SECOND QUARTER EARTH SCIENCE 🌱 Occurrence of Mineral Resources

- The geological processes involved in the rock

Lesson 0 cycle play a major role in the accumulation and

mINERAL RESOURCES concentration of valuable elements/minerals.

- high grade mineral = high concentration
● Most rocks of the Earth’s crust contain metals - Plate Tectonics: The Earth’s crust is broken
and other elements but at very low into a dozen or more plates of different sizes
concentration. that move relative to one another.
○ low concentration = few elements to extract
- Asthenosphere: These plates are moving
● Average concentration of Gold in rocks of the slowly on top of a hot and more mobile
Earth’s crust is about 0.005 ppm (parts per material.
million)
○ Roughly 5 grams of gold for every 1000 tons
of rock

● Although valuable, extracting Gold at this

concentration is not economic (cost of mining
will be too high for the expected profit.)

● Fortunately, these are naturally occurring

processes (geologic processes) that can
concentrate minerals and elements in rocks of a
particular area.

TYPES OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. Metallic Mineral Deposits
- Gold, Silver, Copper, Platinum, Iron ● Magmatic chromite is connected to the
magmatic arc because volcanoes can be found
2. Non-metallic Mineral Resources underwater too.
- Talc, Fluorite, Sulfur, Sand, Gravel
● Alteration in oceanic crust (earthquake)
○ Tsunami
■ Ore – aggregates of rock and minerals
■ Steel – most elastic material on Earth
● Eruption under the sea
■ Temperature – Difference between heat /
○ Tsunami
pressure and melting ○ No storm surge
Lesson 1

ORE DEPOSITS
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits
4. Placer Ore Deposits
5. Residual Ore Deposits

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

● Valuable substances are concentrated within
an igneous body through magmatic processes
such as crystal fractionation, partial melting,
and crystal settling.
● Magmatic processes such as partial melting,
crystal fractionation, or crystal settling in a
magma chamber can concentrate ore
minerals containing valuable substances by
taking elements that were once widely
dispersed in low concentrations in the magma
and concentrating them in minerals that Chromite, the main ore mineral of chromium,
separate from the magma. crystallizes from a magma and, because it is
denser than magma, sinks to the bottom and
accumulates in a process called crystal settling.

Fractional crystallization
- The residual melt contains a high percentage
of water and volatile (readily vaporizable at a
relatively low temperature).
- Substances that are favorable for the formation
of pegmatites.
- Pegmatites are enriched in Lithium, Gold,
Boron, rare elements and some other heavy
metals.
- Fractional crystallization of granitic magmas
can concentrate rare earth elements (such as
cesium and uranium) and heavy metals.
- This can also form pegmatites (large crystals of
quartz, feldspars and muscovite) which may
Crystal Settling contain semi-precious gems such as beryl,
- Already precipitated, that's why they settled. topaz, and tourmaline.
- As magma cools down, heavier minerals tend
to crystalize early and settle at the lower
portion of the magma chamber. 2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
- From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4),
● Concentrations of valuable substances by hot
magnetite (Fe3O4), and platinum (P1) can be
aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through
concentrated through crystal settling.
fractures and pore spaces in rocks.
● Hydrothermal solutions – are hot, residual
watery fluids derived during the later stages of
magma crystallization and may contain large
amounts of dissolved metals.
● These can also originate from the ground
water circulating at depth that is being heated
up by a cooling and solidifying igneous body
or along depths with known geothermal
gradients.
 a. Vein type deposits
- A fairly well defined zone of mineralization,
usually inclined and discordant and typically
narrow.
- Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure
openings or in shear zones within the country
rock.
- Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode
deposits, many of the most productive
deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and
mercury occur as hydrothermal vein deposits.

The magma chamber is the heat source for the

hydrothermal solutions, which contain both
magmatic and meteoric matter.

● Such hot water can dissolve valuable B. disseminated deposits

substances (at low concentrations) from rocks. - Deposits in which the ore minerals are
● As the metal enriched hot waters move into distributed as minute masses (very low
cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved concentration) through large volumes of rocks.
substances may start to precipitate.
● There are numerous hydrothermal mineral
deposits as compared to the different types of
deposits.

Subduction Zone

C. massive sulfide deposit

- Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading
centers)
- Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals such
as sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
occurs when hot fluids that circulated above
magma chambers at oceanic ridges that may
contain sulfur, copper, and zinc come in
contact with cold groundwater or seawater
EXAMPLES OF HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSIT as it migrate towards the seafloor.
A. Vein Type Deposits
B. Disseminated Deposits
C. Massive Sulfide Deposits
D. Stratabound Ore Deposits
 B. IRON DEPOSITS

- These deposits are made up of repetitive thin

layers of iron-rich chert and several other iron
D. stratabound ore deposits bearing minerals such as hematite and
- Stratabound ore deposits (in lake or oceanic magnetite.
sediment) – This deposit is formed when the - Iron formations appear to be evaporite type
dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal fluid deposits and are mostly formed in basins
precipitate in the pore spaces of within continental crust during the Proterozoic
unconsolidated sediments on the bottom of a (2 billion years or older).
lake or ocean.
- Such minerals may contain economic
concentrations of lead, zinc, and copper, 4. Placer Ore Deposits
usually in sulfide form like galena (PbS),
sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). ● Substances are concentrated by flowing
surface waters either in streams or along
coastlines.
● Deposits formed by the concentration of
valuable substances through gravity
separation during sedimentary processes.
● Concentration would be according to the
specific gravity of substances, wherein the
heavy minerals are mechanically concentrated
by water currents and the less-dense particles
remain suspended and are carried further
downstream.
● Usually involves heavy minerals that are
resistant to transportation and weathering.
● Common deposits are gold and other heavy
minerals such as platinum, diamonds, and
3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits tin;
● The source rock for a placer deposit may
● Substances are concentrated by chemical become an important ore body if located.
precipitation from lake or sea water.

a. EVAPORITE DEPOSITS

- This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed

marine environment where evaporation is
greater than water inflow.
- As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved
substances become more concentrated in the
residual water and would eventually
precipitate.
- Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O), borax
(used in soap) and sylvite (KCl, from which K
is extracted for fertilizers) are examples of
minerals deposited through this process.
 5. Residual Ore Deposits
● Substances are concentrated by chemical
weathering processes.
● During the process, the volume of the original
rock is greatly reduced by leaching.
● Important factors for the formation of residual
deposits include parent rock composition,
climate (tropical and subtropical: must be
favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must
not be high to allow accumulation).
● Relief – is the configuration of an area that
pertains to the elevation and slope variations
and the irregularities of the land surface.

Chemical Weathering
● Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are
residual ore deposits derived from the
laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks
such as dunite and peridotite.
● Laterization – conditions of weathering which
leads to the removal of alkalis and silica,
resulting in a soil or rock with high
concentrations of iron and aluminum rocks.

Additional Information
● Which ore deposit is abundant in porphyry
copper? Disseminated Ore Deposit
● Fidel left his sinigang and patis for a long time,
when he came back, the patis was already
gone. Which ore deposit does this situation
indicate? Evaporite Deposit
● What's the main ore mineral of chromium?
Chromite
● Inner core: Solid, Outer core: Liquid
● Kinds of Plate Boundaries:
○ Transform plate boundary
○ Convergent plate boundary
○ Divergent plate boundary
Lesson 2
scale comparable to and again as and
Energy resources its consumption.
- There’s no
when required.
- They are available
ENERGY expiration. in plenty and by far
● Amount of force or power when applied can - Could be remade are the cleanest
move one object from one position to another. but not within a sources of energy
● Defines the capacity of a system to do work. human lifetime; after available on this
● Exists in everybody whether they are human hundreds or millions planet.
beings or animals or non living things, e.g. Jet,
Light Machines, etc. of years. - Renewable
● Intimately related to power - Power plant and technologies are
○ no energy = no power coal. suited to
● According to the law of conservation of a. large-scale
energy, any form of energy can be production
concentrated into another form, the total b. small off grid
energy will remain the same. applications.
● Example: When you charge your mobile - Such as air, water,
phone, the electrical energy is converted into and plants.
the chemical energy which gets stored inside
the battery.
Charcoal – from burned trees.
Energy and Environment Coal – organic rock formed from dead plants and
● Energy and the environment have a strong other organisms.
relationship. The production and
consumption of energy is one of the biggest Formation of Ores
causes of environmental damage on Earth. ● Ores form in the crust in a variety of ways.
● It leads to large amounts of distraction of ● As magma cools, dense metallic minerals sink
natural landscapes and habitants through the to the bottom.
process of fuel extraction, pollution of soil, ● Layers accumulate and form ore deposits
and climate change. within the hardened magma.
● Energy is at the heart of many of the world’s ● Some ores form through contact
current environmental problems, and metamorphism.
possesses many problems for sustainable ● Sometimes, hot mineral
development. solutions spread
● Energy production includes environmental and through small cracks in
human health costs. rocks and form bands
● Energy Production: called veins.
a. Asthma ● Lode – a large number
b. Cancer of thick mineral veins.
c. Neurological Toxins
d. Smog ORES & WATER
e. Acid Rain The movement of water helps form ore deposits in
f. Global Warming two ways:
● Energy can have many forms: kinetic, 1. Streams carry fragments of minerals (i.e.
potential, light, sound, gravitational, elastic, gold) until they get deposited by weak
electromagnetic or nuclear. currents. Fragments become concentrated
● Energy is broadly classified into two main and form placer deposits.
groups: 2. Water dissolves minerals in the earth’s crust,
a. Renewable Energy and they carry the dissolved minerals until it
b. Nonrenewable Energy reaches a placer deposit where it
accumulates.
Earth scientists have identified over 3000
minerals. Uses of mineral resources
■ Jewelry - Sapphires, Rubies, Diamonds, Gold,
Nonrenewable Renewable Resources Silver, Platinum
Resources ■ Building Material - Calcite, Gypsum

- Their supply is - Can be replaced Conservation of Minerals

limited and cannot within a human ● The only sure way to preserve mineral
be replaced. lifetime. resources is through conservation.
- A nonrenewable - Energy which is ● Use other, more abundant substances such as
plastics.
resource is a natural generated from ● Another way to conserve minerals is to recycle
resource that natural resources them.
cannot be remade and can be
or re-grown at a generated again
 ● Because of their organic origin, coal,
petroleum, and natural gas are known as
COAL FORMATION PROCESS
fossil fuels.
○ Petroleum 47%
○ Coal 27%
○ Natural Gas 26%
● Fossil fuels consist primarily of compounds of
carbon and hydrogen called hydrocarbons.

COAL (FORMATION AND TYPES)

●A dark colored
organic rock.
● Formed from dead
plants and other
organisms.
● Carbonization –
Bacteria consuming
buried plant remains,
releasing methane
and carbon dioxide, leaving only carbon
behind. DISADVANTAGES
● When coal is burnt, it produces carbon
FOUR STAGES OF COAL dioxide that causes global warming.
PEAT – partial decomposition of plant remains; ● Since coal contains impurities like S and N, it
brownish/black in color. produces toxic gases during burning which
LIGNITE – brown coal causes acid rain and air pollution.
BITUMINOUS – soft coal ● Traces of mercury and radioactive
ANTHRACITE– hardest form of all coals compounds are also released when coal is
burned.
● Severe human health threat. (lung disease)

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS

(FORMATION AND DEPOSITS)
● Petroleum and natural gas are largely made up
of hydrocarbons. Petroleum (oil) is liquid and
natural gas is a gas.
● When ancient animals were buried in
prehistoric oceans and lakes, heat and
pressure built up, chemical changes
eventually converted the remains into
petroleum and natural gas.

HOW IS COAL MADE?

USES AND SUPPLIES

Crude Oil – unrefined petroleum
Petrochemicals – chemicals derived from
petroleum, essential component of over 3000
products, products include: tar, wax, and plastic.

Coal, petroleum, and gas are considered

nonrenewable because they can not be
replenished in a short period of time. These are
called fossil fuels.
NUCLEAR ENERGY drawbacks
a. Nuclear Fission is, ● Waste products which gave off dangerous
● The splitting of the nucleus of a large atom radiation.
into two or more smaller nuclei. Only one kind ● The radiation can destroy plants and animal
of naturally occurring element can be used for cells and cause harmful changes in the genetic
nuclear fission, this element is uranium-235. material of living cells.

b. Nuclear Fusion
● All the energy that reaches the earth from the
sun is produced by nuclear fusion.
● The nuclei of the smaller hydrogen are
combined to create an atom of helium.

ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES

Nations are looking into the use of alternate
sources in order to find safe and renewable
energy sources.

Renewable resources
The Process Are natural resources that can be replenished in a
1. U-235 is mixed with U-238 and formed into short period of time.
pellets. ● Solar
2. The uranium is then shaped into rods called ○ Energy from the sun; solar panels
fuel rods. ● Geothermal
3. Bundles of these fuel rods are bombarded by ○ Energy from Earth’s heat; geothermal power
neutrons. plant
4. When hit by a neutron, the fuel rod splits and ● Wind
releases neutrons and energy, ○ Energy from the wind; windmills
5. This starts a chain reaction and the split ● Biomass
atoms bump into other atoms causing the fuel ○ Energy from burning organic or living matter
rods to get very hot. ● Water or Hydroelectric
6. Water is pumped around the fuel rods to ○ Energy from the flow of water; Hoover Dam
absorb and carry away the heat.
7. The resulting hot water/steam is then used to
turn turbines to generate electric energy.

Nuclear reactions are contained in a controlled

environment called a nuclear reactor.
 4. Bio-fuel
Main Forms of Renewable Energy
- Liquid biofuel is usually either bio-alcohol (e.g.
bio-ethanol) or an oil (e.g. biodiesel).
1. Air Power - Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world’s transport
- Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. fuel in 2008.
- Areas where winds are stronger and more
constant, such as offshore and high altitude Bio-ethanol Bio-diesel
sites, are preferred locations for wind farms.
- Wind energy is believed to be five times total - Bio-ethanol is an - Bio-diesel is made
current global energy production, or 40 times alcohol made mostly from vegetable oils,
current electricity demand. from sugar and animal fats, or
- This could require large amounts of land to be starch crops. With recycled greases.
used for wind turbines particularly in areas of advanced technology - Bio-diesel can be
high water and wind resources. being developed, used as a fuel for
- Offshore resources experience wind speeds cellulosic mass such vehicles in its pure
~90% greater than that of land. as trees and grasses form, but it is usually
- Wind power produces no greenhouse gases are also used as used as a diesel
during operation, and power is growing at the feedstocks for additive to reduce
rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed ethanol production. levels of particulates,
capacity of 157, 900 MW. - Ethanol can be used carbon monoxide,
as a fuel for vehicles and hydrocarbons
in its pure form, but is from diesel-powered
2. Hydropower usually used as a vehicles.
- Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved gasoline additive to - Bio-diesel is
for large-scale hydroelectric dams. increase octane and produced from oils or
- Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power improve vehicle fats and is the most
installations that typically produce up to 100 emissions. common biofuel in
kW of power. They are often used in water rich - Bio-ethanol is widely Europe.
areas as a remote-area power supply used in Brazil.
(RAPS).
- Damless hydro systems derive kinetic energy 5. Geothermal Energy
from rivers and oceans without using a dam.
- Ocean energy describes all the technologies - Geothermal energy is energy obtained by
to harness energy from the sun and sea. This tapping the heat of the Earth.
includes marine current power, ocean thermal - Earth’s crust in some places of the globe or
energy conversion, and tidal power. from some meters in geothermal heat pump in
all the places of the planet. This energy derives
from heat in the Earth’s core.
3. Solar Energy - There is also the potential to generate
- It is the energy derived from the sun through geothermal energy from hot dry rocks. Holes
the form of solar radiation. at least 3 km deep are drilled into the earth.
- Solar powered electrical generation relies on Some of these holes pump water into the
photovoltaics and heat engines. A partial list of Earth while other other holes pump water out.
other solar applications include daylighting, - Three types of power plants are used to
solar hot water, solar cooking, and high generate power from geothermal energy: dry
temperature process heat for industrial steam, flash, and binary.
purposes. - Dry steam plants take steam out of fractures in
- Solar techniques are broadly characterized as the ground and use it to directly drive a turbine
either passive solar or active solar that spins a generator.
depending on the way they capture, convert, - Flash plants take hot water, usually at
and distribute solar energy. temperatures over 200 °C, out of the ground,
- Active solar techniques include the use of and allow it to boil as it rises to the surface
photovoltaic panels and solar thermal then separates the steam phase in
collectors to harness the energy. steam/water separators and then runs the
- Passive solar techniques include orienting a steam through a turbine.
building to the sun, selecting materials with - In binary plants, the hot water flows through
favorable thermal mass or light dispersing heat exchangers, boiling an organic fluid that
properties, and designing spaces that naturally spins the turbine. The condensed steam and
circulate air. remaining geothermal fluid from all three types
of plants are injected back into the hot rock to
pick up more heat.
There are two types of geothermal energy
deposits:
1. Hydro - geothermal energy resources
2. Petro - geothermal energy deposits
 Hydro Petro
Geothermal energy Geothermal energy
resources are the resources are the hot
deposits of hot water dry rocks around 200
and steam at relatively degree centigrade and
lesser depths (3000 m). depth about 2000 m
Hot water and steam from important deposits
can be extracted from of geothermal energy.
such deposits by
means of the
production wells.

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Renewable Energy

Advantages Disadvantages
- Wide availability - Unreliable supply
- Low running cost - Usually produced in
- Decentralized power small quantities
production - Often difficult to store
- Low pollution - Currently per unit
- Available for the cost of energy is
foreseeable future more compared to
other types
Lesson 3 Two Main Sources of Water
Various WATER resources SURFACE WATER UNDERGROUND WATER
on earth - Water present on
the surface of the
- The rainwater that
seeps through the
WATER earth in the form of soil onto the
● Water is a valuable natural resource that can be oceans, rivers, non-porous rocks
found in many different forms throughout the lakes, reservoirs, below.
environment. ponds and streams - Sometimes due to
● Water comes in two forms: freshwater and is called surface high pressure, this
saltwater, and it covers roughly 70% of the water. water sprouts out in
earth's surface.
○ The Earth viewed using a satellite is mostly - The water in rivers the form of springs.
blue which signifies water so water is a big and lakes comes - It can be obtained
part of Earth. from rain and by digging wells or
melting of snow sinking tube wells,
WATER RESOURCES on mountains. etc.
● Nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is - Rivers flow into the - Groundwater lies
covered with water. sea. under the surface of
○ Most of which is found in the ocean. the land, where it
travels through and
Freshwater fills openings in the
Great amount of the freshwater is found below rocks.
the earth's surface called groundwater and the - The rocks that store
rest of the freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, and transmit
streams. groundwater are
called aquifers.
● Water is also present in air in the form of water
vapor.
● Water resources are natural resources of water
that are potentially useful. Uses of water
includes:
○ agricultural,
○ households,
○ recreational, and
○ environmental activities.
● Moreover, about 70 percent of the human
body is water and bodies of all plants and
animals also contain water.
The Caliraya River photo taken at nightfall. February 15,
● All living things require water to grow and 2018.
reproduce.
● Water flows in the Earth because of gravity.
WATER DISTRIBUTION ON EARTH
SOURCES OF WATER
- Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams,
ponds and springs are natural sources of
water.
- Dams, wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals,
etc, are man-made sources of water.
- Rain Water – is collected on Earth in the form
of surface water and underground water.

Hand pumps: A man-made water source at Balayan,

Batangas. May 22, 2020.
is a pie chart showing where all water on, in, and above
the Earth exists.
 water than those in urban areas (9.1% vs.
- The first pie chart shows how 2.6%).
○ Almost four in every five families (77%)
almost all of Earth's water is do not practice any method or treatment in
saline and is found in the ensuring that their drinking water is safe to
oceans. drink.
- Of the small amount that is
actually freshwater, only a
First Pie
relatively small portion is
Chart
available to sustain human,
plant, and animal life.
- It is observed that only 3% of
Earth's water is freshwater
which is the water needed for
life to survive.

- The middle pie chart shows

the breakdown of
freshwater.
Middle Pie - Almost all of it is confined in
Chart ice and in the ground.
- Only 0.3% of all freshwater
is surface water, which
serves most of life's needs.

- The last pie chart shows the

breakdown of surface water.
- Most of this water is found in
lakes.
- Rivers make up 2% of surface
Last Pie
freshwater and 11% swamps.
Chart
- Although rivers account for
only a small amount of
freshwater, this is where
humans get a large portion
of their water.

SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER

● Water is very important in each of our lives. Not
only is it essential to our health, but also, we use
it for numerous household tasks. Every day we
use water for cooking, bathing, cleaning, and
drinking.
● The World Health Organization and UNICEF
Joint Monitoring Report (2017) define
improved drinking water sources as those that
have potential to deliver safe water by nature of
their design and construction.
○ These include piped water tube wells or
boreholes; protected dug wells, protected
springs; rainwater.
○ Families that use bottled water or refilling
stations for drinking are classified as using
an improved source only if the water they
use for cooking and hand washing comes
from an improved source.
● According to the results of the 2017 APIS, 94
percent of the 24 million Filipino families
have improved sources of drinking water.
○ In the urban and rural areas, 97 and 91
percent, respectively, have improved
sources of drinking water.
○ Residents in rural areas are more likely to
have an unimproved source of drinking