hence the adjective `spherical.

Cylindrical Roller Bearing:

The cylindrical roller bearings are able to withstand large radial loads. The bearing illustrated left
side is a single-row bearing. These bearings played a seminal role in the development of the
continuous rolling mill.
Wheel Hub Bearing:

Wheel Hub bearings are manufactured in large quantity annually for needs of the automotive
industries. These bearings support the radial load due to the weight of the automobiles, These
bearings also support thrust loads developed when the motion of the automobile is not linear.

Advantages

1. Low starting and running friction except at very high speeds.

2. Ability to withstand momentary shock loads.

3. Accuracy of shaft alignment.

4. Low cost of maintenance, as no lubrication is required while in service

. 5. Small overall dimensions.

6. Reliability of service.

7. Easy to mount and erect.

8. Cleanliness.
Disadvantages
1. More noisy at very high speeds

. 2. Low resistance to shock loading.

3. More initial cost.

4. Design of bearing housing complicated.

PROPERTIES
Low Coefficient of friction:

The bearing materials combination of sliding surfaces, along with the lubricant
should provide a low friction coefficientfor reducing damage and lower running costs.

High Compressive Strength:

The bearing material should have high compressive strength to prevent extrusion of
the material from the bearing, Since the maximum bearing pressure may be
considerably greater than the pressure expressed in pounds per square inch of
projected bearing area, yielding may occur in localized regions of the bearing to the
extent that clearance in materially changed.
High Fatigue Strength:

Under severe conditions of loading and temperature, surface fatigue cracks may
develop. Those cracks may cause checking and pitting of the surface, thus leading
to its deterioration to the extent that operation of the bearing is affected. Thus a
bearing material having high fatigue strength is desirable.

For severe operating conditions a very thin bearing metal bonded to a steel back
has been found to prevent the spreading of the fatigue cracks. Such a combination
also prevents extrusion of the bearing material because of the restraining effect of
the hard backing. In some automotive engines a tin-base Babbitt lining 0.003 inch in
thickness is used.

Low Thermal Expansion:

The size of bearing should remain nearly constant during periods of temperature
change.

High Thermal Conductivity:

The ability of bearing material to dissipate heat quickly due to friction.

Elasticity:

Bearing material should be elastic enough to allow the bearing to return to original
shape upon relief of stresses that may cause temporary distortion, such as
misalignment and overloading.
Conformability:

Because of small inaccuracies in the form of the journal and its deflection under the
imposed loads, the material of the bearing should adapt its shape to that of the
journal. this change of shape may be accomplished by plastic flow, by wearing away,
or by local melting. Plastics flow is most desirable to achieve conformability, since
wearing away and local melting are accompanied by excessive heat, which may
burn out the bearing.

Embeddability:

All bearing should be designed so that foreign particles will be executed, but this is
difficult to accomplish in plain bearings lubricated with oil, since grit, sand and metal
particles may be introduced with the lubricant or ventilating air. if the bearing
materials are hard, the particles may score the surfaces and produce undue wear.
But if the bearing lining is soft so that the particles are completely embedded, this
trouble may not be serious.

Corrosion Resistance:

Bearing materials have various degrees of resistance to corrosion; this should be

considered where corrosive oils must be used.

Bonding:

A bearing material that will bond readily and permanently with steel or bronze back
is necessary for long bearing life. For the thin linings mentioned above, an
intermediate layer of sintered alloy is used to secure a good bond.
Relative Hardness of Bearing Material:
1. The bearing material should usually be softer than that of the journal to prevent
shaft wear but hard enough to resist adhesive and abrasive wear of its own
surface.
2. Bearings are more easy to replace than shafts (that require dismantling of the
whole engine). If one bearing is worn out only that bearing needs replacement
instead of the whole shaft.

Availability of Material:

The material should be readily and sufficiently available, not only for initial
installation but also to facilitate replacement in the event of bearing failure.

Cost of Material:

The economic consideration is the ultimate deciding factor in for selecting a bearing
material

USES AND APPLICATION

ON THE BASIS OF INDUSTRY
Aerospace & Defense

Alternative Energy
 Dental

Wholesale Distribution

Entertainment

Financial

Food & Beverage

Gas

Hand Tools

Industrial

ON THE BASES OF APPLICATION

 Aviation Cargo Systems Industrial Mixers & Shakers

Aerospace Wing Actuators Intrusion Detection Systems

Anemometer Material Handling Rollers

ATMs & Card Readers Medical Actuator

Bicycles Medical Diagnostic Equipment

Commercial Blenders Medical Imaging Equipment

Dental Hand Tools Medical Laser Surgery

Electrical Motors Medical Surgical Tools

Engines Off Highway Cranes

Escalators and Elevators Optical Encoders

Fishing Reels Plastic Card Printers

Flight Support Systems Power Hand Tools

Flow Meters Printing Rollers

Galvanometers Roller Doors

Gas Engine Pull Start Assembly Scissor & Platform Lifts

Gas Meters Sensors & Potentiometers

Gas Powered Motors Solar Panels Actuators

Hydraulic Cylinders Stage Lighting

Industrial Blowers Surveillance Systems

Industrial Encoders Thermal Imaging Cameras

Industrial Meters Transportation Turnstile Gates

B.I.S

(As Per Bureau of Indian Standards)

Standard Number Standard Title

IS 2398 : 1967 Identification Code for Rolling Bearings

IS 2399 : 1988 Rolling bearings - Vocabulary
IS 2898 : 1976 Specification for Steel Balls for Rolling Bearings
IS 3090 : 1965 Code of practice for installation and maintenance of rolling bearings
IS 3823 : 1988 Rolling bearings - Static load ratings
IS 3824 : 2002 Rolling Bearings - Dynamic Load Ratings and Rating Life
IS 3824 : Part 1 : Methods of evaluating dynamic load ratings of rolling bearings Part 1
1983 Radial ball bearings
IS 3824 : Part 2 : Methods of evaluating dynamic load ratings of rolling bearings Part 2
1983 Radial roller bearings
IS 3824 : Part 3 : Methods of evaluating dynamic load ratings of rolling bearings Part 3
1983 Thrust ball bearings
IS 3824 : Part 4 : Methods of evaluating dynamic load ratings of rolling bearings Part 4
1983 Thrust roller bearings
IS 3980 : 1982 Specification for Porous Metal Powder Oil-Impregnated Bearings
IS 4025 : 1983 Gauging practice for rolling bearings
IS 4215 : 1983 Specification for Ring Type Needle Bearings
IS 4773 : 2002 Rolling Bearings -- Plummer Blocks Housings -- Boundary Dimensions
IS 4774 : Part II :
Specification for Thin-walled Half Bearings - Part II : Flanged Bearing
1982
IS 5669 : 1987 General plan of boundary dimensions for radial rolling bearings
IS 5692 : 1988 Tolerances for radial rolling bearings
IS 5932 : 1970 Boundary Dimensions for Thrust Ball Bearings with Flat Seats
IS 5933 : 2002 Rolling Bearings - Thrust Bearings - Tolerances
Rolling Bearings - Chamfer Dimensions - Maximum Values -
IS 5934 : 1999
Specification
IS 5935 : 1992 Radial internal clearances in unloaded radial rolling bearings
IS 6453 : 1984 Technical supply conditions for rolling bearings
IS 6454 : 1972 Specification for Self-Aligning Roller Bearings
IS 6455 : 1972 Specification for Single Row Radial Ball Bearings
IS 6456 : 1972 Specification for Double Row Radial Ball Bearings
IS 6457 : 1972 Specification for Single Row Cylindrical Roller Bearings
IS 6458 : 1972 Specification for Double Row Cylindrical Roller Bearings
IS 6548 : 1992 Rolling bearings - Instrument precision bearings
Specification for Locknuts, Narrow Series and Lockwashers with
IS 6731 : 1977
Straight Inner Tab for Rolling Bearings
IS 6751 : 1972 Specification for Aluminium Alloy Castings and Strips for Bearings
IS 6754 : 1972 Specification for Aluminium Alloy Ingots for Bearings
IS 7460 : 1988 Tolerances for tapered roller bearings
IS 7461 : Part 1 : General plan of boundary dimensions for tapered roller bearings Part 1
1993 Single row bearings
IS 7461 : Part 2 : General plan of boundary dimensions for tapered roller bearings Part 2
1992 Double row bearings
IS 7461 : Part 3 : General plan of boundary dimensions for tapered roller bearings Part 3
1992 Flanged cups
IS 8656 : 1977 Specification for Tapered Adapter Sleeves for Rolling Bearings
IS 8657 : 1977 Specification for Tapered Withdrawal Sleeves for Rolling Bearings
Identification code for shell type needle bearings (including sealed
IS 9619 : 1980
bearings)
IS 9764 : Part 1 : Plain bearings - Washers for plain bearings and wrapped bushes -
1992 Specification Part 1 Ring type thrust washers
IS 9764 : Part 2 : Plain bearings - Washers for plain bearings and wrapped bushes
1994 -Specification Part 2 Half thrust washers
IS 10203 : 1982 Technical supply conditions for thin walled plain bearings
IS 10260 : Part I : Terms, definitions and classification of plain bearings Part I
1982 Construction
IS 10260 : Part II : Terms, definitions and classification of plain bearings Part II Friction
1982 and wear
IS 10260 : Part III : Terms, definitions and classification of plain bearings Part III
1982 Lubrication
Method for determination of radial crushing strength of sintered metal
IS 10385 : 1982
powder bearings
Code for identification of ring type needle bearings (including sealed
IS 10648 : 1983
bearings)
IS 11027 : 1984 Definitions of tolerances for rolling bearings
Plain Bearings -- Thin Walled Half-Bearings -- Checking of Peripheral
IS 11145 : 2002
Length
IS 11159 : Part 3 : General classification of lubricants, industrial oils and related products
1989 (Part 3) Family F (Spindle bearings, bearings and associated clutches)
IS 11430 : 1985 Code of practice for the packaging of ball and roller bearings
 Rolling bearings with locating Radial bearings snap ring - Dimensions
IS 11904 : 1999
and tolerances - Specification
IS 12102 : 1987 Specification for Tapered Roller Bearings
Rolling Bearings - Cylindrical Roller Bearings, Separate Thrust Collars -
IS 13405 : 1999
Boundary Dimensions - Specification
IS 13406 : 1992 Radial ball bearings with flanged outer ring - Flange dimensions
IS 13637 : Part 1 : Technical Drawings - Rolling Bearings - Part 1 : General Simplified
1993 Representation
IS 13637 : Part 2 : Technical Drawings - Rolling Bearings - Part 2 : Detailed Simplified
1999 Representation
IS 13962 : 1994 Rolling bearings - Metric tapered roller bearings - Designation system
Plain Bearings - Thick-walled dushes, Plain and Flange Type, Full
IS 14478 : 1997
Round (Without Any Joint or Slit) - Specification
Rolling Bearings - Taper Rolling Bearings - Tapered Roller - Metric
IS 14691 : 1999
Series - Specification
IS 14802 : Part 1 : Plain Bearings - Hardness Testing of Bearing Metals - Part 1 :
2000 Compound Materials
IS 14802 : Part 2 : Plain Bearings - Hardness Testing of Bearing Metals - Part 2 : Solid
2000 Materials
IS 14803 : Part 1 :
Plain Bearings - Part 1 : Fits
2000
IS 14803 : Part 2 : Plain Bearings - Part 2 : Tolerances on Form and Position and Surface
2000 Roughness for Shafts, Flanges and Thrust Collars
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF BALL
BEARING

The manufacturing process for ball bearings can be broken down to four components:
the outer race, inner race, rolling balls and cage formation.

PROCESS OF INNER AND OUTER RACE

These are following three methods which are being used for bearing races

(A)BAR ROUTE :-

Bar route method is considered to be most economical method manufacturing of

soft turned Bearing Races. The following steps are involved in this method. For
the Inner Diameter upto 25mm , this method is more economical as compared to
the other method. That is why this method is more popular and it's estimated that
70% of Bearing Races soft turning upto 25 mm I.D. size and 50% Races of the
total quantity of soft races manufactured by using this manufacturing technology.
Beyond 25mm I.D. this method is not much cost effective
Bar Turning------- Drilling, Parting & Trepanning--------- Inner Diameter
Machining & Facing------- Outer Diameter Machining & Facing----------Radius
Formation-----------Track Formation----------Ready for Dispatch for further
operation.