EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Professor’s Name: Ms. Shana Gale Causaren | Professor’s Email: [email protected]

LESSON 3: ROCKS AND MINERALS

MINERALS

● Naturally occuring, not man-made

● Inorganic
● Solid
● Definite chemical composition
● Ordered internal structure

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

LUSTER
quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the the mineral before the development of any cleavage or
mineral. fracture.
● Metallic- generally opaque and exhibit a EX. octahedrons like magnetite crystals,
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal. dodecahedrons like garnets, and cubes like
● Non-Metallic- vitreous (glassy), adamantine halite.
(brilliant/diamond like), resinous, silky, pearl,
dull (earthy), greasy CLEAVAGE- The ability of a mineral to break along
planes of weak bonding. The tendency of minerals to
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS break along flat planar surfaces into geometries that
1. metallic are determined by their crystal structure.
2. metallic, earthy
3. dull; poor reflectivity FRACTURE- Some minerals may not have cleavages
4. silky, fibrous but may exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and
5. resinous, plastic non planar. Conchoidal, Splintery, Fibrous.
6. waxy
7. glassy, vitreous SPECIFIC GRAVITY- it is the ratio of the weight of a
8. pearly mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water. A
bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times more
HARDNESS- measure of resistance of a mineral to than a buck of water (SG 1). It is a measure to express
abrasion the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The
specific gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to
COLOR- Unique identifying property of minerals density.
(Malachite– green, Azurite– blue). Maybe a poor OTHER PROPERTIES
indicator since many share the same color like quartz
Taste- salt
STREAK- color of minerals in powdered form. The Odor- sulfur containing (rotten egg)
color of a mineral could be different from its streak. Magnetism- magnetite
Fluorescence- fluorite in UV
CRYSTAL FORM/HABIT- the form reflects the Radioactivity- uraninite
supposedly internal structure (of atoms and ions) of Reactivity- calcite in weak acid
the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of

ymg | 1
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

SILICATES ● Calcite, Dolomite.

● Minerals containing 2 of the most abundant
elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, Silicon HALIDES
(28%) and Oxygen(47%). ● Minerals containing halogen elements combined
● Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to with one or more elements.
this group. ● Halogen elements include Cl, F, I, Br, At
● Other most common elements that make the ● Halite, Fluorite, Sylvite.
earth’s crust are Al (8.1%), Fe (5.0%), Ca
(3.6%), Mg (3.1%), Na (2.8%) and K (2.6%). NATIVE ELEMENTS
● Quartz, Mica, Amphibole, Pyroxene, Olivine. ● Minerals that form as individual elements.
● Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Platinum (Pt), Diamond
OXIDES (C), Graphite (C), Sulfur (S), Copper (Cu)
● Minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2 - )
combined with one or more metal ions METALS AND INTER-METALS- Minerals with high
● Hematite, Magnetite, Corundum, Ice thermal and electrical conductivity. Typically with metallic
luster, low hardness (Gold, Lead).
SULFATES
● Minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion SEMI-METALS- Minerals that are more fragile than
(SO4) - combined with other ions. metals and have lower conductivity (Arsenic, Bismuth).
● Gypsum, Anhydrite, Barite, Celestite.
NON-METALS- Non-conductive (Diamond, Sulfur)
CARBONATES
● Minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)
2- combined with other elements.
● Calcite, Dolomite.

HALIDES
● Minerals containing halogen elements combined
with one or more elements.
● Halogen elements include Cl, F, I, Br, At
● Halite, Fluorite, Sylvite.

SULFATES
● Minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion
(SO4) - combined with other ions.
● Gypsum, Anhydrite, Barite, Celestite.

SULFIDES
● Minerals containing sulfur anion (S2) - combined
with one or more ions. Some sulfides are
sources of economically important metals such
as copper, lead and zinc.
● Galena, Sphalerite, Pyrite, Chalcopyrite,
Cinnabar.

CARBONATES
● Minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)
2- combined with other elements.
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 ROCK TYPES

IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

From when magma or lava cool to a solid form, either ● Formed at or near the surface of the Earth
glass or masses of tightly intergrown mineral crystal ● Forms when mineral crystals and clasts of
● MAGMA - molten rocks inside earth's crust plants, animals, or rocks are compressed or
● LAVA - magma that reaches the surface naturally cemented together.
● Forms when mineral crystals precipitate from
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS water to form a rocky mass such as rock salt or
cave stalactites.
INTRUSIVE or PLATONIC: Formed from magma (inside ● Sedimentary processes include weathering,
the Earth) and tends to take a long time to solidify into erosion, transport, and deposition.
rock. Has Phaneritic textures. More crystals formed
since it takes longer TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
time to cool down.
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
EXTRUSIVE OR VOLCANIC: Formed from lava and ● Formed from the eroded parts of other rocks
tends to solidify quickly. Common textures include ● Grains, matrix, and cement are the components
aphanitic and porphyritic. Less crystals are made of clastic rocks
since mas mabilis magcool down. ● Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g.
pyroclastics) and may have undergone some
TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS stages in the sedimentary processes could be
classified as sedimentary rock (e.g.
PORPHYRITIC: Formed through two stages of volcanoclastic rocks)
crystallization. Magma partly cooled below the surface of ● Examples: Conglomerate, Breccia, Shate, Red
the earth providing time for the large crystals to grow Sandstone, Gray Sandstone
(phenocrysts). Before it is extruded to the surface
forming the fine-grained matrix (groundmass) — NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Intrusive ● Evaporation and precipitation from solution or
lithification of organic matter
PHANERITIC: Coarse-grained, forming large ● Classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum, and
interlocking dolostone), precipitates (limestone), and
crystals, and intrusive (cooled down slowly) - Intrusive bioclastics (coal, coquina)
● Examples: Limestone, Chert, Halite.
APHANITIC: Fine-grained, too small to see, minerals
that are not visible to the naked eye, extrusive igneous METAMORPHIC ROCKS
rocks. — Extrusive
● Formed below earth’s surface
GLASSY: Natural glass with very few crystals — ● Process of metamorphism with the
Extrusive recrystallization of mineral in rocks
● Due to changes in pressure and temperature
PYROCLASTIC: Rock fragments primarily made up of conditions
volcanic materials — Extrusive ● Contact and Regional metamorphism

VESICULAR: Air bubbles trapped inside TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

CONTACT METAMORPHISM
● Heat and reactive fluids as main factors
● Pre-existing rock gets in contact with magma
(source of heat)
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 ● Where metamorphic alterations and ● Creates foliated metamorphic rocks
transformations occur around the
contact/metamorphic aureole of the intruding
magma and the rock layers
● Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
● When magma intrudes, it burns the pre-existing
rock and changes it with contact metamorphism

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
● Pressure as main factor
● Occurs in areas that have undergone
considerable amount of mechanical deformation
and chemical recrystallization during orogenic
event which are commonly associated with
mountain belts
● Occurs in a regional/large scale

LESSON 4: HAZARDS: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL PROCESS

Hydrometeorological phenomena ★ Amihan - Northeast Monsoon

★ Process or phenomenon of atmospheric,

hydrological or oceanographic nature Habagat

★ may cause loss of life, injury or other health ★ Warm and humid wind
impacts, property damage, loss of

☁️
livelihoods and services, socio economic ★ Cumulus Clouds (Individual cottony clouds
disruption, or environmental damage. like this )

1. Monsoon ★ Heavy Rains

★ Seasonal change of direction of the ★ Frequent Rainfall during this season

strongest winds of a region
★ STARTS: May
★ Causes wet & dry seasons in tropical areas.
★ ENDS: October
★ Blows wind from cold regions ➡ ️warm
regions.
Amihan
Monsoon Winds
★ Cold and dry
★ Habagat - Southwest Monsoon

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 ★ Cirrus Clouds (whispy, feathery, composed
of ice crystals) - baha

★ Light rains
★ Tornado
★ Cold weather
- ipo-ipo / buhawi
★ Moderate temp
- whirling funnel shaped cloud
★ Little to no rainfall
- develops low heavy
★ Air from Siberia cumulonumbus clouds

★ STARTS: November - lasts for a few seconds but does a lot of

damage (not a flex tape reference T-T)
★ ENDS: February

2. Tropical Cyclone ● Storm Surge

★ Cyclone - storms formed in the Indian - rising of the sea because of atmospheric
Ocean & Southwest Pacific pressure changes and wind
- hits Tacloban shorelines
★ Typhoon - forms in Northwest Pacific - rises up to 20 feet tall
- caused by strong hurricanes and storms
★ Hurricane - forms in the Atlantic

Damages
Tropical Cyclone
1. Human Consequences: Injury, Death,
★ Commonly used to describe cyclonic storms Health Related Problems
formed over tropical oceans
2. Economic Consequences: Damaged
★ Bagyo Properties

★ Accompanied by heavy rains 3. Environmental Degradation

★ May come with localized / widespread

flooding
STORM SURGE COLOR CODED WARNING
SYSTEMS:

TROPICAL CYCLONES MAY CAUSE: Red: TAKE ACTION - 3 meters above

- Catastrophic
★ Flood - Significant threat to life
- large amount of water covering an area of - Mandatory evacuation
land that’s usually dry
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Orange: ALARM - 1.1 to 3 meters above
- Expected WHAT TO DO DURING STORMS AND
- Could become life threatening STORM SURGES
- Marine activities must be cancelled - Evacuate if near shorelines
- Follow evacuation guidelines from local - Look for notice from news and warnings
authorities - Prepare and practice evacuations plans
- Prepare for storm seasons
Yellow: ALERT: 0.5 to 1 meter
- Possible WHAT TO DO DURING STORMS
- Stay away from the coast or beach If in shorelines:
- Preparation measures must be carried out - Evacuate immediately to safe places and in
assigned evacuation centers
Green: NO ALERT If in safe places:
- No action required - Stay in homes
- Watch or listen for further instructions and
announcements
COLOR CODED RAINFALL ADVISORIES AND
CLASSIFICATIONS WHAT TO DO AFTER A STORM
- Look for further announcements from
RED: Torrential government
- More than 30mm rain - If severely affected by the storm or
- 8 gallons per square meter/hour hurricane, look for relief goods if necessary.
- Serious flooding expected (low lying areas) - Look for help
- EVACUATE - Check injuries

ORANGE: Intense RECOMMENDATIONS

- 15-30mm rain - Fundraising for the affected areas
- 4-8 gallons per square meter/hour - Voluntary works for relief operations
- Flooding is threatening - Debriefing
- ALERT (possible evacuation) -

YELLOW: Heavy Coastal Processes and hazards

- 7.5-15mm rain - The Philippines has 7,107 islands and one
- 2 gallons per square meter/hour of the longest coastlines (36,289 km.)
- Flooding is possible - Coastlines are the natural boundary zone
- MONITOR the weather conditions between the land and ocean.
Coastline ecosystem is significant if it provides
the ff:
Moderate - Resources like marine plants, animals,
- 2.5-7.5mm rain crude oil,minerals, natural gas, and more.
- 2.5-7.5 liters per square meter/hour - Services like recreational, transportation,
- Flooding still possible in certain areas shoreline protection, source for renewable
energy.
Light Processes
- Less than 2.5mm rain - Coastal regions have changes such as
- 2.5 liters per square meter/hour erosion, submersion and salt intrusion.
- Flooding still possible in certain areas
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- Erosion, The wearing away of rocks at the Mitigation
crust. ( caused by waves or chemical - Political, Through legislation( proper zoning,
reaction) land use planning and more.)
- Submersion, wherein coastal sediments - Structural,The use of hard and soft
migrate from a beach's visible section to its structures. ( Breakwater, seawall, and
submerged nearshore region and then back groynes)
to the beach's visible section.
- Salt intrusion, Is the movement of saline Coastal vegetation
water into freshwater aquifers. - Used to muddy coastals or tidal zones of
estuaries.

LESSON 5: ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF LIFE

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Microbiology-Study of microscopic
Biology-a science that studies and deals organisms
with life.
Virology-study of viruses and viral
Ecology- the study of organisms and how diseases
they interact with the environment
Molecular biology-study of structure,
Taxonomy- study of classifications of composition, and function of cellular
organisms molecules

Zoology-Study of animals Parasitology-study of parasites

Ichthyology-study of fish Ornithology-study of birds

Cytology- study of Structure and Entomology-study of insects

functions of cells
Mycology-study of fungi
Genetics-study of genes and heredity
Morphology-study of the forms of living
Biotechnology-uses of microbiology in organisms
application to human lives and modify
cells and organisms

Embryology-study of the formation and THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Structure of the embryo or fetus

Anatomy-study of organism’s bodies and Divine creation theory-based on the

their parts book of genesis, it states that all created
by god. Life was put on earth by divine
Physiology-study of functions of body forces.
parts
Cosmozoic or interplanetary theory-life
was created by the very cosmos or life
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was created by life from another planets ● single circular DNA molecule (not
where life existed previously. associated w/histone proteins).
● No true sexual reproductio
Abiogenesis or spontaneous
combustion- This theory states that Eukaryotes
organisms Evolved and originated from ● Defined nucleus
inanimate or nonliving objects ● DNA stored as chromosomes (w/
histone proteins)
Big bang theory/physicochemical or ● Chromosomes regularly divide by
cosmological theory-heavenly bodies, Mitosis
including the earth, originated from a hot ● Flagella & cilia have 9-plus-2
rotating ball of gas and life was formed pattern of microtubules
from chemical evolution ● Specialized organelles
● Integrated multicellularity
● Sexual reproduction (different
MODERN CELL THEORY types)

1. All living things are made up of one

or more cells PROKARYOTES
2. Cell are the basic units of life and
all the chemical reactions of life BACTERIA
occur in cells ● occur in THREE basic shapes
3. All cells arise from pre-existing ● Spherical coccus
cells ● Rod-shaped bacillus
● Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or
CELL FRACTIONATION AND spirochete (if flexible)
DIFFERENTIAL CENTRIFUGATION
Cell Envelope includes:
● Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer
with imbedded and peripheral
protein
● Cell wall - maintains the shape of
the cell
EUKARYOTES

Domain Eukarya includes:

● Protist
PROKARYOTES VS EUKARYOTES
● Fungi
Prokaryotes ● Plants
● All Bacteria ● Animals
● No membrane bound organelles
● No microtubules Cells contain:
● No 9 plus 2 flagella, flagella are ● Membrane-bound nucleus that
single filaments houses DNA

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 ● Specialized organelles
● Plasma membrane OSMOSIS in plant and animal cells
● Much larger than prokaryotic cells
● Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have 1. Isotonic solution - there is the same
a cell wall concentration of solute and solvent inside
the cell as outside. Note: molecular
HYPOTHESIZED ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTIC movement tries to achieve a dynamic
CELLS equilibrium.

2. Hypotonic solution - the fluid outside

has a higher concentration of water
molecules ( or a lower concentration of
solute) than inside the cell so water will
flow into the cell

3. Hypertonic solution - the fluid outside

has a lower concentration of water
molecules ( or a higher concentration of
solute) than inside the cell so water will
flow out of the cell
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles
THE CELL BOUNDARY
● Eukaryotic cells are
compartmentalized • Plasma Membrane - selectively
● They contain small structures permeable membrane that is too thin to
called organelles see with compound microscope.
● Perform specific functions
● Isolates reactions from • Cell Wall - structure found around plant
others cells, fungi cells, and certain protists, as
7 well as prokaryotic cells. Located outside
● Two classes of organelles: of the plasma membrane and is composed
● Endomembrane system: primarily of cellulose (in plants).
● Organelles that communicate
with one another • Extracellular Matrix - composed of
● Via membrane channels molecules that serve to bind adjacent
● Via small vesicles cells. The material is a protein called
collagen and elastin in animals
● Energy related organelles
● Mitochondria & chloroplasts INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF CELLS
● Basically independent &
self-sufficient • Plasma Membrane - selectively
permeable membrane that is too thin to
see with compound microscope.
OSMOSIS

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 • Cell Wall - structure found around plant
cells, fungi cells, and certain protists, as • Extracellular Matrix - composed of
well as prokaryotic cells. Located outside molecules that serve to bind adjacent
of the plasma membrane and is composed cells. The material is a protein called
primarily of cellulose (in plants). collagen and elastin in animals

UNIFYING THEORIES OF BIOLOGY:

● CELL THEORY - All living organisms are CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING

composed of one (unicellar) or more cells THINGS/LIFE
(multicellar)
● BIOGENESIS - Life comes only from life ● Metabolism - involves the sum of all
● HOMEOSTASIS - Internal environment chemical reactions within an organism.
remains within a normal range ● Homeostasis - Living organisms maintain
● EVOLUTION - All living things have a internal stability by regulating their internal
common ancestor environment.
● GENE - Organisms contain coded ● Heredity - the passing of physical or mental
information that ditches their structure, characteristics genetically from one
function and behavior. generation to another.
● Reproduce - Living organisms have the
ability to reproduce, producing offspring that
are similar to themselves.
● Growth - Living organisms undergo growth,
which involves an increase in size or
number of cells.
● Cellular - Living things are composed of
cells, which are the basic structural and
functional units of life.
● Respond - Living things can respond to
stimuli from their external environment.

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 LESSON 6: GENETICS

GENETICS

GENETICS- It deals with the structure of genes, their hereditary functions, and their role in genetic variations in
living organisms.
The scientific study of genes and heredity—of how certain qualities or traits are passed from parents to
offspring as a result of changes in DNA sequence.

MENDELIAN GENETICS AND LAWS

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) - He is an Austrian ● Genotype of an organism refers to the

monk and was the first to elucidate the mechanism genetic makeup for a single trait of an
of heredity of traits. organism.

- HEREDITY is the genetic transmission of

traits from parents to offspring which can be
found in the ovum and sperm. ● Phenotype is the physical manifestation of
the combination of alleles
- CROSS POLLINATION- the process in
which Mendel removed the male organ of
the flower and dusted off pollen from
another flower. HYBRIDS- are true-breeding plants of different
characteristics
- DIPLOID (2N)- organism contains two
copies of each chromosomes ● Monohybrid Cross is when the two parent
plants differ from one another by one trait
- HAPLOID(N)- one set of chromosomes.
only.
- ALLELES- coded characteristics in genes
of genes in which it can exist in alternative
forms. ● Dihybrid Cross is one that crosses parents

- LOCUS- a pair of alleles resides in a differing in two traits rather than one

specific part of chromosomes. MENDELIAN GENETICS

CHROMOSOMES- genes that are packaged in experimental findings of Mendel on monohybrid

bundles. (XX- FOR WOMEN, XY FOR MEN) and dihybrid crosses to formulate basic principles.

● Genome is a complete set of DNA ( IT HAS 3 SECTIONS:)

necessary to build and maintain an
1. RULE OF DOMINANCE two forms of
organism
alleles, control the expression of a trait.
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 ● DOMINANT- Prevailing trait
● RECESSIVE- Hidden in this 3. Co-Dominance
generation. - The phenotype is affected by two
2. LAW OF SEGRAGATION- the two alleles dominant alleles in distinct, separate
for a trait separate from one another. ways.

3 BASIC TYPES OF SEGRAGATION:

4. Multiple Alleles
- Homozygous dominant - Most genes have more than two
- Heterozygous dominant allelic variants in populations.
- Homozygous recessive

3. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT 5. Pleiotropy

two or more traits are inherited, the genes - A characteristic of most genes is

for each trait independently separate from their many phenotypic effects.

one another. Multiple symptoms of some

hereditary disorders, like sickle-cell
METHODS IN PREDICTING HEREDITY
disease and cystic fibrosis, are
1. Punnet Square Method caused by pleiotropic alleles.
- By Reginald Punnett (1905)
- English biologist
6. Epistasis
- Method to predict the probabilities of
genotypes and phenotypes of the - A gene at one locus changes the
offspring of a particular cross expression of a gene at a second
locus in terms of phenotype.
2. Fork Method
- Another way to predict genotype and
phenotype ratios in dihybrid 7. Polygenic Inheritance
problems - Multiple gene variations can impact
a single phenotype.
PATTERN OF INHERITANCE (VIC)

1. Complete Dominance 8. Sex-Influenced Traits

- When the dominant homozygous - Are on autosomal chromosomes,
and heterozygous phenotypes are however the extent of which the
the same. genes can be expressed varies
depending on the sex of the
2. Incomplete Dominance organism.
- The phenotype of F1 hybrids lies in
between that of the two parental 9. Sex- linked Traits
kinds.

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 - Are encoded by genes with sex 2. Transcription
chromosomal locations. - the process of using DNA as a
template to synthesize messenger
RNA (mRNA).
10. Sex- limited Traits - DNA - mRNA
- Are expressed only in one sex and
3. Translation
are coded by autosomes.
- process of using information from
mRNA to synthesize protein.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - mRNA - Protein

● James Watson and Francis Crick

proposed the structure of DNA as two GENETIC ENGINEERING
chains of nucleotides that interact through
The modification of an organism’s genetic
their nitrogenous bases; Adenine, composition using biotechnology.
Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine.
● Double Helix is the twisted ladder structure Genetically modified or Transgenic organisms

with antiparallel directions (opposite). - contain genes from at least one unrelated
● Protein-synthesis Instructions have to be organism. (ex. Virus, bacteria, plant or
copied into RNA because only RNA can animal).
cross the barrier between the Nucleus
and the Cytosol and is the only format that
protein-making units use called
Ribosomes.

RNA
● Ribonucleic Acid
● Single strand
● Uses the same nitrogenous bases, but
instead of Thymine (T), it uses Uracil (U)
after transcription.

CENTRAL DOGMA

1. Replication
- process of copying the specific
structure of DNA to division
- DNA - DNA

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 APPLICATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA 5. Gene Therapy - A medical approach that treats
TECHNOLOGY
or prevents disease by correcting the
1. Agriculture and Industry - Improves plant underlying genetic problem, The use of rDNA
growth by increasing nitrogen fixation technology in conjunction with humans and
efficiencies, by cloning bacterial genes, and other mammals is referred to as gene therapy.
inserting them into plant cells. Other plants Gene therapy can be classified into two
have been engineered to be resistant to categories, germinal and somatic.
caterpillar, pests, and viruses by inserting
● Somatic gene therapy: transfer of a section
resistant genes into plant genomes.
of DNA to any cell of the body that doesn't
produce sperm or eggs.
2. Medicine and Research - Involves using ● Germline gene therapy: transfer of a section
enzymes and various laboratory techniques to of DNA to cells that produce eggs or sperm
manipulate and isolate DNA segments of
interest. This method can be used to combine 6. Pharmacogenetics - The identification of gene

(or splice) DNA from different species or to variants (alleles) that influence drug metabolism is

create genes with new functions. The resulting one of the goals of pharmacogenetics, a field of

copies are often referred to as recombinant study focused on understanding the genetic basis

DNA. for differences in drug response among individuals.

The appeal of pharmacogenetics lies in the
3. Human Genome – Uses enzymes and various possibility of personalized medicine.
laboratory techniques to manipulate and isolate
DNA segments of interest. This method can be
SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
used to combine (or splice) DNA from different
species or to create genes with new functions. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The resulting copies are often referred to as
In charge of protecting our body from the
recombinant DNA.
ambient surroundings.
4. Detection and Diagnosis of Diseases - The
Cutaneous breathing – prevents microorganisms
identification of molecular defects in man that
from coming in.
account for heritable diseases, somatic
mutations associated with neoplasia, and PARTS OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
acquired infectious disease. Thus recombinant
1. Invertebrate Integument – consists of plasma
DNA technology has rapidly expanded our
membrane that separates them from their aqueous
ability to diagnose disease.
environment

● Epidermis- layered type of

integument with the appearance.

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 ● Procuticle and epicuticle- for - The pharynx or throat- allows for the
insect or arthropod. passage of air from the nasal cavity.

2. Vertebrate Integument – have two distinct

layers in their integuments: thin outer and thick
- The larynx, or voice box - for us to speak
layer.
and make sounds.
● Dermis – thick layer compromised mostly
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
of fibrous connective tissue.
air enters the larynx, it continues down into the
lower respiratory tract, which begins with the
● Epidermis – acts as a barrier that trachea.
protects the body from ultraviolet
- trachea, or windpipe- is the passage that
allows air to flow directly to the lungs .

● Keratin- the cells in the outermost layer.

- bronchi or tubes- lead into each lung.

These bronchi then continue to branch off
● Melanin- most common animal pigment is
into smaller bronchioles.
black or brown

- alveoli, or air sacks that are responsible

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
for the exchange of oxygen and carbon
It is responsible for the exchange of carbon dioxide.
dioxide and oxygen in the human body.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT begins with

● Provides a basic foundation that allows for
the sinuses and nasal cavity, both of which are in
both hydrostatic and rigid movement.
the area behind the nose.

- Nasal cavity- the area directly behind the - Hydrostatic - the muscles
nose that allows outside air into the body. surrounding the coelom and the
bodily fluids of soft-bodied animals.
- Rigid - contains rigid components
- Sinuses - help to regulate air temperature
that act as muscle attachment
as you breathe.
points.
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 protrusion into structures known as
Two Types of Rigid Skeleton pseudopodia.

● Exoskeletons - Often seen in invertebrates. Cilia and Flagella

Outermost region of the body, serving as - Numerous small, hair-like protrusions called
both an anchor point for internal cilia are present on the cell's surface and
muscles and a shield against harm to the beat constantly. Each cell's pole has
organism. structures called flagella, which resemble
● Endoskeletons - Usually seen in whips. It is also in charge of motion that
echinoderms and vertebrates. resembles waves.

Muscles
Two main division: - Is in charge of the majority of multicellular
creatures' bodily movement. It is made up of
● Axial Skeleton - skull, vertebral column and cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscles.
ribs.
● Appendicular Skeleton - lower limbs Types of Muscles:
(pelvic girdle), and upper limbs (pectoral
girdle). 1. Skeletal Muscle
- Arranged into large bundles and
joined to the skeleton.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
2. Cardiac Muscle
- The tissue found inside the walls of
● Molecular level through the actin-myosin
the heart resembles skeletal muscle
system of contractile proteins.
in structure, with a few intercalated
discs.
- Actin - is the cytoskeletal support.
- Myosin - is the motor protein that
3. Smooth Muscle
binds to actin.
- Smaller than cardiac and skeletal
muscles. Usually present in
Amoeboid Movement supporting structures that require
- the crawling motion observed by unicellular long, gentle motions.
creatures like amoebas. This kind of
mobility makes use of the cytoplasm's

16
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - Large intestine
- 5 to 7ft long muscular tube
- Digestive tract - Connects small intestine to the
- Long twisting tube that starts from the rectum
mouth and ends at the anus
8. Rectum
- Made up of muscles that coordinates the - 8 inch chamber
food and other cells that produce enzymes - Connects colon to the anus
and hormones to aid in the breakdown of
9. Anus
food - Large part of the digestive tract
- consists of the muscles that line the
Parts of the Digestive System pelvis (pelvic floor muscles)
- consists also of 2 other muscles
called “anal sphincters” (internal and
1. Mouth
external
- Beginning of the digestive system
- Digestion starts here before you
Accessory Digestive Organs
even take the first bite
- Smell of food triggers the salivary
1. Pancreas
glands in your mouth to secrete
- Chief factory for digestive enzymes
saliva, causing your mouth to water
that are secreted into the duodenum
- These enzymes break down protein,
2. Pharynx
fats, and carbohydrates
- receives from the mouth
2. Liver
3. Esophagus
- Purifies this blood of many impurities
- Carries food to the stomach
before travelling to the rest of the
body
- Main Function: make and secrete
4. Trachea or Windpipe
an important substance called bile
- carries air to the lungs
- Main Function: to process the
blood coming from the small
5. Stomach
intestine containing the nutrients just
- Secretes acid and powerful enzymes
absorbed
that continue the process of
breaking the food down and
changing it to a consistency of liquid
3. Gallbladder
or paste
- Storage sac for excess bile
- If the intestine doesn't need it, the
bile travels into the gallbladder,
6. Small Intestine
where it awaits the signal from the
- ‘Workhorse’ of digestion
intestines that food is present
- Where most nutrients are absorbed
- Main Purpose: helps absorb fats in
- Made up of 3 segments
the diet
- Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

7. Colon
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 - Main Purpose: carries waste from - Are used for grinding food
the liver that cannot go through the into smaller pieces
kidneys
3. Fluid Feeding
Feeding and Digestion - Used by parasites to procure food

1. Particulate Feeding a. Endoparasites

- Once food particles are in the - Live inside their hosts and
mouth, mucus shoots out to trap and absorb the nutrients in its
convey the food into its digestive location
tract
b. Ectoparasites
a. Filter Feeding - Have specialized structures
- Used by animals possessing to pierce or rasp the skin in
filtering structures in their order to draw blood from the
mouths host
- ex. Giant Clam - ex. Leeches and Mosquitoes

b. Deposit Feeding Steps in Digestion

- Employed by some animals
that feed on disintegrated 1. Ingestion
organic materials called - Involves the structures that
detritus specialize in procuring food and
- ex. Crab swallowing, primarily the mouth
- Enclosing the buccal cavity and the
2. Bulk Feeding pharynx of throat
- Primary need to obtain food by the - Tongue manipulates the food for
most effective means has served as mastication as well as swallowing
a major driving force in evolution - Trachea is the tube that leads to the
lungs and is closed by a thin flap
a. Mastication (chewing) cartilage called “epiglottis”
- Process of crushing and
grinding food with the use of 2. Conduction
teeth - Masticated food
- ‘Bolus’
b. Incisors - Conducted towards the stomach
- Front teeth, with sharp and through esophagus
thin edges adapted for
cutting food 3. Digestion
- begins in the mouth with the initial
c. Canines breakdown of carbohydrates by the
- Used for grasping and salivary enzymes such as amylase
piercing the food - In the stomach where bolus is
mixed with digestive juices and is
d. Premolars & Molars churned continually to produce a
- Flat surface soup-like mass called “chyme”

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 4. Absorption
Direct exchange of Exchange of materials
- Small intestine is a coiled structure materials between through capillaries
that functions to complete the tissues and blood. embedded in the
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, tissues.
and fats
- To absorb the nutrients obtained Circulating fluid is Circulating fluid is
called hemolymph called blood.
from these molecules for transport to
(mix of fluid plasma
other tissue and hemocytes; no
RBC)
5. Elimination
- Colon is tasked with recovering the
water that has been used as solvent Parts of the Circulatory System
in the digestive juices
1. Arteries

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - these carry blood that is rich in

oxygen from the heart and through
- it is also know as the Cardiovascular
the body.
System, and it is a vast network of organs
and blood vessels.
Open and Closed Circulatory System
2. Veins
- these cary blood that is poor in
1. Open Circulatory System
oxygen and leads them back to the
- common to Molluscs and
heart.
Arthropods.
- pumps blood into a hemocoel with
3. Heart
the blood diffusing back to the
- a muscular organ which has four
circulatory system between cells.
chambers
- it is located behind and slightly left
2. Closed Circulatory System
of the breastbone.
- common to Vertabrates and some
Invertebrates
- blood is pumped by a heart through
4. Aorta
vessels
- main artery that carries oxygenated
blood from the heart to the rest of
OPEN CIRCULATION CLOSED the body.
CIRCULATION

Blood flows at low Blood flows apidly due

velocity and low to pressence of
pressure. muscles and contractile
blood vessels.

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 5. Superior and Inferior Vena Cava pinkish/reddish purple;
- main veins that carry deoxygenated 10-12 μm in diameter.
blood from the upper and lower parts - phagotcytizes
of your body to the heart. microorganisms and other
- Superior = UPPER BODY; Inferior substances
= LOWER BODY b. Basophil
- Inferioir Vena Cava is the largest - Nucleus with two distinct
vein in your body. lobes; cytoplasmic granules
stain blue-purple, 10-12 μm
6. Blood in diameter.
- is a specialized body fluid - releases histamine, which
- It has four main components: promotes inflammation, and
plasma, red blood cells, white
heparin, which prevents
blood cells, and platelets.
- transporting oxygen and nutrients to clot formation
the lungs and tissues. forming blood
clots to prevent excess blood loss.

Formed Elements of the Blood

c. Eosinophil
1. Red Blood Cell - Nucleus often bilobed,
- Biconcave disc; no nucleus; contains cytoplasmic granules stain
hemoglobin, which colors the cell orange-red or bright red;
red; 6.5-8.5 μm (micrometers) in 11-14 μm in diameter.
diameter. - participates in inflammatory
- transports oxygen and carbon response of allergic
dioxide reactions and asthma;
attacks certain worm
2. White Blood Cells parasites.
- spherical cells with nucleus
- five types with specific functions Agranulocytes
a. Lymphocyte
Granulocytes - Round nucleus, cytoplasm
a. Neutrophil forms a thin ring around
- Nucleus with two or four the nucleus, 6-14 μm in
lobes connected by thin diameter.
filaments; cytoplasmic - produces antibodies and
granules stain a light other chemicals responsible

20
 for destroying - collects deoxygenated blood from
microorganisms, contributes various parts of the body with the
to allergic reactions, graft help of Vena Cava and pours the
rejection, tumor control same into the right ventricle.
and regulation of immune
system. 2. Right Ventricle
- receives deoxygenated blood
from Right Atrium and transports it
to the lungs for oxygenation.
b. Monocyte
- Round, kidney-shaped, or 3. Left Atrium
horseshoe-shaped; - receives oxygenated blood from
contains more cytoplasm the lungs through the Pulmonary
than lymphocyte, 12-20 μm Vein and transports it to the Left
in diameter Ventricle.
- phagocytic cell in the blood,
leaves the blood and 4. Left Ventricle
becomes a macrophage - received oxygenated blood from
which fights foreign Left Atrium and pumps it back to
microorganisms, dead the body through the Aorta.
cells, cell fragments, and
other debris.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
3. Platelets
Nervous system - The nervous system has two
- Cell fragment surrounded by a
major parts: the central nervous system (CNS)
plasma membrane and containing and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
granules; 2-4 μm in diameter
● The central system is the primary
- forms platelet plugs, releases
command centre for the body, and
chemicals necessary for blood comprises the brain and spinal cord.
clotting. - The brain is protected by the skull (the
cranial cavity) and the spinal cord travels
from the back of the brain, down the center
Chambers of the Heart of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region
(sequenced; deoxygenated blood - oxygenated of the lower back.
blood)

1. Right Atrium/Auricle

21
 ● The peripheral nervous system consists - they include lymphocytes such as
of a network of nerves that connects the B-cells, T-cells, and many other
rest of the body to the CNS.
types of immune cells.
The PNS can also be subdivided into smaller 2. Antibodies
components: the somatic and autonomic
- proteins that protect you when an
systems.
unwanted substance enters your
- The somatic involves parts of the body a body.
person can command at will, and the
- they bind to these unwanted
autonomic helps run involuntary functions
such as pumping blood. substances in order to eliminate
them from your system.
3. Complement System
IMMUNE SYSTEM - a system of plasma proteins that
can be activated directly by
- Is a complex network of cells and proteins pathogens or indirectly by
that defends the body against infection. It pathogen-bound antibody, leading
keeps record of every germ (microbe) is has to a cascade of reactions that
ever defeated so it can recognize and occurs on the surface of pathogens
destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the and generates active components
body again. with various effector functions.
- Abnormalities of the Immune System can
lead to allergic reactions. 4. Lymphatic System
- is a network of delicate tubes
Parts of the Immune System throughout the body.
- it’s functions are: manage the fluid
1. White Blood Cells levels in the body, react to bacteria,
- they are the key players in the deal with cancer cells, deal with cell
Immune System. products that would result in
- made in the Bone Marrow and are disease, and absorb some of the
part of the Lymphatic System fats in our diet.
- they move through blood and
tissue throughout the body, looking Lymph Nodes
for invaders and other foreign - also called lymph glands which trap
microorganisms. microbes.
- launches immune attacks when
encountering foreign objects. Lymph Vessels

22
 - tubes that carry lymph, a colorless fluid that diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus,
bathes your body’s tissues and contains rheumatoid arthritis and systemic vasculitis.
infection-fighting WBC.
1. Arise as a result of Medical Treatment
5. Spleen - this can occur due to medications
- blood-filtering organ that removes such as corticosteroids or
microbes and destroys old or chemotherapy.
damaged red blood cells.
6. Bone Marrow 2. Caused by other diseases
- soft, fatty tissue inside of the - diseases such as HIV/AIDS or
bones in your body. certain types of cancer.
- contains cells that produce blood
cells and platelets and it is
responsible for making billions of 3. Allergic Diseases
new blood cells each day - where the Immune System makes
an overly strong response to
allergens.
7. Thymus - Allergens can include food,
medications, or stinging insects
Immune Responses in the Body - responses include anaphylaxis
(life-threatening allergy), hay fever
Skin (allergic rhinitis), sinus disease,
- a waterproof barrier that secrets oil with asthma, hives (urticaria), dermatitis
bacteria-killing properties. and eczema.
Lungs
- mucous in the lungs (phlegm) traps foreign - An underactive immune system does not
particles, and cilia wave the mucous function correctly and makes people
upwards to it can be coughed out. vulnerable to infections. This can be
caused by smoking, alcohol, poor
Autoimmune Diseases nutrition, and through diseases that target
- where the Immune System mounts a the Immune system such as AIDS.
response against normal components of the
body. - Immunoglobulins (antibodies) are used to
- Autoimmune diseases range from common treat people who are unable to make
to rare. They include multiple sclerosis, enough of their own, or whose antibodies
autoimmune thyroid disease, type 1

23
 do not work properly. This is known as
Immunoglobulin Therapy.

- Immunization works by copying the

body’s natural immune response. A
vaccine (a small amount of a specially
treated virus, bacterium, or toxin) is injected
into the body. The body then learns and
makes antibodies to combat it in the
future. If a vaccinated person is exposed to
the actual virus, bacterium, or toxin, they
won’t get sick because their Immune
System is able to recognize it and is
prepared to fight it off without expending
much energy.

carbon dioxide and oxygen in the human body.

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