Q:1 Who was Robert Clive?

[4]
Ans.
He was hired as a clerk by the East India Company but soon he joined the Company
army and earned fame as a brilliant commander. In 1751, he gained his first victory by
defeating the Nawab of Carnatic/Karnataka in the battle of Arcot. In June 1757, his army
defeated the Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula in the Battle of Plassey and became the governor of
Bengal. His next victories were in the battle of Pondicherry against the French in 1761, and
Buxar against the Indians, in 1764. He faced trial in England, and though equitted, he
committed suicide in 1774.
Q:2 What was the ‘Black Hole Tragedy’? [4]
Ans.
Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula decided to punish the British after they had started fortifying
themselves at important posts in Calcutta (Kolkata) in violation of their treaty with him. He
marched on Calcutta and seized the Company’s Fort William in June 1756. The 64 captured
British residents were locked up in a small room where 23 of them were found dead the
following morning. This was used by Robert Clive as an excuse to whip up anger against the
Nawab. Clive’s army defeated and killed the Nawab in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
Q:3 Who was Tipu Sultan? [4]
Ans.
Tipu was the Sultan of Mysore in southern India from 1782 to 1799 and was a
formidable enemy of the British. The EIC maligned his conduct by declaring him “the monster
of Mysore”. He was helped by the French and defeated the British in the 2nd Anglo-Mysore
War, and forced the British to accept the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. The EIC defeated him
in the 3rd Anglo-Mysore War in 1789. Lord Wellesley’s army defeated and killed him in the 4th
Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 in his fort of Seringapatam.
Q. 4 Was British expansion in India the most important reason for the decline
of the Mughal Empire? Explain your answer. (14)
Ans.
The British East India Company (EIC) reached India in 1600 AD when the Mughal
Empire was nearing its peak. The British had primarily come for trade in India. Initially, their
trade benefited Indians, too, but gradually the British began to enjoy monopoly on trade. With
time, the money thus earned was used to manufacture more sophisticated weapons. Being
the first beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution, they had more advanced weapons and were
gifted with superior military skills. With this they had a strong sense of success. The Mughals,
on the other hand, did not excel in science and technology. Moreover, the inherent disunity
among Indians was also exploited by the British. In the 18th century, many provinces had
broken away from the central Mughal authority.
Gradually, the British were able to keep their own armies and expand their influence
over various Indian territories that were previously part of the Mughal Empire. Their major
victories started decades after the death of Aurangzeb. They defeated the Indians in such
major battles as Plassey in 1757, Buxar in 1764 and Mysore in 1799 greatly reduced the
Mughal control over various strategic parts of India. However, there were many other reasons for
the decline of the mighty Mughal rule.
Rise of Marathan power also contributed to the Mughal decline. The Maratha Empire was
founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They defeated the
Mughal army in 1737 outside Delhi. During the first six decades of the 18th century, they were
the most powerful and established community in India that was ready to fill in the power
vacuum created by the declining Mughal rule. Aurangzeb spent about 25 years in the Deccan
desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state treasury almost
empty and this added to his difficulties.
Historians also blame the prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who
adopted strict measures against the non-Muslims. He imposed the tax Jiziya on the non-
Muslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar. He also demolished a number of Hindu
temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. He banned many activities such as
painting, music, drinking, gambling and dance that had been part of the Indian culture and
society. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee, burning widow alive on the cremation
of her husband. In order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed heavy
taxes. As a result, his successors found it quite difficult to rule the empire.
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and
paid little attention to the defence and consolidation of the empire. They became morally
corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of
the huge empire. This complacence is the usual result of continued successes of major
empires, and the Mughals were no exception to this. Negligence of the weak later Mughals
to the state affairs also contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire. The Mughals did not have a
definite law of succession. On the death of an emperor,the princes got engaged in conspiracies,
intrigues and making loyal groups that always led to regicidal wars of succession. Success of a
candidate often depended on the support he could get from the military and ministers. Thus, state
resources were wasted on mutual fights
instead of public welfare and defence of the empire.
Aurangzeb had divided the whole empire between his three sons in order to prevent
a war of succession. However, the three princes began to fight, and eventually, Prince
Muazzam established himself as Emperor. Only after a few years, his four sons fought over
the throne, but the victor, Jahandar Shah was murdered within a year. So, in the ten years
after Aurangzeb’s death, twelve different people claimed to be Emperor at one time. This
greatly destabilized the huge Mughal Empire.
It may be concluded that the British expansion played the decisive role in the decline
of the Mughal rule. British outsmarted the Mughals in military, trade, politics and social
spheres of life. Their exploitative policies remained unnoticed by the Mughals till the British
had established themselves in several parts of India.
Q.5 Why were British able to expand their control over India between
1750 and 1850?
British expanded their influence in India quite skillfully between 1750 and 1850. They
gained strength primarily due to the major victories like the battles of Plassey (1757) and
Buxar (1764) in Bengal, and the Anglo-Mysore wars. They utilized every possible way to win
the battles. They bribed Mir Jaffar of Nawab Siraj ud Daula, and Mir Sadiq of Tipu Sultan to
gain victories in northern and southern India. Finally, they captured Sindh, the Punjab and
Kashmir from 1843 to1849. These victories gave them huge and rich areas to rule and to
exploit local resources to strengthen their position. They built railways to facilitate movement
of soldiers more quickly and easily to various parts of India. With this trade also began to
flourish making them richer and stonger.
While getting control of the conquered states the EIC began to enforce British system
of administration. This comprised the system of judiciary and governors and the Governor
General. The early Governor-Generals tried to win the Indian confidence by various steps.
Under the Charter Act 1833, the Indians were gradually included in the Civil Services. Thus,
a team of obedient Indians was gradually prepared. This helped the EIC to run the state
affairs along the British lines. The EIC also introduced trade laws that favoured its imports
and exports as well as local trade. The revenue collected from India was cleverly spent by
the British to buy and ship the local goods to England.
British also had superior military skills and more advanced weapons to which Indian
Army was no match. British were the most important beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution
as they began to develop highly advanced weapons. Their gun powder weapons were much
more destructive than the orthodox arsenal of India. The Indians did not develop a modern
navy agains the British. Their disunity was closely observed and exploited by the British who
kept them divided by such tactics as the subsidiary alliances introduced by Lord Wellesley in
1798. This enabled them to win the support of several smaller states of India. This way they
utilized their famous ‘divide and rule policy’ to strengthen their control over India.
Q:6 Why did British government take control from the EIC? [7]
Ans:
British government wanted to make India its colony. It knew that political affairs of the
Indian Sub-Continent could no longer be run by a trading company. In a way it was becoming
a matter of prestige for the British government. Therefore, by passing a series of acts, the
powers of the EIC were gradually restricted. Under the Regulating Act of 1773, the EIC was
made accountable to the British Parliament. A Governor General, Warren Hastings, was
appointed for the province of Bengal.
There were also reports of mismanagement and corruption by the EIC officials, in
Bengal and other provinces. The Company officials forced the newly appointed Nawab ofBengal
to give heavy bribe to them in the form of gifts. They were involved in financial
embezzlement of the revenue of the states they had annexed. This was damaging the repute
of the British government. In 1784, the British Government passed the India Act and took
direct control of the Indian possessions. It appointed a Governor General who would have
control of the three presidencies: Bengal, Bombay and Madras. New posts of Commanderin-
Chief of the armed forces, and provincial governor were created. So, in 1813, the EIC lost
its monopoly, though it continued to trade in India. Other British companies also wanted to
share in the profits of India.
British also wanted to deploy a regular army on the north-western border to counter
the Russian threat. Russia had been desperately looking for access to the warm water sea.
By way of Afghanistan, it could invade India to reach the ports of the Indian Ocean as
Afghanistan had been used by several earlier invaders as a springboard to attack India.
Therefore, in order to keep Russia from any such adventure the British government had to
take control from the EIC.
Q.7 What were the Anglo-Mysore wars? [4]
Ans.
These were four wars fought between the rulers of Mysore and the allied forces of the
EIC, the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad. Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore, and his son
Tipu Sultan fought from 1769 to 1799. The last war in 1799 marked the end of the House of
Hyder Ali and Tipu. These victories gave the British control of a huge territory of southern
India.
Q. 8 How did Robert Clive lay the foundation of for British rule in India? [7]
Ans.
Clive made to fortify various military posts in Calcutta. This was a violation of an
agreement with the Nawab of Bengal, Suraj ud Daula. The angry Nawab imprisoned several
British in a small dungeon in the summer heat of June 1756. In the following morning, 24 of
the 63 prisoners were found dead due to suffocation. This Black Hole tragedy gave Clive an
excuse to attack Bengal.
Clive defeated a huge army of the Nawab in the historic battle of Plassey by bribing
Mir Jafar, the key commander of Siraj ud Daula. This victory gave the EIC control over the
resources of Bengal. Valuable goods like salt, betel nut, tobacco and saltpetre were shipped
to England in bulk. Thus began unchecked exploration of Indian resources. Clive and his
team made plenty of money from this trade. Clive’s victory in the battle of Buxar in 1764 made
British the rulers of northeastern India.
Clive was made first governor of Bengal in recognition of his services for the EIC. He
received heavy amounts of wealth from the newly appointed puppet Nawab Mir Qasim . This
wealth was kept by himself and given to the EIC officials, too. Though accused by the
members of the British parliament of accepting bribes, Clive had laid a strong foundation of
the British rule in one of the richest provinces of India. The upcoming British officers continued
to strengthen the British rule over India.
Q:9 What happened at the Battle of Kanpur? [4]
Ans.
In November-December 1857, the rebels led by Nana Sahib Peshwa, captured
Kanpur, near Lucknow and held it out for three weeks. They killed the British officers and
slaughtered 300 women and children while taking several as captives. The British sent
reinforcements and recaptured the city. Nana Sahib escaped. The captured rebels were
given horrible punishments in revenge.
Q:10 Who was Rani of Jhansi/Lakshmibai? [4]
Ans:
Her name was Laxmibai, and was queen of the North Indian state of Jhansi.In the
initial phase of the War of Independence, she remained friendly with the British. Relations,
however, got strained soon after the British regained control of Lucknow. She led rebel
sepoys, assisted by another Indian general Tatya Topi, against the British. The British, led by
Major Hugh Rose, attacked Jhansi, in March 1858. She escaped to Gwalior and was finally,
killed in her last battle, in June 1858.
Q.11 Who was Mangal Panday? [4]
Ans.
Mangal Panday was the famoud Indian sepoy in the Bengal Native Infantry of the
EIC. He defied the British officers in March 1857, mobilized many rebels for the 1857 war.
He attacked and wounded the British Gen. Baugh and then another office Hewson. The
matter was reported to Gen. Hearsey who immediately controlled the situation. Mangal
Panday was trialed and executed on 8 April 1857. With this, the War of Independence began
and spread to many parts of India.
Q:12 The war of Independence was caused by the introduction of social
reforms by the British. Do you agree? Explain. [14]
Ans:
Social reforms were resented by the Indians. British introduced a series of social
reforms most of which were disliked by the Indians. When the Hindu custom of Sattee was
banned and remarriage of the widow was encouraged the Hindus reacted strongly. In Sattee
the widow was burned alive in the cremation ceremony of her dead husband. Most of the
widowed women in Hindu community were supposed not to remarry. Therefore, when British
changed these traditions, Hindus took this step as interference in their religious traditions.
Similarly the introduction of the co-education system and a discouraging attitude of the
observance of Hijab/Purda was resisted by the Muslims for whom these steps were against
their socio-religious traditions.
British started a number of social development schemes such as roads, railways and
telecommunications. Though they benefitted India in general, many in the north-western parts
of India thought that British had introduced the railway system only to ensure quick movement
of troops in case of Russian attack through Afghanistan.
Westernization of Indian educational system was also not welcomed by a majority of
Indians because of Lord Macaulay’s contemptuous remarks about the Indian educational
standard. When English began to replace Urdu and Hindi as the official language, in 1834,
both Hindus and Muslims opposed this as they took such measures as an onslaught on local
cultural traditions. Generally, the British were derogatory towards Indians.
Growth of the activities of the Christian missionaries during the second half of 19th
century also promoted a sense of insecurity among Indians specially when there were reports
of forcible conversion of Indians into Christianity. Christian missionaries were active at all
public places like, schools, parks, markets and they believed it was their duty to impose a
superior culture and religion on all Indians.
In military affairs too, the British officers treated Indian subordinates in an arrogant
way and they were denied any promotion regardless of their services for the British. Indian
sepoys were given lesser salaries as compared to the British soldiers. This inculcated hatred
and frustration among Indians. When an ordinance was issued about the services of Indians
anywhere in the world, both Hindus and the Muslims felt offended. According to Hindu belief,
a caste Hindu would become a Sudra if he travelled overseas. Muslim troops were reluctant
to fight the fellow Afghan Muslim troops in the Company’s army.
British policy of annexation was also very alarming for Indians, specially the way the
Doctrine of lapse was enforced in 1852 by Lord Dalhousie. Under this, any state whose ruler
didn’t have a son was annexed by the EIC. States of Nana Sahib Peshwa (Kanpur) and Rani
of Jhansi were unjustly annexed as both had sons. Many states were annexed by force or on
weak pretexts such as Sindh and Bengal. After entering Delhi in 1803, the EIC shifted the
Mughal royal family from the Red Fort to Qutub Sahib. This too promoted anger among
Indians.
Heavy taxation on Indians and exploitation of local raw materials and wealth for the
British factories in England was another major reason. As factory made better cotton began
to replace the local hand processed cotton, millions of hand weavers of cotton were rendered
jobless and suffered from starvation and died.
Finally, by the start of 1857, new cartridges for the Enfield rifles were introduced. It
was rumored that they were wrapped in the fat of cow and pig and they had to be chewed
out before use. Hindus accorded motherly status to cows whereas for Muslims pig was Haram
(forbidden). So, both Hindu and Muslim troops refused to use these cartridges. Mangal
Panday was the first soldier to have refused them in March 1857 and with this the revolt
spread to other parts of India.
It seems the introduction of social reforms was the most important reason because
the social and cultural values were very dear to Indians who took them as the first and
mostimportant mark of their identity. So, when the EIC tried to change them the Indian reaction
was in proportion to the British efforts.
Q:13 To what extent were economic reforms the main cause of the War
of Independence in 1857? Explain your answer. [10]
Ans:
Economic exploitation of India by the British was a major reason of the War of
Independence. In the beginning the British traders conducted trade in a way that
benefited Indians, too. However, as they got control of several Indian states, they
introduced new trading laws and revenue reforms that were aimed at exploiting Indian
resources and wealth. They imposed heavy taxes on Indian peasants and small
landowners to fill their treasury. Lord Warren Hastings introduced the concept of
putting the tax collectors up for auction. This tempted many locals to acquire the post
by paying heavy money to the Company. Once the ambitious candidates got the
desired position of tax collector, they would use all tactics to extort taxes from the
Indians. This resulted in poverty and starvation among Indians that whipped up anger
and resentment against the British with the passage of time. Moreover, exploitation
of local raw materials and wealth for the British factories in England was also noticed
with great concern by the Indians. As factory made better cotton began to replace the
local hand processed cotton, millions of hand weavers of cotton were rendered
jobless and suffered from starvation and died.
Social reforms were resented by the Indians. British introduced a series of social
reforms most of which were disliked by the Indians. When the Hindu custom of Sattee
was banned and remarriage of the widow was encouraged the Hindus reacted
strongly. In Sattee the widow was burned alive in the cremation ceremony of her dead
husband. Most of the widowed women in Hindu community were supposed not to
remarry. Therefore, when British changed these traditions, Hindus took this step as
interference in their religious traditions. Similarly the introduction of the co-education
system and a discouraging attitude of the observance of Hijab/Purda was resisted by
the Muslims for whom these steps were against their socio-religious traditions.
British started a number of social development schemes such as roads, railways and
telecommunications. Though they benefitted India in general, many in the northwestern
parts of India thought that British had introduced the railway system only to
ensure quick movement of troops in case of Russian attack through Afghanistan.
Westernization of Indian educational system was also not welcomed by a majority of
Indians because of Lord Macaulay’s contemptuous remarks about the Indian
educational standard, when English began to replace Urdu and Hindi as the official
language, in 1834, both Hindus and Muslims opposed this as they took such
measures as an onslaught on local cultural traditions. Generally, the British were
derogatory towards Indians. Growth of the activities of the Christian missionaries during the
second half of 19th
century also promoted a sense of insecurity among Indians specially when there were
reports of forcible conversion of Indians into Christianity. Christian missionaries were
active at all public places like, schools, parks, markets and they believed it was their
duty to impose a superior culture and religion on all Indians. In military affairs too, the British
officers treated Indian subordinates in an arrogant
way and they were denied any promotion regardless of their services for the British.
Indian sepoys were given lesser salaries as compared to the British soldiers. This
inculcated hatred and frustration among Indians. When an ordinance was issued
about the services of Indians anywhere in the world, both Hindus and the Muslims felt
offended. According to Hindu belief, a caste Hindu would become Sudra if he travelled
overseas. Muslim troops were reluctant to fight the fellow Afghan Muslim troops in the
Company’s army.
British policy of annexation was also very alarming for Indians, specially the way the
Doctrine of lapse was enforced in 1852 by Lord Dalhousie. Under this, any state
whose ruler didn’t have a son was annexed by the EIC. States of Nana Sahib Peshwa
(Kanpur) and Rani of Jhansi were unjustly annexed as both had sons. Many states
were annexed by force or on weak pretexts such as Sindh and Bengal. After entering
Delhi in 1803, the EIC shifted the Mughal royal family from the Red Fort to Qutub
Sahib. This too promoted anger among Indians.
Finally, by the start of 1857, new cartridges for the Enfield rifles were introduced. It
was rumored that they were wrapped in the fat of cow and pig and they had to be
chewed out before use. Hindus accorded motherly status to cows whereas for
Muslims pig was Haram (forbidden). So, both Hindu and Muslim troops refused to use
these cartridges. Mangal Panday was the first soldier to have refused them in March
1857 and with this the revolt spread to other parts of India.
It seems the economic reforms became the main reason of the 1857 war because
with rising poverty, unemployment, hunger and starvation, the Indians felt themselves
being pushed to the wall. The cumulative anger and frustration finally burst into a
collective though desperate uprising against the British.
Q:14 Why did the Indians not achieve independence in 1857?
or
Explain the reasons for the failure of the War of Independence. (7)
Ans. Indians were disunited in the War. The divide between Hindus and Muslims was
visible as Hindus were not sincere in restoring the Mughal rule. In different places
different groups fought for different reasons, thus weakening their own strength. The
Punjab and Sindh had been recently annexed by the EIC with the help of troops from
Bengal and Central India. So, when the same troops rebelled against the British, the
two provinces were uninterested in helping the rebellion and the Punjab actually sent
troops and supplies to help the British. The Maharaja of Kashmir also sent troops for
the same purpose.
There was no general plan before the start of the War that started abruptly by the
defiance of a single soldier Mangal Panday. The rebels perhaps forgot that they were
fighting against a very strong nation and that required a well thought out war plan.
During the course of the War, this lack of planning and coordination became more
prominent as various rebel groups did not know how to proceed in case of any
success. This helped the British to regain their control within a year. Rebels began to
plunder their fellow countrymen after taking control of many cities. Thus the affected
people preferred to leak information to the British about the rebels.
The British had a professionally trained army with several experienced commanders
who had been trained to deal with such emergencies. They had been familiar with the
modern methods of fighting a huge army with a lesser number of troops. Moreover, the British
had a strong sense of success as they were one of the most powerful
nations of the world at that time. So, their confident and disciplined army took little
time in overcoming the revolt.
Q:15 What was the Aligarh Movement? [4]
Ans:
The efforts of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his colleagues for the collective social
economic and political uplift of the Indian Muslims is called the Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed
established the MAO School in 1876 which became a college in 1877. This was the nursery
for several future Muslim leaders of the Pakistan Movement. His Ghazipore Scientific Society
translated the modern English writings into Persian and Urdu.
Q. 16 What was Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory? [4]
Ans.
Sir Syed’s opposition to various Hindu demands became known as his two nation
theory. He opposed their demand of replacing Urdu with Hindi, and holding of elections on
the basis of joint electrorate. He also opposed the idea of competitive examinations for civil
services in India. He proposed a quota system in civil services, and separate electorate for
Muslims.
Q.17 What was the Indian National Congress? [4]
Ans.
It was set up as a political organization founded by Sir A.O. Hume and Sir Henry
Cotton in 1885. It claimed to represent all Indians, and convey their concerns to the British.
However, since its formation, it was dominated by the Hindu majority. In 1920, under the
leadership of Gandhi, it became a more organized political party. Jinnah joined it in 1906, but
feeling disappointed by its pro-Hindu agenda, and left it in 1920.
Q.18 Why did Sir Syed present his Two Nation Theory? (7)
Ans. Sir Syed opposed a number of Hindu demands. In 1867, Hindus demanded that Hindi
should be declared the official language of India in place of Urdu that enjoyed the
same status since 1825. Urdu, written in Persian-Arabic script was one of the marks
of cultural identity of Muslims. Hindi, with its Devanagri script, reflected the future
plans of Hindu Raj over India. Sir Syed strongly opposed this demand and predicted
that in future there might be separation between Hindus and Muslims.
In the 1880’s, the Hindu-dominated INC (Indian National Congress) made two more
demands that were apparently democratic but in reality against the interest of
Muslims. It demanded that elections of the councils in India should be held on the
basis of modern Western democracy. Sir Syed countered this demand by saying that
Hindus, being a majority, and politically more vibrant, might win election on all seats.
He suggested the idea of separate electorates for Muslims.
Finally, he opposed another demand of the Congress that asked for the competitive
examinations for the Civil Services in India. He knew that Hindus were far more
educated than Muslims and therefore, there was little chance for Muslims to get any
seat in the Civil Services. He argued that only when equal educational opportunities
were provided to both the communities could such an idea work.
Q.19 Why did Sir Syed try to improve relations between the Muslims and
the British? (7)
Ans. Muslims became the target of the British anger and wrath after the 1857 War. Hindus
had very cleverly put the blame on Muslims and it was easier for the British to punish
a minority. British had replaced Muslims as the new rulers of India but Muslims still
carried a sense of imperial pride due to their glorious past. It was important for them
to accept the drastically changed political scenario of India. He also tried to change
the British mind in favour of Muslims. For this he wrote two pamphlets: “Essays on
the Causes of Indian Revolt” and “Loyal Muhammadens of India”.
Sir Syed knew that Muslims could hope for an improved socio-economic status only
by making friends with the British who had complete political control of India. If
Muslims distanced themselves from the British, they would continue to remain a
backward and poor community. By improving relations with the British, Muslims had
a better opportunity to get better jobs.
Moreover, Hindus had already started improving their relations with the British
because for them it was only a matter of changed rulers. They began to acquire
modern British education which most of the Muslims considered un-Islamic. Sir Syed
knew that this would cause a growing social and economic disparity between Hindus
and Muslims and this would bring more troubles for the Muslims. He wanted Muslims
to change their orthodox views about the British and their modern education system.
Q:20 Was the Two Nation Theory the most important contribution of Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan towards the welfare of Muslims? (14)
Ans:
Sir Syed was a great reformer. His views about the possibility of the parting of ways
of Hindus and Muslims became known as the Two Nation Theory'. In 1867, he was shocked
over the Hindu demand of making Hindi as the official language of India. Being a far-sighted
leader, he opposed it as he could sense the Hindu aims about the future political scenario of
India. Urdu, written in Persian/Arabic script reflected the past Muslim rule over India. Hindi,
with the Devanagri script, on the other hand, represented the Hindu plans of ruling India. He
also opposed two more demands of INC in the 1880's: competitive examinations for the civil
services and the joint electorate for the elections of the legislative councils. He knew that
Muslims, being less educated and politically less organized, would not be able to compete
with the Hindus in the examinations and elections. He, therefore, advocated a system of
separate electorates for Muslims and a fixed quota for Muslims in the competitive
examinations. Sir Syed initially wanted cooperation between Hindus and Muslims but his
views soon changed when he realized the INC only claimed to represent all Indian
communities whereas in reality it worked mainly for the Hindu interests. In order to protect
the political rights of the Muslims he founded the United Patriotic Alliance which was renamed
as the Muhammadan Defence Alliance in 1893.
Sir Syed also tried to create awareness among Muslims by convincing them to accept the
British as the new rulers of India and so, it was wise to make friends with them. He highlighted
the similarities between Islam and Christianity by writing "Taba’yeen-al-Kalam". In another
book he proved that it was not un-lslamic to dine with the Christians. He wrote a book in
response to Sir William Muir's book "Life of Muhammad" that contained some objectionable
remarks about the Holy Prophet.
While convincing Muslims Sir Syed worked to convince British about changing their
stance regarding Muslims. He wrote two pamphlets shortly after the War of
Independence. In "Essays on the Causes of Indian Revolt" he proved that Indians
alone were not responsible for the Revolt but British too were to blame for their failure
to understand the Indian mindset. In "Loyal Muhammadans of India" he defended
Muslims and proved that they were as loyal to the British as any other community in
India. He also explained the word "Nadarath" by proving it was an Anglicised form of
the Arabic word "Nasara" (Christians) that was derived from the root word "Nasr"
(Help) and thus proved that Muslims did not use the word in a derogatory way. Sir Syed's
educational work was also very important. He wanted to improve social
condition of Muslims and to create political awareness among them. For this Muslims
needed to acquire modern British education. He set up a series of institutes, issued
magazines and wrote books. In 1859 he opened a school in Mura da bad, another
school in Ghazipore in 1864 where he had founded the Ghazipore Scientific Society
in 1863. In it modern scientific writings of the West were translated into Persian and
Urdu. In 1866, he issued the Aligarh Institute Gazette from Aligarh to encourage
Muslims to acquire modern education. He visited England in 1869 and decided to set
up an institute for Muslims after observing the Cambridge and Oxford Universities. In
1875, he set up the MAO College, Aligarh where both western and local educations
were imparted. This institute produced many prominent leaders like Liaqat Ali Khan
and several workers of the Pakistan Movement. In 1886, Muhammadan Educational
Conference was established in order to launch a campaign for raising educational
standard of Muslims. It held regular meetings in several cities. Articles for the purpose
were published in the journal /Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq/.
If viewed objectively, it may be concluded that Sir Syed's Two Nation Theory was hismost
important service as it laid the basis of Muslim nationalism that eventually
evolved into the Pakistan Movement in the 1940's. ML launched this movement on
the ground of inherent differences between Hindus and Muslims that had been
predicted by Sir Syed.
Q:21 Why was Urdu chosen as the national language in 1947? [7]
Ans:
One of the reasons of choosing Urdu as the national language was its long history of
affiliation with the Muslim community of India. It grew tremendously during the period of the
Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) when poets like Amir Khusrau and Wali Dakani composed
Urdu poetry. Later, during the Mughal period (1526-1857) it was patronized by the Mughal
kings and eventually it became the court language. During this period, poets like Mir Taqi Mir,
Ghalib, Momin and Bahadur Shah Zafar greatly enriched Urdu poetry.
Urdu has a rich literary background with voluminous writings both in prose and poetry.
Three great poets, Mir, Ghalib and Iqbal composed world class poetry while during the 19th
century Urdu prose also began to flourish with the first Urdu novels written by Sharar and
Mirza Hadi Ruswa became popular. At the same time Urdu religious stock also grew when
translations of and commentaries on the Quran were written in addition to translation of the
Hadith literature and the Islamic law. Sir Syed’s Aligarh Movement also contributed to the
development of Urdu.
Pakistan has a culturally diversified landscape with four major regional languages with
several other small languages. In such a country one common language was thought to be a
source of promoting a sense belonging to one nation. This way Urdu could serve as a uniting
force between several cultural communities living in Pakistan. Therefore, Jinnah declared it
the national language of Pakistan in 1947.
Q.22 Urdu was chosen as national language mainly to promote national
unity. Do you agree or disagree? Explain. (14)
Ans. Urdu remains the most popular language in Pakistan. Being a newly created state,
Pakistan needed to inculcate a strong sense of nationalism among its people.
Language has always been a strong and effective tool in promoting patriotism in any
part of the world. Jinnah was, therefore, advised to follow the policy of “One Nation
One Language”. By speaking the same language people of Pakistan were expected
to develop a feeling of belonging to one nation, though Bengali in East Pakistan was
also a major language. It was thought to bridge the provincial and regional gaps in a
country with diversified linguistic heritage. Thus, people living in various provinces
and areas could be linked to each other by a ‘lingua franca’ (popularly spoken
language).
However, there were other important considerations too. Out of all the regional
languages Urdu was the most developed language with a strong and rich literary
background. In its journey of evolution many Urdu novels, short stories, essays,
religious and non-religious writings had become popular much before the creation of
Pakistan. Urdu is among those few languages that have as many as three great poets:
Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib and Iqbal. Translations of the Quran, Hadith, biography of the
Holy Prophet and Islamic jurisprudence further enriched the Urdu literature. So, it was
easier to adopt such a highly developed language as the national language.
Urdu had a history of long association with the Indian Muslims. Its Persian/Arabic
script reflects that it remained more popular among the Muslims of India. During the
period of the Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526), such major poets as Amir Khusrau
(1253-1325), Quli Qutub Shah and Wali Deccani all composed high quality Urdu
verse. Then, during the Mughal rule it was greatly patronized by the Mughal Court.
With the passage of time, it began to replace Persian. During the 18th and 19th
centuries several Urdu poets became prominent like Mir Dard, Sauda, Momin, Zauq,
and the last Mughal king Bahadur Shah Zafar. The Aligarh Movement produced many
good poets and writers like Hali and Shibli.
Another important reason was Urdu’s close association with the Pakistan Movement.
Sir Syed had defended Urdu as the cultural identity of Muslims when Hindus in 1867,
demanded that Hindi should be made the official language of India. When Muslim
League was formed in 1906, its objectives also included protection and promotion of
Urdu. In the 1930’s the Muslim League began to consider that Urdu as its official
language. In 1937, the Muslim League to make all efforts possible to make Urdu their
official language. Later in the 1940’s Urdu newspapers highlighted the cause of the
Pakistan Movement and the activities of its leaders.
It may be concluded that Urdu was declared as the national language primarily to
foster a sense of national unity because language is one of the strongest marks of
cultural identity of any nation, and since the creation of Pakistan was a new
experience for its people, they needed to realise that they had their own distinct
identity as a nation.
Q:23 How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of
Urdu between 1947 and 1999? [4]
Ans.
Urdu was declared as the national language of Pakistan. It was made the medium of
education in educational institutes of the public and private sector. Special awards were
offered to the best writings in prose and poetry by the government. Most of the programs,
plays and news are broadcast on radio and TV in Urdu. Federal Ministry of Information has
been issuing the monthly “Mah-i-Nau” from Lahore, and a quarterly “Adabiyat” is issued by
the Academy of Letters, Islamabad.
Q: 24 Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistani
government between 1947 and 1999? (7)
Ans. Regional languages form the basis of cultural identity of Pakistan along with Urdu.
With the declaration of Urdu as the national language, government decided to
promote regional languages, too. Sindhi, among all regional languages, was the first
to have adopted the Arabic script. This reflects its close association with Islam.
Several sufi poets, such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and Sachal Sarmast wrote Sindhi
verse. Therefore, it was important to promote it. After 1947, many institutes were set
up to promote Sindhi. They include Sachal Sarmast Academy and the Department of
Sindhology in the University of Sindh.
Pashto is spoken in Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa (former NWFP) and its literature carries
a strong element of resistance against the foreign rule. Such an element of resistance
is quite visible in the poetry of Khushhal Khan Khattak and Rehman Baba. This way
Pashto became associated with the Pakistan movement. Therefore, after
independence, Islamia College Peshawar and University of Peshawar contributed to
the development of Pashto.
Balochi is spoken in the largest province in terms of its area but the least populated
province. It had traditionally been underdeveloped due to a lack of its preservation in
written form. Also, the people of Balochistan had to be assured of their significance
as a cultural unit of Pakistan and so, it had to be promoted. For many years after
independence, Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later PTV Karachi began to broadcast
Balochi programmes. In the early 1970s, PTV Quetta started to promote Balochi.
Q: 25 How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of
Punjabi since 1947 (1947-1999)? [4]
Ans.
Punjabi is offered as an optional subject at the college and university level as well as
in the competitive examinations. University of the Punjab has been encouraging research
work on Punjabi language and literature. Government has supported poets and writers like
Munir Niazi, Dr Anwar Sadeed, Habib Jalib and Ustad Daman for their work. PTV and Radio
Pakistan, Lahore have been broadcasting Punjabi plays and other programs for the
promotion of Punjabi.
Q: 26 How has Pakistan promoted the development of Sindhi since 1947
(1947-1999)? [4]
Ans.
Government set up Sindhi Literary Board in 1948, “Bazm-i-Talib-ul-Maula” in 1954,
and later, Sachal Sarmast Academy. A department of Sindhology was set up in the Sindh
University, Jamshoro to encourage research on Sindhi language and literature. Under the
1972 Language Bill, Sindhi and Urdu were declared the national languages of Sindh. Radio
stations of Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur, and PTV Karachi have been broadcasting
programs in Sindhi.
Q: 27 How has Pakistan promoted the development of Pashto since 1947
(1947-1999)? [4]
Ans.
Pushto was promoted by the Peshawar University, and the Academy of Pashto that
was established in 1954. This institute under the chairmanship of Maulana Abdul Qadir took
great pains to compile the first Pashto dictionary. Pashto is taught at college and university
level, and post graduate classes are held in Peshawar University. Radio Pakistan Peshawar
and PTV Peshawar broadcast a variety of programs in Pashto. Abasin Arts Council has been
promoting Pashto theatre.
Q:28 How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of
Balochi since 1947 (1947-1999)? [4]
Ans.
Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later, PTV Karachi broadcasted programs in Balochi
after independence. After the establishment of PTV Quetta, many more programs began to
be telecasted. Baloch Literary Association was set up for the same purpose. Newspapers like
“Awaam” and some weekly and monthly magazines like “Omaan”, “Sangat” and “Mahatak”
were issued in Balochi. Government has patronized prominent poets and writers in Balochi
that include Atta Shad, Ishaq Shamim, Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din.