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Waste to energy conversion for a sustainable future

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DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08155

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Review article

Waste to energy conversion for a sustainable future

Ali Raza Kalair a, Mehdi Seyedmahmoudian a, Alex Stojcevski a, Naeem Abas b, *, Nasrullah Khan c
a
Department of Telecommunications, Electrical, Robotics and Biomedical Engineering, Swinburne University, Australia
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus, Pakistan
c
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Air pollution, climate change, and plastic waste are three contemporary global concerns. Air pollutants affect the
Smog lungs, green gases trap heat radiation, and plastic waste contaminates the marine food chain. Two-thirds of
Pollutants climate change and air pollution drivers are emitted in the process of burning fossil fuels. Pollutants settle in
Green gases
months, green gases take centuries, and plastics take thousands of years. The most polluted regions on the planet
Hydrocarbons
Fossil fuels
are also the ones that are greatly affected by climate change. Air pollutants grow in most climate-change affected
Value added products areas, contributing to the greenhouse effect. Smog affects local and regional transboundary countries. The biggest
greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters may not be the worst-hit victims because wind and water flow distribute green
gases and plastic waste worldwide. The major polluters are often rich and developed countries, and the worst
affected countries are the underdeveloped poor communities. Technologically advanced countries may help the
developing countries in research into removing particulate matter, green gases, and plastic waste. Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Paris Accord have emphasized on immeasurable efforts to encourage
the conversion of pollution, green gases, and plastic waste into energy. Conversion of CO2 into petrol, GHG gases
into chemicals, biowaste into biofuels, plastic waste into building bricks, and concrete waste into construction
materials fosters a circular economy. This work reviews existing waste to power, energy, and value-added product
conversion technologies.

1. Introduction a sustainable circular economy promotes take, make, use, reuse, and
recycle steps, as shown in Figure 1.
Pollutants, green gases, and plastics constitute three vortices of the The combustion of fossils account for more than two-thirds of global
waste triangle. Domestic waste consists of hydrocarbons that can be air pollution and climate change. Most polluted countries also happen to
converted into electricity using thermoelectric and anaerobic digestion be the ones that are severely affected by global warming (AQI, 2019).
plants (Abas et al., 2018b; Fan et al., 2020). This combustion process Ocean waves and tides distribute local and global plastic waste into
produces pollutants and green gases. Damaged roads and building in- coastal regions and ocean gyres. The GHG emissions released into the
frastructures may be converted into useable heat energy storage mate- atmosphere form a cohesive thick shield around the earth, accelerating
rials (Ho et al., 2020). Waste conversion to watts, energy, and climate change. Green gases trap the heat released by the earth to balance
value-added products (chemicals) is the way forward for long-term sus- the global radiation budget. Air pollution by cars, factories, buildings,
tainability. A number of reports have been cited that show considerable and power plants directly affects humans, animals, and plants. Fossil fuel
progress in the transformation of pollutants into hydrogen (Verbruggen (oil, gas, coal, shales, and biomasses) combustion is the primary cause of
et al., 2017), green gases into green energy (Stroud et al., 2018), biomass climate change. Hydrocarbons drive climate change and air pollution
into biofuels (Zhang and Zhang, 2019), and plastics into building bricks circuits. Air pollutants, including PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, CO, and O3, and
(Lundquist et al., 2020). Waste from one industry (e.g., tires) may be used greenhouse gases (GHG), consist of CO2, CH4, N2O, SO2, CO, O3, and
as a raw material for the second or third industry (e.g., pyrolysis plants). chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The common gases responsible for air
Circular economies should be advocated for a sustainable development pollution and global warming are shown in Figure 2.
program while minimizing linear economies (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). NO2 and nitrous oxide gases are primarily not green but mediate
A linear economy follows take, make, use, dispose, and pollute, whereas ozone formation, a green gas in the troposphere. Water vapors are natural

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Abas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08155
Received 13 May 2021; Received in revised form 29 June 2021; Accepted 7 October 2021
2405-8440/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 1. Vision of linear and circular economies.

million pollution-related deaths. According to Global Alliance on Health

and Pollution (GAHP), more than 8.3 million people died in 1 year due to
air pollution-related diseases (AFP, 2019). Natural winds sweep pollut-
ants and GHG emissions into Pakistan from upwind CO2 spewing coun-
tries. Pacific Ocean waters shift the pollution and GHG to North America,
which is the ultimate sink of CO2. Since 1980, every subsequent decade is
warmer than the earlier decade. Year 2019 was the second or third
warmest year after 2016 due to El Nino conditions. World Meteorological
Organization in COP25 alarmed the thermal runaway through cascading
impacts and collapse of ecosystems. Emissions of CO2, CH4, and NO2
have reached 147%, 259%, and 123% of pre-industrial level emissions.
The World Health Organization (WHO) informed the world in a Climate
Summit (Madrid) that air pollution kills more than 7 million people in 1
year, with 4.1 million projected in 2016. Global average temperature and
Figure 2. Common gases causing air pollution and climate change.
sea level steadily increased in 2019 (Kalair et al., 2019).
According to NOAA measurements, the global CO2, N2O, CH4, and
CF12 concentrations were 810, 333, 1875, and 500 ppt in 2019. CO2
GHG. Green gases play an essential role in maintaining warmth on the alone has a concentration is 410  1 ppm, while all green gases together
planet. The natural temperature would be
18  C, instead of 15  C, have a concentration of 490 ppm. The CO2 concentration in the air was
without green gases, particularly water vapors. Global warming is cause 409.50 on 22 December 2018, which increased to 416.56 on 17 June
by excess GHG emissions. By contrast, global cooling is due to lack of 2021. There is a continually rising trend in CO2, N2O, CH4, HFC-134a,
GHG emissions. Heatwave and cold snap experiences revealed that it is and HCFC-22. Although the global ban on CFCs has led to a decreasing
difficult to compete in extreme weather. Combustion of fossil fuels trend of CFC-12 and CFC-11 gases, their concentrations in air are still
spawns air pollutants and green gases. Most GHGs come from the com- more than HCFC-22 and HFC-134a (NOAA, 2019). COP25 has ended
bustion of fossil fuels (77%), agriculture (10%), industry (8%), and waste without any consensus on GHG reductions and carbon market. Concen-
(3%). Three percent means 1.2 Gt annually (3  40/100). European trations of GHG emissions are shown in Figure 3.
waste-related GHG emissions used to be 5.2 million tons in 2008; how- In the last 160 years, oxygen levels in ocean waters have depleted by
ever, they will be less than 4.4 million tons by 2021. Majority of the GHG 2%. It will likely increase to 3%–4% by 2100 (IUCN, 2021). Oxygen
emissions originate from solid waste, with some from wastewater and the depletion by global warming in the presence of ocean acidification is
smallest amount from burning of waste. US and China accounts for half likely to affect marine species in the top 1 km layer of water. Higher
and one-third of the total GHG emissions from food waste, respectively. temperatures increase oxygen demand by ocean biological systems that
The carbon footprint of cereals, vegetables, and meat are more than that pose risks to tuna, marlin, and shark fishes (Harvay, 2019). Bird and
of milk, oils, and fruit crops (FAO, 2013). animal species are facing extinction on land. America may lose 389 out of
China and India are major polluters and emitters in Southeast Asia. the 604 (two-third) marine species due to rising ocean temperatures,
Karachi and Mumbai are the most polluted coastal cities, which have heavy rains, and accelerated urbanization (Holden, 2019). According to
recurrent heatwaves in summers and cold snaps in winters. Lahore and Bateman, environmental destruction can easily be viewed through
New Delhi are the most polluted cities, which have frequent dust storms observation of birdlife because they are easily visible and quick to
and heatwaves. Indian Ocean dipole effect, which is caused by ocean respond. Animals can migrate to more favorable weather conditions;
surface temperature difference (e.g., El Ni~ no), causes flash floods in the nonetheless, two dozen animals face a serious risk of extinction today
Eastern regions of Africa with droughts in Southern Australia (BBC, (Wenz, 2019). Migrating wild animals pose a threat to people in the
2019). Australia is also affected by ozone depletion. Chinese CO2 emis- Himalayan valley and Arctic circle (Hanson, 2019).
sions are more than the combined emissions of America (15%), India It is ideally a survival war between animals and humans. Simple
(7%), and Russia (5%). In US, the CO2 emissions are more than the changes in our lifestyles can greatly help, such as recycling as much as
combined emissions of India (7%), Russia (5%), and Germany (2.5%). possible (47%), replacing petrol cars with hybrid (38%), buying green
China emits more GHG than EU and U.S combined; meanwhile, India energy (34%), living without cars (28%), eating a plant-based diet (20%),
releases more GHG compared with the seven SAARC countries combined drying clothes in sunlight (14%), replacing bulbs with LED lamps (14%),
(Rapier, 2018). Annual air pollution-related deaths recorded in India and having few children (11%), and avoiding long flights (10%). Reuse,
China were 3.2 and 1.8 million in 2017. US is at number 7 in terms of 0.2 recycle, and repair culture guarantees sustainable living. The air consists

2
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 3. Atmospheric concentrations of major GHG emissions (Courtesy of NOAA, 2019).

of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, whereas diesel encompasses 97% government ban on stubble burning in farms, forest management, district
hydrocarbons and 3% sulfur; lube comprised 97% hydrocarbons, 2.5% administration actions against waste burning in cities, and strict regula-
calcium, and 0.5% sulfur, which produce NOx and SOx CO, H2O, and HC tions on vehicle manufacturers on engine design can reduce emissions.
gases and aerosols when burned, as shown in Figures 4 and 5 (Data The composition of spark-ignited internal combustion engines consists of
source (EEA, 2008; MAN; and B&W, 2004)). 71% N2, 18% CO2, 9.2% H2O, and 0.7% by volume O2 and noble gases.
Farm, fields, forest, and factory fires spew PM10 particles, and oil, gas, Pollutants in gasoline exhaust include 0.85% CO, 0.08% NOX, 0.05%
coal, and shale combustions release PM 2.5 particles. Fire kilns, waste, and unburnt HC, 0.005% particulate matter (PM), 0.115% SOX, and others
stubble burning practices continuously pollute the atmosphere. The (Bera and Hegde, 2012). Diesel engine intake consists of air, fuel, and lube.

Figure 4. Typical emission from MAN B&W MC low-speed diesel engine.

3
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 5. Motor efficiency, losses, and exhaust.

Diesel vehicles emit more SOX than gasoline and gas engines. Human 2. PM
activities being stationary (34%) and biomass (22%) burning contribute
most NOX in the air. Natural and manufactured sources, each contrib- Suspended PMs (SPMs) persist in the atmosphere in solid and liquid
uting 15% NOX, include soils, lightning, and mobile. Internal combustion phase matters. The sources of these PMs are natural and anthropogenic.
engines are the most significant contributor of NOX, SOX, and COX SPM may include thoracic, respirable particles, inhalable coarse particles
pollutants. Petrol cars emit more CO and HC compared with diesel cars, (PM10), fine particles (PM2.5), ultrafine particles, and soot. PM10 and
which expel more PM and SOX. Electrolytic converters reduce CO to CO2, PM2.5 particles are harmful forms of air pollution due to their inherent
and the overall result is the reduction of NOX, SOX, CO, and HC at the ability to penetrate well deep into lungs and bloodstreams. PM particles
expense of more CO2 emissions. Diesel engines are more efficient than can cause premature death by heart and respiratory diseases. PM pollu-
petrol engines. Petrol engines without catalytic converters emit more tion emanates from construction activities, agriculture waste, fossil fuel
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides than diesel engines combustions in automobiles, forest fires, stubble burning, industrial
(Dey and Mehta, 2020). Comparison of emissions of petrol and diesel processes, fire kilns, chemical, and power plants. The sources of PM
vehicles for 1 km journey are shown in Table 1. pollution are atmospheric PM, marine, and space debris. The natural
The total SOx emissions account for up to 178.379 tones/year, NOx sources of PM pollution are dust storms, volcanic eruptions, wildfires,
141,892 tones/year, and CO 11235.135 tones/year. SOx emissions are and sea salt sprays (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2016).
majorly emitted from diesel cars and motorcycles. CO emissions Human activities producing PM pollution include fossil fuel com-
outweigh NOx and SOx in terms of emission volume (Boedisantoso et al., bustion in vehicles, fire kilns, industries, power plants, stubble burning in
2019). Emissions of LPG and CNG vehicles are lesser than petrol and farms, fireworks, roadside dust, domestic waste combustion, and indus-
significantly lower than diesel vehicles. PM10 exhaust emissions have trial processes. Coal-burning for residential heating and power genera-
been reduced from 30 mg/km to 10 mg/km from 2005 to 2015 (Hooft- tion is a significant source of PM pollution. Seaspray on oceans is one of
man et al., 2016). Several emission limitations exist; however, the pri- the most common forms of PM pollution in the atmosphere. Aerosols
mary focus is on reducing NOx and SOx emissions because these (e.g., sea salt) and marine debris (e.g., litter) refer to suspended SPM in
pollutants pose a threat to human health, plants, and the environment. water bodies. Pollutants in the air fall on water or land as acid rain. A
Despite all measures by the vehicle manufacturers, the pollutants will wide range of marine aerosols is produced during the bubble bursting of
continue to increase if we do not transition to renewable energy-powered breaking waves in oceans. Annual emission of sea salt aerosols amounts
electric vehicles, hydrogen fuels, or pollution to power/products con- to 2000–10,000 Tg. Marine debris modifies the natural radiation budget
version processes. by scattering light, condensation of clouds, and nuclei ices. Marine debris
interacts with anthropogenic pollution to change biogeochemical cycles.
Space debris refers to PM pollution in the vacuum of outer space. Debris
Table 1. Vehicle emissions mg per km journey. of discarded technology in space is mostly from defective satellites:
inactive debris, fragmented debris, and microparticles, exploded satel-
Vehicles CO CO2 HC NOX SOX PM
lites persist in the geocentric orbit around the earth. Space debris include
Petrol engine without a catalyst* 100 100 100 100 100 100
particles, gases, and space glow. The pollutant types and sizes from nm to
Petrol engine with a catalystt 42 100 19 23 NA 30
mm range are shown in Figure 6 (data source Topper.com, 2021).
Diesel engine without a catalyst Catalyst 2 85 3 31 100 100
The global PM10 concentrations of 70 μg/m3 and PM2.5 concentra-
*
Petrol cars (non-catalytic) are given a relative value of 100 for comparison tions of 35 μg/m3 caused 15% mortality rates worldwide. In 2013, a
(Motor Vehicle Emission Controls). European study found that PM10 and PM2.5 pollutants increase 22% and

4
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 6. Types and size ranges (in μm) of air borne particles.

36% lung cancer rates for every increase of 10 μg/m3 (Raaschou-Nielsen are few stubble-burning complaints in Pakistan. However, Indian farmers
et al., 2013). In 2016, 4.2 million premature deaths occurred due to do not listen to incumbents. Air quality indices for Lahore and New Delhi
airborne PM10 and PM2.5 particles. Majority of these deaths (91%) fall in on 12 November 2019 are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.
lower and middle socio-economic status communities. Among these The composition of primary air-borne aerosols is dependent on the
deaths, a large portion (58%) were attributed to strokes and ischemic source. The wind-blown dust is composed of mineral oxides and mate-
heart diseases, 8% to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and 6% to rials in the local earth's crust. Sea salt is the second most abundant source
lung cancer (WHO, 2018). The US Environmental Protection Agency in the global aerosol accumulation. Seaspray encompass NaCl, Mg, SO4,
(EPA) revised the threshold concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 particles. Ca, and K. Wet cooling towers in industries spread a wide range of pol-
The US EPA National Ambient Air Quality Standard decreased PM2.5 lutants. Secondary particles are formed by oxidation of primary gases,
daily exposure limit from 15 mg/m3 to 12 mg/m3 in 2012. Accordingly, with the anthropogenic or biogenic origin, such as SOX to sulfuric acid
the annual average PM2.5 limit decreased from 12 mg/m3 to 8.02 mg/m3. (liquid), nitrogen oxides into HNO3 (gas), and ammonium salts into ra-
Stubble-burning practices in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan diation scattering ammonium sulfate or nitrate (dry or aqueous). Organic
cause severe smog. This process starts around 15 October and remains matter may be either primary or secondary light-absorbing aerosols.
until 15 January every year. In addition to stubble burning, the motor- Elemental carbon (black carbon) is strongly light-absorbing in nature.
bike, rickshaw, diesel trucks, and old gasoline cars make cities gas Black carbon particles in glaciers expedite their fast-melting by light
chambers. Health authorities often advise closing schools during peak absorption process. Tar-balls emitted by combustion engines pose a
smoggy days. Nevertheless, smog season is starting, and air quality danger to health (Barringer, 2012). The composition of aerosols de-
indices are overshooting in both across border cities. Pakistan has offi- termines the refractive index that absorbs or scatters light. Smog is a
cially ordered to close fire kiln and smoke-producing industries. There combination of smoke and fog that consists of SO2, NO2, CO, and PM

5
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 7. Air quality index of Lahore on 12 November 2019.

consisting of dust, soot, and black carbon. Conversion of sulfur and nitric precipitators in chimneys of exhaust or cooling towers deposit dust
oxides into acids causes skin, eye, and throat sore during smoggy days in particles on electrodes. This dust may be collected and used in the brick
South Asia. Larger particles (>10mm) settle on the ground within hours industry. A well-tuned diesel engine operating at high combustion tem-
under gravity, but lighter particles (<1 mm) stay in the air for days and peratures produces the least amount of CO2 (Gotmalm, 1992). The CO2
weeks, depending on their masses. emissions from diesel engine have been reduced by improved fuel in-
Aerosols affect the climate by changing solar radiation. GHG retains jection technology, precise compression ratio, exhaust gas recirculation
outgoing longwave radiation to disturb the natural radiation budget. The strategy, supercharging, NOx treatment, diesel oxidation, and charge
effects of GHG can be estimated; however, predicting the effects of movement (Fang et al., 2019; Fiebig et al., 2014).
aerosols on radiation is difficult. Aerosols scatter or absorb solar radia-
tion depending on the optical thickness. An indirect effect of aerosols is 3. Carbon oxides (COx)
cloud condensation modification. Natural aerosols produce a few sig-
nificant raindrops, whereas anthropogenic aerosols make multiple small The CO2 conversion process is similar to recycling, which involves
raindrops. Condensation is aided by large sizes support, while it is deconstruction and reconstruction at a molecular level. this process de-
hampered by ting sizes (Koren, 2004). The presence of PM above warms constructs the waste material into constituent parts; then, those parts are
the surrounding air, suppressing water vapor condensation. Climate reconstructed into a useable product. Team Opus 12 proposed utilizing
change is exacerbated by more polluted regions that have less rainfall. the catalysts to convert CO2 into 16 molecules. The team focused on
The hiatus in Indian monsoon is linked to the anthropogenic aerosols in commercializing synthetic gas, ethylene, and methane depending on the
South Asia (Chung and Ramanathan, 2006). Rainfall in Kimberley and performance, potential impact on climate, and market size. Ethylene is
Pilbara has increased due haze in South East, whereas rainfall in southern utilized in the production of plastics, while synthetic gas and methane are
Austria has decreased due to Asian aerosols pushing tropical rains to the used as fuels.
south (Rotstayn et al., 2007). CO2 can be converted into nanotubes or carbon fibers via molten form
Rains bring down PM10 pollutants, while winds sweep PM2.5 pollut- electrolysis. This process uses electricity and CO2 to produce carbon
ants. Typical cyclonic separators eliminate large-size coarse particles, nanofibers, which are lightweight substitutes of metals to develop race
and specifically designed cyclonic separators and filters remove fine cars, bicycles, airplanes, and wind turbine blades and poles (Sch€afer
particles. Fabric bag-type filters clean air. Dust is collected in bags and et al., 2015). This methodology aims to catch CO2 directly from the
used in the brick industry in the same way as marble dust is utilized. The cement furnace or other industrial processes and power plant exhaust
combination of marble and kiln industries is a typical example of sus- systems and convert it into pure carbon nanotubes. The aforementioned
tainable waste to watt conversion. Pollution particles are attached to process is less expensive than customary carbon nanofibers development
water molecules during the wet scrubbing process. Electrostatic methods, such as polymer extraction and chemical vapor removal.

6
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 8. Air quality index of New Delhi on 12 November 2019 (WAQI, 2020).

CO2 is combined with waste materials, such as left filtrate ash in materials are increasingly being used in the synthesis of photocatalysts
burning coal or from coke, to create nanoparticles that can be added to (Kandy, 2020).
plastic, concrete, and coatings of materials to improve performance and
efficiency, according to the company's requirements (Popper, 2014). The 4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
use of these nanoparticles prevents radiation from entering the atmo-
sphere and reduces the demand for carbon-rich resources, such as con- Vehicle combustion exhaust, coal burning, oil, diesel, and natural gas
crete, plastics, and coating materials. use in thermal power plants generate NOx pollution. In addition, gas
Bioplastic formation is a process for catching CO2 or methane from stoves, kerosene oil stoves, cigarettes, and wood fires emit NOx. Nitrous
a power plant chimney stream or farm and mixing it with a microor- oxide (laughing gas) is a pollutant and greenhouse gas that contributes to
ganism that removes the carbon from CO2 or natural gas. Subse- global warming. Humans are exposed to nitrogen oxides by breathing
quently, the collected pure carbon is mixed with oxygen and hydrogen and skin contact. Nitric oxides, which are prevalent in contaminated air,
to yield a PHA-based bio-polymer substance, which is then sterilized can be utilized in a variety of industries. We can install extraction towers
and pelletized before being melted into various forms (Gomez et al., to collect NOx. Nitrogen oxides, which are present in the air, can be used
2019). In 2016, New-light and IKEA entered into a collaborative to produce HNO3. Gas scrubbing is the most common and least expensive
technology and supply license agreement that allows the manufacture method of converting nitrogen oxide into HNO3. HNO3 is used in a va-
of thermoplastic furniture using the emerging New-light technology. riety of ways in everyday life, including medical, industrial, and com-
IKEA's goal is to use 100% recycled materials. CO2 can be converted mercial settings. NO and NO2 are anthropogenic acid gases that form acid
into fuel and methanol through an artificial method, such as photo- precipitation and photochemical smog in the atmosphere. Smog affects
synthesis. Conservative methanol, a liquid petrochemical, can be uti- humans, animals, plants, and materials (EPA, 1999). Experts propose
lized in manufacturing pharmaceuticals, resins, perfumes, and an array combined plasma scrubbing (CPS) to remove NOx and SO2. The market is
of many more products. Industries compete to develop the best pro- flooded with a variety of methods to reduce NOx emissions. H2O2 and
cedure for converting waste CO2 into methanol fuels, often known as HNO3 may scrub NO and NO2. It requires 0.37 lb of H2O2 for 1 lb of NO2
hydrogen (Lee and Lee, 2016). and 1.7 lb of H2O2 for 1 lb of NO at moderate 30  C–80  C temperature.

CO2 þ H2 ↔ CO þ H2 O (1) 3NO2 þ H2 O⇌ 2HNO3 þ NO (3)

CO2 þ 3H2 ↔ CH3 OH þ ΔH2 O (2) 2NO þ HNO3 þ H2 O → 3HNO2 (4)

C4X reacts with CO2 to extract ethylene glycol, methanol, and bio-
HNO2 þ H2 O2 → HNO3 þ H2 O (5)
composite foam plastic. Many natural fibers, such as sawdust, rice
keels, palm fiber, and flaxes, can be used to create biological composites. Based on the equations above, we may receive distilled water and
These materials are increasingly being used to substitute petrochemicals HNO3 that can be utilized in industries for other processes after gas
in green products. Engines convert carbon-based fuels into CO2. The scrubbing NO2. The HNO3 obtained after converting NO2 to HNO3 is
diesel engine is a relatively better machine in producing lesser CO2 utilized in various applications. The reaction of HNO3 with metals has
emissions compared with gasoline engines (Gotmalm, 1992). Carbon been studied for a long time because it is the best solution for removing

7
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

oxides from metallic surfaces and prevent corrosion. It is also used in the SO2 can decolorize a substance when added to the water. It is used as
making plastic and manufacturing dyes. Ammonium nitrate is a white a bleach for paper and clothes, although its bleaching effect does not last
crystalline solid used to improve soil fertility because it is highly soluble quite long. Oxygen can be used to restore colors. SO2 reduces free and
in water. It is produced when ammonia reacts with HNO3 (Korshunov compounded chlorine atoms into chlorides (Hoffman, 1990). SO2 is well
et al., 2003). soluble in water and shows spectra of the hydrogen sulfite ions when
reacted with water.
HNO3 þ NH3 → NH4 NO (6)
SO2 þ H2 O⇌ HSO3
þ Hþ (14)
Thus, the HNO3 derived from polluted air has a wide range of uses.
Aqua regia is a compound used to dissolve metals, such as Pt and Au. SO2 quickly condenses and has a high heat of evaporation, making it
This solution is prepared by reaction of hydrochloric acid with HNO3. We an excellent refrigerant. Before the 1930s, SO2 used to be a popular
can use this solution for dissolving metals (Flagan and Seinfeld, 2012). refrigerant for home refrigerators when CFCs were yet available.
HNO3 produced from the oxides of nitrogen is widely used in daily and The amount of SOx produced in combustion is directly proportional
industrial applications. HNO3 is used in laboratories to carry out different to the sulfur concentration in fuel. Sulfur in fuel is released into the at-
experiments in everyday life. HNO3 is most commonly used to make mosphere as exhaust, polluting the environment. One kilogram of sulfur
either white precipitate or silver chloride in silver nitrate solution. It also in fuel produces 2 kg of SO2 in the exhaust. The ratio of SO2 to SO3 is in
has a wide range of medical applications; a dilute solution of HNO3 is the range of 95:5 in diesel vehicle exhaust. SOx concentrations in
used to treat dyspepsia. The reactions that contribute to the production of transport and power plants’ exhaust can be easily reduced by minimizing
NO and NO2 in fire flame are as follows: sulfur content in fuels (Gotmalm, 1992). The sulfur contents in heavy and
marine diesel fuels are 2.82% and 0.94%, respectively. Annual con-
NO þ 0.5O2 ↔ NO2. (7)
sumption of 110 million tons of fuel releases 2.91 million tons of sulfur,
N2þ O2 ↔ 2NO. (8) which is equivalent to 5.82 million tons of SO2 (i.e., 5.3% of the global
SO2 emissions) (USENPA, 2020). Scrubbers may reduce SO2 content in
NOx emissions from Japanese two and four-stroke engines account coal power plants to 6 g/kWh.
for 50% and 10% of global NOx emissions. Engines are being improved to
reduce emissions. Asian markets are flooded with Japanese vehicles. 6. Ozone (O3)
Direct water injection technology may help us attain a 50%–60%
reduction of NOx in the exhaust. The standard catalyst reduction tech- Ozone is found in two layers of the atmosphere, namely, the strato-
nology attains 85%–95% reduction of the NOx in vehicle exhaust (MEPC sphere and troposphere. The stratospheric ozone layer shields the earth
44, 2000). The primary NOx reduction methods include altered or from the sun's UV rays. The stratospheric ozone is generally termed good
retarded fuel injection, nozzle modification, water addition, intake air ozone. The ozone in the tropospheric layer of the atmosphere is harmful
humidification, water emulsification, exhaust gas recirculation, and to humans and crops. It is a significant pollutant of air and is the leading
changes in engine compression ratios. The secondary methods may cause of smog. It is mostly produced in the air by the interaction of free
include treating NOx downstream and selective catalytic reduction, NOx and volatile hydrocarbons. Many countries are working on lowering
which can result in 90%–95% decline. Ammonia and exhaust reactions the free NOx and volatile hydrocarbons in the troposphere to reduce
are as follows: ozone in the troposphere (Crutzen, 1988).
Ozone is formed in the troposphere by the photo dissociation of NO2
4NO þ 4NH3 þO2 ↔ 4N2 þ 6H2O (9)
in the presence of sunlight to NO and O. The overall reaction is as follows:
6NO2 þ 8NH3 ↔ 7N2 þ 12H2O (10)
NO2 þ hv (λ < 430nm) → NO þ O, (15)

O þ O2 → O3. (16)
5. SOX M in the above equation is any third substance to stabilize the interme-
diate formed by the reaction. The role of volatile hydrocarbons is the
SO2 is a significant pollutant that has a serious effect on human health formation of NO2 from NO of the atmosphere. The overall reaction can be
(US EPA, 2019). The presence of SO2 in the atmosphere is hazardous to written as follows:
living things, including plants, communities, and animals (Hogan, 2011).
Acid rain has been observed on Venus due to this compound. EPA has CH3OH þ OH → CH2OH þ H2O, (17)
introduced a technology to reduce SO2 in power plants. However, CaO
CH2OH þ O2 → H2CO þ HO2, (18)
may react with SO2 to produce CaSO3.
HO2 þ NO → NO2 þ OH, (19)
CaO þ SO2 → CaSO3 (11)
OH þ NO2 → HNO3. (20)
Oxidation of CaSO3 produces CaSO4. Flue gas is a significant source of
gypsums marketed as produced by desulphurization of flue gases. The The above reactions show the overall scenario wherein volatile
sulfur may effectively be minimized in coal-burning by using limestone in organic compounds (VOC) generate NO2. This NO2 is then split into NO
the combustion as the bedding material (Lindeburg, 2013). In the contact and O, resulting in ozone, a major pollutant in the air. In addition, NO2 is
process, SO2 is oxidized to react with oxygen and water to form sulfuric converted to NO3 at night, which is the main cause of acid rain (Fin-
acid. layson-Pitts and Pitts, 1993; Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts, 1986; Wayne,
2000). These nanoparticles will be more combustible and will minimize
2SO2 þ O2




> 2SO3 (12) VOC emissions from automobile tailpipes. Many other researchers have
published their results on the reduction of CO and NOx pollution by using
2SO3 þ 2H2 O



> 2H2 SO4 (13) biodiesel and biogas fuels (EL-Seesy et al., 2018; Lenin et al., 2013;
SO2 in the air has a significant impact on acid rain. SO2 is often used McClements and Gumus, 2016; Mehta et al., 2014; Venu and Madhavan,
to preserve dried apricots and figs to protect against bacteria and other 2016). Some researchers advocated for the reduction of NO and NO2
rotting viruses (FSA, 2020). This preservation method maintains the from the industries and automobiles to reduce ozone in the troposphere
color and appearance of fruits fresh. (Chen et al., 2019; Itaya et al., 2019; Kato et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2019).

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A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Catalytic reduction of GHG gases from vehicles will mature by 2030. and industrial waste results in water and air contamination. Opportunists
Most vehicles will have shifted from fossil fuels to hydrogen and electric use contaminated waters to grow lush green vegetables to hurl poison
power sources, especially solar and wind energies. into our local food supply chain. Plastics ultimately find their way into
Ozone can be used as a medicine to improve a body's immune system the human lungs and stomach via food.
to treat HIV. It also treats infected and contagious wounds, macular
degeneration, viral diseases, rheumatism, arthritis, cancer, SARS, AIDS, 8. Wind, wood and water watts
and circulatory and geriatric disorders. It is also used in the development
of technologies, such as ozonized olive oil to be directly applied to the Wind and water are renewable resources that are treated as waste if
body, ozonized water for drinking, gas baths, or saunas. However, the use not used in time. Wood is considered a renewable energy resource, yet it
of ozone causes respiratory and heart problems, swelling of blood vessels, releases GHG emissions in the atmosphere when burnt. Dams are also
damage of the eardrum, etc (Biggers, 2019). Ozone builds up in the at- clean energy resources, yet stagnant waters continue to decompose
mosphere during heat waves. organic matter into GHG emissions. Wind and solar resources are rela-
tively cleaner than wood and water; however, solar panels and wind
7. Plastic pollution turbines produce CO2 during manufacturing. Wind power surpassed coal
in 2016 and nuclear electricity in 2018. A shutdown of three coal plants
Plastic pollution refers to the presence of plastic-made objects and had already plummeted coal power 9.2% below 26.6% in 2015. The
fragments in the oceans, on land, and in space. Marine species, wildlife, collapse of coal compared to the wind is viewed as a milestone in power
and the human food supply chain are adversely affected by this phe- and energy history. Coal power in the energy mix is the lowest in the last
nomenon. The size of the object determines whether they are micro-, 80 years (Vaughan, 2017). British electricity generation consisted of 40%
meso, or macro pieces. Plastic, a non-biodegradable material, is coal power a few years ago, which is now 7%. The UK installed maximum
extremely harmful to all forms of life on earth. Every year, thousands of wind turbines in 2016. Wind power plants did not replace all coal-driven
animals and marine species die due to plastic ingestion and entangle- power plants; natural gas was also used to replace coal power plants. Irish
ments. A major fraction of the global plastic waste ends up in the oceans, wind power capacity was 10% in 2016 and 15% in 2017 (Wilson and
disturbing the marine ecosystem. The world per capita plastic con- Staffell, 2018). British wind, solar, biomass, and hydropower plants
sumption is 20 kg per year. produced 29.9 TWh electricity in 2019, more than coal, gas, and oil-fired
This figure varies from 28 kg in India to 109 kg in the USA. India power plants. Renewable electricity is intermittent due to its weather
produces 5.6 million tons of plastic waste in one year. Indus and Megh- dependence. In August and September 2019, UK had 40% of electricity
na–Brahmaputra–Ganges annually discharge 164,332 and 72,845 tons of from renewable energy sources. Solar panels outperform during sunny
plastic debris into the ocean. Hardly 9% of the global plastic production and warmer days (Reporter, 2019). Installation of new offshore wind
is recycled, outlasting everything that ends up in the soil and water turbines has helped the UK eliminate fossil fuels, consisting of 39% of
bodies. According to an Arctic Ice study, every litter of sea ice contains British electric power. It is a tipping point in the British energy transition
12,000 microplastic pieces. Scientists are concerned that the oceans will from fossil fuels to renewable energy resources. Inauguration of new
be swamped in plastics, drowning us also with them. A study showed that wind turbines may achieve the zero-carbon milestone (Ambrose, 2019).
approximately 8 million plastic pieces go into the oceans every day. Europe is phasing out coal and nuclear with solar and wind power
Everybody in America, on average, throws 2000 pieces of plastics in the plants. Two nuclear power plants that supply power for decades were
oceans every year. Approximately 5.25 trillion macro and microplastic shut down in Germany and Sweden in 2019 (Paulsson and Wilkes, 2019).
pieces float in the open oceans (Jesus, 2016). Nearly 80,000 tons of The transition from fossil fuels to solar, wind, water, and wave energies is
plastics are floating in Pacific and 269,000 tons in all oceans (Khurshid, more technical than an economic barrier. Running a power grid on
2019). Plastic pollution affect marine species, birds, and humans. A 40-kg intermittent solar and wind power threatens reliability without massive
plastic ball was found in the belly of a large fish. Everyone consumes 250 battery backup (Basit et al., 2020; Wade, 2019). The natural cycle of
g of plastic annually in certain ways. Many countries are considering sun-powered wood, wind, water, and wave energies may be expressed as
banning plastic bags and convert old plastics into bricks. Plastics enter number 8, as shown in Figure 9.
the human body through air, food, and water. Our stomachs and lungs Finite fossil fuels on earth are a harbinger for finding new energy
are the ultimate destinations of plastics. The ideal use of plastics is to avenues. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals include end
fabricate building materials and heliostats for solar thermal power plants. of poverty, no hunger, health facilities/social well-being, basic educa-
Environmentalists encourage reduce, reuse, and recycle. In the best tion, gender equality, clean drinking water/sanitation facilities, cheaper
case scenario, we throw trash in the waste bin or dumpster in the street, clean energy, honest work and economic growths, industries, in-
which is then picked up by a garbage truck and sent to the landfill site. novations and infrastructures, lesser inequality, smart cities and sus-
Composting waste into soil emits green gases, and deeper burial leads to tainable communities, sensible consumptions and productions, actions
water contamination entering our air, water, and food systems. There is against climate change, marine life, wildlife, stronger institutions, and
virtually no away, even in the animal lungs and stomachs. Birds consume global partnerships for achieving goals. Population and industrial growth
plastics, which come out after their death or reach other animal stom- rates impose restrictions on 100% renewable energy transition. Hydro-
achs. Plastics are derived from oil and recycled into packing materials. power plays a vital role in energy and food. A river-inspired canal system
Single-use plastics are a detriment to the environment and must be along with natural river examples for food production are shown in
recycled. They are made up of a hard-to-extract, non-renewable raw Figure 10.
material (oil), which is polymerized through a high-energy process that
includes toxic chemical add-ins and leaves harmful manufacturing by- 9. Waste to watts conversion
products. Specifically, they are an environmental and public health
disaster — before they are ever used. Plastic is estimated to account for US oil fields reached peak production in the 1960s, making the
10% of all waste, and 50%–80% of all marine debris. Eight tons of western world dependent on Arab oils. The oil crisis of 1973 was rooted
plastics enter the oceans every year, and large clusters trapped in ocean in the Arab embargo, and the energy crisis evolved in the wake of the
gyres will remain infinitely. Municipal committees dump waste away in Iranian revolution in 1979. Two energy crises in the 1970s bent western
barrens around the town. The garbage ferments and decays there, countries to look for alternate avenues. US energy experts started
emitting deadly fumes. We see burning, smoking, and deteriorating focusing on city waste to convert it into watts. The heating value of
garbage in the streets of towns. Waters and winds bring toxic materials organic waste varies from 3000 to 8000 BTU/pound. Engineers initiated
and smoke back into our homes. The rampant rise in litter, traffic smokes, experiments on solid waste pyrolysis and sewerage slug anaerobic

9
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

Figure 9. Sun powered wood, winds, water, and wave energies.

Figure 10. Nature-inspired canal network.

digestion. A few dissidents advised burning all waste along with coal in a single person contributes to emitting 1 kg CO2 and 0.5 kg waste on
thermal plants. The city government advised workers to shift solid waste average (Abas et al., 2018a; Basu, 2010). High income (50%) and
to utility plants where metal, stone, and glass pieces were filtered before middle-lower income (30%) groups produce maximum waste compared
burning (Hagerty and Heer, 1975). with low income (3%) and upper-middle-income groups (20%). Carbon
Waste to energy (WTE) technology converts waste into electricity footprints depend on the energy used; co-fired carbon footprint is 775
instead of burning fossils, reducing GHG emissions. The US Energy Policy gCO2/kg, and biomass footprint is 230 gCO2/kg. The electricity we can
Act endorses WTE conversion as a renewable process. These processes obtain from waste costs approximately 2–7 and 8 to 11 cents/kWh for
will significantly meet the future requirements set by net-zero carbon and wholesale and retail consumers, respectively. The carbon footprint values
waste visions. WTE conversion processes have the potential to reduce for waste to energy conversion (WTEC) compared with fossil fuels and
160 million tons of annual greenhouse gas emissions. It is expected to traditional renewable resources are shown in Figure 11.
cater 2% electricity by 2030. Prototypical WTE stack emissions consist of Scientists discovered biofuel bonanza and energy crops on stagnant
65% CO2. Currently, the US hosts 87 facilities capable of converting waters in ponds as a result of their energy study. They used cattle dung to
90,000 tons of waste each day on average. This produces 2.3 GW of produce biogas, which was utilized to fuel power plants. Cattle waste
electricity that is easily accessible, making it a baseload generator became popular fuel source, and the farmers began installing digesters on
(Klinghoffer et al., 2013). Moreover, these processes avoid landfill for- their farms. Exxon/Mobil started focusing on city garbage to produce
mation, which can leak into the atmosphere (Klinghoffer et al., 2013). watts from waste. Although the oil and energy crisis ended in the 1980s,
The lifecycle of CO2 emissions by incineration (760  C–870  C) is 14–35 research into alternative energy resource continued. Energy experts
kg of CO2/kWh, gasification (760  C–1537  C) is 8 kg of CO2/kWh, py- began evaluating green urban solids, landfills, and farms, in addition to
rolysis (649  C–1204  C) is 9.5 kg of CO2/kWh, anaerobic digestion is 11 solar and wind power plants. They found landfills, urban solids, and
kg of CO2/kWh, and aerobic digestion is 1–14 kg of CO2/kWh (A et al., farms to hold the potential of 116 PJ, 241 PT, and 1132 PT energy in the
2020). The incineration yields electricity at a rate of 544 kWh/ton of USA. They developed solid fuel cells to convert biogas into 16, 33, and
waste to the grid; pyrolysis produces 571 kWh/ton of municipal waste, 157 TWh energy reserves under waste 2 W (W2W) projects (Ma et al.,
and gasification yields 685 kWh/ton of waste. The gasification and 2021; Wang et al., 2020). Elsevier launched the Journal of CO2 utilization
incineration produce SOx, NOx, and Cox. With gas capture, the CO2 to convert GHG emissions into value-added products.
equivalent of incineration, gasification, and landfill account for up to 1.6, Several reports on the conversion of CO2 and CH4 into fuels and
1.07, and 2.75 kg/kWh (Brandon, 2013). Studies and surveys reveal that fertilizers have been published (Sagir et al., 2018). The primary goal is to

10
A.R. Kalair et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e08155

of the earth and kept bats at bay in distant jungles. Oil barons have
unearthed oil, gas, coal, and shales, and proper dealers have deforested
jungles to build housing societies. All diseases spread through the air,
water, and food chain; hence, we keep pace in harmony with nature by
sequestering carbon that we produce on a daily basis and replacing coal
and gas power plants with solar and wind energy. Pollutants pollute the
air, and plastics contaminate the food chain. GHG emissions remain in
the atmosphere for a long time, affecting the radiation balance causing
global warming. The conversion of waste into watts is a holy grail for the
planet's human civilization. Waste to energy conversion technologies
allow us to utilize waste heat instead of producing more electricity and
GHG gases to accomplish the same task. Waste to energy conversion is
the first step toward sustainable living.

Declarations

Author contribution statement

Figure 11. Carbon footprint values for various energy resources. All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development
and the writing of this article.
directly capture CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in underground
caverns or convert it into value-added products. Cox, NOx, and SOx gases Funding statement
remain in the atmosphere for decades and centuries, just as plastics in the
oceans. Natural lightning converts NOx into nitrogen and SOx into sulfur. This work was in part supported by the Higher Education Commission
The temperature in the lightning path approaches that of the sun surface Technology (HEC) Development Fund (TDF02-086), and Swinburne
or earth's core level that is high enough to break GHG emission in the air University Postgraduate Research Awards (SUPRA).
into constituent components (Ehhalt and Prather, 2001). Lightning is
helping humanity in removing GHGs from the atmosphere, just as it did
Data availability statement
at the beginning of existence (Kalair et al., 2013). Lightning cleans the
atmosphere at clouds levels, and the end products fall on earth as rain-
Data will be made available on request.
drops. Lightning strikes create oxidants that react with pollutants and
decompose them into less toxic forms. Lightning creates OH and HO2
Declaration of Interests Statement
radicals, which react with pollutants. Rapid heating and cooling of air
during lightning creates NO, which reacts with O2 to form NO2. The
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
formation of NOx at the level of the clouds lowers ozone pollution at the
ground level. Some pollutants are also broken down by UV, causing them
to react with other gases or deposit on particles. In rainwater, SO2 may Additional information
react with O2 to form ammonium sulfate, which is an excellent fertilizer.
H2S reacts with metal oxide particles to form metal sulfides that act as No additional information is available for this paper.
catalysts in H2SO4 formation. HF reacts with organic matter to form
compounds that are carried away by rain. Hydrocarbons are decomposed References
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