Background to the study of Indian Constitution**

Chapter 1: Philosophical and Political foundations of India:

Colonial impact on Indian society,

Around the 18th Century a number of significant events took place in the world. One such
event was the Industrial Revolution which took place in England. It gradually spread to other
countries of Europe also. You must have read about the Industrial Revolution that took place
in England, and also read about the discovery of new sea and trade routes. One such sea route
to India was discovered by a Portuguese called Vasco da Gama in 1498. As a result, the
English, French, Portuguese and the Dutch came to India for trade. They also used it to
spread missionary activities in India. Do you know that the beginning of modern period in
Indian history began with the coming of these European powers to India? In this lesson you
will be reading about the coming of the British to India and the impact it had on the
economic, social and cultural spheres as well.

REASONS FOR COMING TO INDIA

The European and the British traders initially came to India for trading purposes. The
Industrial Revolution in Britain led to the increase in demand for raw materials for the
factories there. At the same time, they also required a market to sell their finished goods.
India provided such a platform to Britain to fulfill all their needs. The 18th century was a
period of internal power struggle in India and with the declining power of the Mughal
Empire, the British officials were provided with the perfect opportunity to establish their hold
over Indian Territory. They did these through numerous wars, forced treaties, annexations of
and alliances with the various regional powers all over the country. Their new administrative
and economic policies helped them consolidate their control over the country. Their land
revenue policies help them keep the poor farmers in check and get huge sums as revenues in
return. They forced the commercialisation of agriculture with the growing of various cash
crops and the raw materials for the industries in the Britain. With the strong political control,
the British were able to monopolise the trade with India. They defeated their foreign rivals in
trade so that there could be no competition. They monopolised the sale of all kinds of raw
materials and bought these at low prices whereas the Indian weavers had to buy them at
exorbitant prices. Heavy duties were imposed on Indian goods entering Britain so as to
protect their own industry. Various investments were made to improve the transport and
communication system in the country to facilitate the easy transfer of raw materials from the
farms to the port, and of finished goods from the ports to the markets. Also, English
education was introduced to create a class of educated Indians who would assist the British in
ruling the country and strengthen their political authority. All these measures helped the
British to establish, consolidate and continue their rule over India.

METHODS OF COLONISATION IN INDIA

Look at the map of Europe. You will find many big and small states on it. When the
industrial revolution started in Europe these small states did not have sufficient raw materials
for their industries, or markets for their finished goods. These countries now started looking
for markets in Asia and Africa. England succeeded in controlling trade with India and
established the East India Company in 1600. This company was supported by the British
government. With its help England was able to extend her territorial frontiers to the Indian
subcontinent. The first factory was established at Surat in 1613. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe got
permission from the Mughal emperor Jahangir to open more factories at Agra, Ahmadabad
and Broach. Their most important settlement on the southern coast was Madras where they
built a fortified factory called Fort St. George. This was the first proprietary holding acquired
by the company on Indian soil. Gradually the company expanded its trading network. By that
time the company was well established in India. It had also succeeded in eliminating the other
rival European powers from India. They also started interfering in the political affairs of the
Indian rulers.

Look at the map of the 19th century India. What do you see? You will locate many big and
small independent states. These states had their own rulers, economy, language and culture.
These states were constantly at war with each other. It was not surprising that they fell an
easy prey to the European powers especially the British. It was the battles of Plassey (1757)
and Buxar (1764) which provided the ground for the British success in India. Through these
battles, a long era of British political control over India began. The Battle of Plassey was won
by the English in Bengal. The British made Mir Jafar, the new Nawab of Bengal, in return for
which they receive an enormous sum of money as well as the territory of 24 Parganas from
the Nawab. But Mir Jafar was not able to make further payments to them. As a result he was
replaced by Mir Qasim who proved to be a strong ruler. Mir Qasim was not ready to meet
their demands for more money or control. As a result, Mir Qasim was removed and Mir Jafar
was made the Nawab again. Mir Qasim then joined hands with the Nawab of Awadh, Shiraj-
ud-daula and the Mughal emperor Shah Allam II in plotting against the British, the battle
took place at a place called Buxar on 22 October 1764. Their defeat proved to be decisive.

Though the British successfully gained control over Bengal, the imposition of British rule
throughout India was not an easy task. A number of regional powers opposed them and tried
to resist the efforts of territorial expansion of the British. Let us read about the various wars
waged by the British against the Indian states.
(i) Anglo-mysoreWars

Mysore emerged as a powerful state under an able leadership of Haider Ali and his son Tipu
Sultan in the second half of the eighteenth century. Four wars took place between Mysore and
the British. Finally the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) ended in the heroic defeat and
death of Tipu Sultan. With this a glorious chapter of struggle between Mysore and the
English came to an end. Large ports like Kanara, Coimbatore and Seringapatam were secured
by the British.

(ii) Anglo-marathaWars

The Marathas were another formidable power in western and central India during the second
half of the eighteenth century. But the struggle for power among themselves gave the British
an opportunity to intervene in their internal matters. Many wars took place between the
British and the Marathas mainly on account of the Subsidiary Alliance (which you will read
in 5.2.1). The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) was the last war between them. The
English defeated the Peshwa, dethroned him and annexed all his territories. The Peshwa was
pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh.

(iii) Anglo-sikhWars

In north-west India, the Sikhs under their able leader Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792- 1839)
became an effective political and military force. The British power in India viewed the rise of
the Sikhs as a potential threat. The British thus wanted to bring the Sikhs under control. After
the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, lawlessness prevailed in Punjab. The British took
advantage of this and the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out in 1845 which ended with the
defeat of the Sikhs. In the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the British finally defeated them
in the battle of Gujarat, a town on river Chenab (1849). The Sikh chiefs surrendered and
Punjab was annexed by Lord Dalhousie. Maharaja Dalip Singh, the son of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh was pensioned off and sent to England.

Other Conquests, System of Alliances and Annexations

The Third Battle of Panipat against the Marathas in 1761 had already provided the stage for
the success of British in India. Soon many more native states came under British control. This
was done by a system of alliances called the Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance.
Doctrine of Lapse led to a number of independent kingdoms being annexed to the British
Empire. These were the states that were enjoying British protection but their rulers had died
without leaving a natural heir to the throne. Their adopted sons could now no longer inherit
the property or the pension which was granted to them by the British. In this way Dalhousie
annexed the Maratha States of Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur
(1853), Jhansi (1854) and Awadh (1856). In Subsidiary Alliance, the Indian States that were
under British protection had to suspend their armies and instead maintain British troops. They
also surrendered their control on their foreign affair and let go of their right to make alliances
with other foreign states for any purpose, economic or political. In return, they were given
protection by the British from their rivals.

The policy of annexation affected not only the Indian rulers, but all those who were
dependent upon them such as soldiers, crafts people and even nobles. Even the traditional
scholarly and priestly classes lost their patronage from these rulers, chieftains, nobles and
zamindars, and were thus impoverished. Thus, by the mid- nineteenth century,no single
Indian power was there to challenge or resist the British. Assam, Arakhan, North Eastern
region and portions of Nepal and Burma were already annexed (1818 to 1826). The British
also occupied Sind in 1843.

ECONOMIC IMPACT

The Industrial revolution has helped the English merchants accumulate a lot of capital from
the countries of Asia, Africa and America. They now wanted to invest this wealth in setting
up industries and trade with India. The mass production of goods through machines that we
witness today was pioneered through the Industrial Revolution which occurred first in
England during the late 18th and the early 19th century. This led to a massive increase in the
output of finished products. The East India Company helped in financing and expanding their
industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in England who benefited
more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in having more raw materials
from India as well as sending their finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, these
British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the
privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s
monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of Industrial England.
Let us learn more about the economic impact on various Indian industries and trade.

5.3.1 Textile Industry and Trade

Earlier, Indian handloom had a big market in Europe. Indian textiles such as cotton, linen,
silk and woolen goods already had markets in Asia and Africa. With the coming of
industrialisation in England, the textile industry there made important headway. There was
now a reverse of the direction of textile trade between Britain and India. There was a massive
import of machine made clothes from English factories to Indian markets. This import of
large amount of products manufactured by mechanical looms in England led to increase
threat for the handicraft industries as the British goods were sold at a much cheaper price.

The British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price as foreign goods were given free
entry in India without paying any duty. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed
heavily when they were sent out of the country. Besides, under the pressure of its
industrialists, British government often imposed a protective tariff on Indian textiles.
Therefore, within a few years, India from being an exporter of clothes became an exporter of
raw cotton and an importer of British clothes. This reversal made a huge impact on the Indian
handloom weaving industry leading to its virtual collapse. It also created unemployment for a
large community of weavers. Many of them migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as
agricultural laborers. This in turn put increased pressure on the rural economy and livelihood.
This process of uneven competition faced by the Indian handloom industry was later dubbed
by the Indian nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation.

Land Revenue Policy and Land Settlements

Since ancient times, the main source of livelihood for the people were agriculture. Hence,
land tax had formed a principal source of revenue for all the emperors all over the world. In
the 18th century, the main occupation of the Indian people were agriculture. During British
rule, revenue from land kept on increasing, and the reasons for this were many. Earlier the
British had come to trade with India. Gradually they wanted to conquer the vast territory of
India for which they needed a lot of money. They also needed money for trade, projects of
the company as well as for the cost of running the administration. The British carried out a
number of land revenue experiments which caused hardship to cultivators. They extracted
taxes from the farmers to finance their policies and war efforts. Direct and indirect means
were carried out to bring about this collection of revenue for the British. This affected the
lives of the people who could not meet their daily needs because they had to provide the
landowners and the collectors their share in the produce. Local administration failed to
provide relief and natural justice to the rural poor.

Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal and Bihar in 1793. It made
the landlord or zamindar deposit a fixed amount of money in the state treasury. In return they
were recognised as hereditary owners of land. This made the zamindar the owner of the land.
The amount of revenue to be paid to the Company was fixed for a period of time which made
the British financially secured. Now they knew in advance as to how much revenue was
coming in form the State. The zamindar also knew how much revenue was to be paid. So to
get surplus revenue for themselves they asked the peasants to increase production. But, if the
zamindar failed to pay the fixed revenue on time his land was sold off to another zamindar.
The British stood to benefit from this settlement as the new class of zamindars that emerged
became their political allies. They supported the British in times of need and acted as a buffer
between them and the peasants. This class, in fact, supported the British against the freedom
movement.

In 1822, the British introduced the Mahalwari Settlement in the North Western Provinces,
Punjab, the Ganga Valley and parts of Central India. Here the basis of assessment was the
product of a mahal or estate, which may be a village or a group of villages. Here all the
proprietors of mahal were jointly responsible for paying the sum of revenue assessed by the
government. Unfortunately it brought no benefit to the peasants as the British demands were
very high.

The Ryotwari Settlement was introduced in the beginning of the 19th century in many parts
of Bombay and Madras Presidencies. Here the land revenue was imposed directly on the
ryots, the individual cultivators, who actually worked on the land. The peasant was
recognized as the owner of the land as long as he was able to pay the revenue but the
exploitation continued with the high revenue demands.

Commercialisation of Agriculture

Another major economic impact of the British policies in India was the introduction of a
large number of commercial crops such as tea, coffee, indigo, opium, cotton, jute, sugarcane
and oilseed. Different kinds of commercial crops were introduced with different intentions.
Indian opium was used to balance the trade of Chinese tea with Britain in the latter’s favor.
The market for opium was strictly controlled by British traders which did not leave much
scope for Indian producers to reap profit. Indians were forced to produce indigo and sell it on
the conditions dictated by the Britishers. Indigo was sent to England and used as a dyeing
agent for cloth produced in British towns. Indigo was grown under a different system where
all farmers were compelled to grow it on 3/20th part of their land. Unfortunately cultivation of
Indigo left the land infertile for some years. This made the farmers reluctant to grow it. In the
tea plantations ownership changed hands quite often. The workers on these plantations
worked under a lot of hardships.

Commercialisation of agriculture further enhanced the speed of transfer of ownership of land

thereby increasing the number of landless laborers. It also brought in a large number of
merchants, traders and middlemen who further exploited the situation. The peasant now
depended on them to sell their produce during harvest time. Because the peasants now shifted
to commercial crops, food grain production went down. So, less food stock led to famines. It
was therefore not surprising that the peasants revolted. You would read about it in detail in
the coming chapters. There was an enormous drain of wealth from our country to Britain due
to the various economic policies. Additional financial burden was placed on India due to
expenditures on salaries, pensions and training of military and civilian staffs employed by the
British to rule India. If this wealth was invested in India it could have helped enormously
improved the economy in this country. Let us learn how the economic policies implemented
by the British changed the social structure of Indian society.

Rise of the New Money-lending Class

Time bound and excessive demand of revenue by the British government forced the peasants
to take loans from the moneylenders. These moneylenders often exploited the peasants by
charging high interest rates. They often used unfair means like false accounting, forged
signatures and thumb impressions. The new legal system and the policy introduced by the
British only helped the moneylenders who were either local merchants or landlords. In most
cases, the peasants failed to pay back the loan with full interest. Thus, their lands gradually
passed into the hands of the money-lending class.

Rise of the New Middle Class

A major impact of the British rule in India was the beginning of a new middle class. With the
rise of the British commercial interests, new opportunities opened to a small section of the
Indian people. They often acted as the agents and intermediaries of the British traders and
thus made huge fortunes. The new landed aristocracy, which came into being after the
introduction of Permanent Settlement, also formed a part of this new class. A major section
of the old landowning aristocracy lost ownership of their land and in many cases were
replaced by a new class of land owners. These people got some English education and
became the new elite. With the spread of British power, new job opportunities were also
created. Indian society witnessed the introduction of new law courts, government officials
and commercial agencies. The English educated people naturally got the necessary patronage
from their colonial rulers. Thus, a new professional and service-holding middle class was also
created by the British, apart from those with landed interests.

5.3.6 TransportandCommunication

The means of transport in India at that time were bullock carts, camels and pack animals.
England on the other hand needed railways that connected the raw material producing areas
with the exporting ports and to facilitate the movement of British goods to different parts of
the country as well as bring raw materials to the ports. The vast network of railways that you
witness today was pioneered during the latter half of the 19th century. This opened avenue for
British bankers and investors to invest surplus wealth and material in the construction of
railways. Railways benefited the British capitalists in two important ways. First, it made
trading in commodities much easier and profitable by connecting the internal markets with
the ports. Secondly, the rail engines, coaches and the capital input for building of rail lines
came from Britain. The British capitalists who invested in railways were also guaranteed a
minimum profit of 5% by the government. These companies were also given free land with a
lease of 99 years.

Although the railways were set up for the advantage of British trade, they also played an
important role in the national awakening of the country. Though the British had never
anticipated, the extensive transport network and improved education brought people and
ideas closer.

During British rule, India took ideas of liberty, equality, human rights, science and
technology from the West. This accelerated the process of modernisation. Now we will read
about the impact of modern idea on Indian society.
BRITISH IMPACT ON SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In the 19th century,
certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy and a rigid
caste system became more prevalent. These practices were against human dignity and values.
Women were discriminated against at all stages of life and were the disadvantaged section of
the society. They did not have access to any development opportunities to improve their
status. Education was limited to a handful of men belonging to the upper castes. Brahmins
had access to the Vedas which were written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and
practices after birth or death were outlined by the priestly class.

When the British came to India, they brought new ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and
human rights from the Renaissance, the Reformation Movement and the various revolutions
that took place in Europe. These ideas appealed to some sections of our society and led to
several reform movements in different parts of the country. At the forefront of these
movements were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan,
Aruna Asaf Ali and Pandita Ramabai. These movements looked for social unity and strived
towards liberty, equality and fraternity. Many legal measures were introduced to improve the
status of women. For example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829 by Lord Bentinck, the
then Governor General. Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. A law
passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda Act was passed
in 1929 preventing child marriage. The act provided that it was illegal to marry a girl below
14 and a boy below 18 years. All the movements severely criticized the caste system and
especially the practice of untouchability.

The impact of the efforts made by these numerous individuals, reform societies, and religious
organisations was felt all over and was most evident in the national movement. Women
started getting better education opportunities and took up professions and public employment
outside their homes. The role of women like Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army
(INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali and many others were extremely
important in the freedom struggle.

Social and Cultural Policy

The British had come to India with the idea of making immense profits. This meant buying of
raw materials at very cheap rates and selling finished goods at much higher prices. The
British wanted the Indians to be educated and modern enough to consume their goods but not
to the extent that it proved detrimental to British interests.

Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas were modern and superior, while Indian
ideas were old and inferior. This was, of course, not true. Indians had a rich traditional
learning that was still relevant. By this time in England there was a group of Radicals who
had a humanistic ideology towards Indians. They wanted India to be a part of the modern,
progressive world of science. But the British government was cautious in undertaking rapid
modernisation of India. They feared a reaction among the people if too much interference
took place with their religious beliefs and social customs. The English wanted perpetuation of
their rule in India and not a reaction among the people. Hence, though they talked about
introducing reforms, in reality very few measures were taken and these were also half-
hearted.
EducationPolicy

The British took a keen interest in introducing the English language in India. They had many
reasons for doing so. Educating Indians in the English language was a part of their strategy.
The Indians would be ready to work as clerks on low wages while for the same work the
British would demand much higher wages. This would reduce the expenditure on
administration. It was also expected to create a class of Indians who were loyal to the British
and were not able to relate to other Indians. This class of Indians would be taught to
appreciate the culture and opinion of the British. In addition, they would also help to increase
the market for British goods. They wanted to use education as a means to strengthen their
political authority in the country. They assumed that a few educated Indians would spread
English culture to the masses and that they would be able to rule through this class of
educated Indians. The British gave jobs to only those Indians who knew English thereby
compelling many Indians to go in for English education. Education soon became a monopoly
of the rich and the city dwellers.

The British Parliament issued the Charter Act of 1813 by which a sum of Rupees One lakh
was sanctioned for promoting western sciences in India. But a controversy soon arose. Some
wanted the money to be spent on advocating western ideas only. There were others who
placed more emphasis on traditional Indian learning. Some recommended use of vernaculars
(regional languages) as the medium of instruction, others were for English. In this confusion
people failed to notice the difference between English as a medium and English as a subject
for study. The British, of course, decided in favor of teaching western ideas and literature
through the medium of English language alone. Another step in this direction was the Woods
Despatch of 1854. It asked the Government of India to assume responsibility for the
education of the masses. As part of the directive given by the Woods Despatch, Departments
of Education were instituted in all provinces and Affiliated Universities were opened in
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857. A few English schools and colleges were opened
instead of many elementary schools. They ignored the education of the masses. But in reality,
it was not sufficient to cater to the needs of the Indian people.

Though the British followed a half-hearted education policy in India, English language and
western ideas also had some positive impact on the society. Many reformers like Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan, and Swami Vivekananda absorbed western ideas of liberalism and democracy and
used it to reform some of the non-humanitarian social and religious practices of the time.
Though education did not reach the masses but some ideas of anti-imperialism, nationalism,
social and economic equality took root through political parties, discussions and debates on
public platform and the press.

The spread of English language and western education helped Indians to adopt modern,
rational, democratic, liberal and patriotic outlook. New fields of knowledge in science,
humanities and literature open to them. English became the lingua franca of the educated
people in India. It united them and gradually made them politically conscious of their rights.
It also gave opportunity to the Indians to study in England and learn about the working of
democratic institutions there. The writings of John Locke, Ruskin, Mill, Rousseau and many
others instilled in them the ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity, human rights and self-
government. The French and the American Revolutions, and the unifications of Italy and
Germany further strengthened their appreciation of these ideas. Cavour, Garibaldi and
Mazzini became their favorite heroes. They began to aspire for these ideals for India.
Western thinkers like Max Mueller and Annie Besant encouraged vernacular languages and
literary works to instill a sense of pride in Indian heritage and culture. It enabled Indians to
revive India’s cultural past. Also, the important role of press in arousing political awakening
and exchange in ideas is noteworthy. The newspapers and journals gave opportunities to
share ideas and problems. Similarly, novel, drama, short story, poetry, song, dance, theatre,
art and cinema were used to spread views and express resistance to colonial rule. They spoke
the language of the people, showcasing their everyday lives, joys and sorrows. Along with
newspapers and journals, they promoted the feelings of self confidence, self respect,
awareness and patriotism, thereby developing a feeling of national consciousness.

The British devised several strategies to make their rule effective. The early British
administrators in India like Warren Hastings, William Jones, Jonathan Duncan and others
glorified India’s ancient past. These scholars and administrators were called Orientalists.
They thought that a better understanding of Indian languages, literature and culture would
make it easier for them to rule India. Important institutions that came to be identified with
their efforts were the Calcutta Madarsas founded by Warren Hastings (1781), the Asiatic
Society of Bengal founded by William Jones (1784), the Sanskrit College at Banaras founded
by Jonathan Duncan (1794) and the Fort William College founded by Wellesley (1800).
These institutions, especially the Asiatic Society and the Fort William College became the
epicenter of the study on Indian culture, languages and literature. For the first time great
ancient Sanskrit writers like Kalidasa became known to the world through translation of their
monumental work into English.

Nationalist perspective (Swamy Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo).

Ramakrishna Paramhansa and Swami Vivekananda

Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-1886) highlighted the essential unity of religions and the
need to lead a spiritual life. He believed that the different religions of the world are only
different ways to reach the same god. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) was his foremost
disciple.

Vivekananda was the first spiritual leader who thought beyond religious reforms. He felt that
Indian masses needed secular as well as spiritual knowledge to empower them to believe in
themselves. Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna mission after the name of his guru
Ramakrishna Paramhansa. Through his speeches and writings, he brought out the essence of
Hindu culture and religion. He believed in the spirit of Vedanta and the essential unity and
equality of all religions. He laid stress on the removal of religious superstitions,
obscurantism, and outdated social customs. He tried to remove caste rigidities, and
untouchability. He motivated the people to respect women while he himself worked for
women’s upliftment and education. Vivekananda attached primary importance to the removal
of ignorance among the people.

Sri Aurobindo.

 Sri Aurobindo was one of the most creative and significant

figures in the history of the Indian renaissance and Indian
 nationalism, regarded as the ‘Prince among the Indian
thinkers’ by Romain Rolland.
 R. Das called Aurobindo as the ‘poet of patriotism, the
prophet of nationalism and the lover of humanity’. Sri
Aurobindo’s rise into the political scene of India coincided with
the outbreak of the swadeshi movement, following which he
expressed his opinions in his periodicals like Jugantar, Bande
Mataram and Karmayogi, criticizing British imperialism by
preaching the gospel of militant nationalism.
 Aurobindo made a great contribution to the theory of passive
resistance and boycott to curtail functioning and growth of
British administration and commerce. Aurobindo made it clear
that the passive resistance may turn to be violent in case of
ruthless suppression by the ruler. In this way it differed
from Gandhiji’s technique of Satyagraha.
 Following his imprisonment, there was a spiritual development
in Aurobindo’s thought impacting his conception of nationalism
as well:
 His conception of spiritual nationalism was linked to his
philosophy that rests on evolution of human life
into the divine life. He elevated the demand
for national freedom to a religious faithso that the
masses could be awakened, an idea that was further
developed by Gandhi in his mass movements.
 Sri Aurobindo’s concept of nation was deeply
influenced by Bankimchandra. He believed that the
nation is not just a piece of land nor a mass of human
beings. He glorified India as a Mother Goddess, and
liberation of the motherland is the most urgent duty of
her children for which they must be ready to sacrifice
even their lives.
 According to Aurobindo’s understanding, the ‘nation’
is a living entity-‘shakti‘ composed of all the shaktis
of all the millions of units that make up the nation.
Thus, nationalism was not merely a political
programme but a spiritual one.
 Therefore, Sri Aurobindo sought to move away from Swaraj
(political freedom) towards independence (complete
freedom).
 In Sri Aurobindo’s vision, the modern and free Indian nation
was not meant to be a colonial copy with an outer machinery
of elaborate bureaucratic structures left over by the British and
now-merely-to-be-filled by the Indians – though he recognised
the necessity for an effective external organisation.
 He envisioned the rebirth of a nation which will be
grounded in India’s unique temperament shaped by her
spiritual genius and conscious of her true mission. This new India
would play a crucial role in creation of future society which
 would be a society of complex oneness, a world society in
which present nations will be intrinsic parts of the whole.
 Despite these novel ideas, Sri Aurobindo’s idea of nationalism
was criticised as distracting attention of masses from real
issues like poverty, economic exploitation, inequality. Further,
his concept was overtly based on Hindu civilisational
valuesmaking it hard to accommodate the diverse beliefs of
pluralist India.

Chapter 2: Political Values and Ideals of Freedom Struggle :

M.K. Gandhi,

Mahatma Gandhi was the greatest leader of the Indian

independence movement. His life was his lesson, and to
till day inspires many around the world. Read this post to
know about Gandhi’s biography, family, education, life,
philosophy, quotes and so on.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is popularly known as Mahatma

Gandhi.

Gandhi was a lawyer, nationalist, and anti-colonial activist. He led

a non-violent mass movement against the British rule of India
which ultimately resulted in Indian independence.

Mahatma Gandhi is revered in India as the Father of the Nation.

The early life of Mahatma Gandhi: Birth and

Family
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 nd October 1869, in
Porbandar in the princely state of Kathiawar in Gujarat.

His father was Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi who served as a

dewan of Porbandar state. His mother was Putlibai who came
from Junagadh. Mohandas was the youngest of four children. He
had two brothers and a sister.
At age of 13, Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kastubai
Makhanji Kapadia as was the custom at that time.

His father passed away in 1885, and the same year he and his
wife lost their first child. The Gandhi couple later had four sons
over the years.

Education of Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi Ji received his primary education in Rajkot where his
father had relocated as dewan to the ruler Thakur Sahib. He went
to Alfred high school in Rajkot at the age of 11.

In 1887, at the age of 18, Gandhi Ji graduated from a high school

in Ahmedabad. He later enrolled at a college in Bhavnagar but
dropped out later. He had also joined and eventually dropped out
of a college in Bombay.

He then went to London in 1888 to pursue law at the university

college. After completing his studies, he was invited to be
enrolled at Inner temple to become a barrister.

He returned to India in 1891 at the age of 22 after his mother

passed away.

He failed to establish a successful law career both in Rajkot and

Bombay.

In 1893, he moved to Durban, South Africa, on a one-year

contract to sort out the legal problems of Abdullah, a Gujarati
merchant.

South Africa during the 1800s

The British had colonized and settled in the Natal and Cape
provinces of South Africa during the 1840s and 50s. Transvaal
and Orange Free State were independent Boer (British and Dutch
settlers) ruled states. Boer means farmer settler in Dutch and
Afrikaans. The governance of colonial regions (Natal and Cape)
was controlled by the minority white population which enforced
segregation between government-defined races in all spheres.
This created three societies- whites (British and Dutch or Boer
ancestry), Blacks and Coloureds (mixed race) which included
ethnic Asians (Indians, Malayans, Filipinos, and Chinese).

Indian immigration to South Africa began in the 1860s, when

whites recruited indentured Indian labour (Girmityas), especially
from south India, to work on sugar plantations. Later many Indian
merchants, mostly meman Muslims also migrated. By the 1890s,
the children of the ex-indentured labourers had settled down in
South Africa making up the third group.

Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa

1893: Mohandas Gandhi witnessed extreme apartheid or racial
discrimination against Asians in South Africa. His journey from
Durban to Pretoria witnessed the famous incident when he was
thrown out of a first-class compartment by a white man at
Pietermaritzburg station. Upon arriving at Johanessburg, he was
refused rooms in the hotels.

These experiences motivated him to stay in South Africa for a

longer period to organize the Indian workers to enable them to
fight for their rights. He started teaching English to the Asian
population there and tried to organize them to protest against the
oppression.

1894: After the culmination of his Abdullah case in 1894, he

stayed on there and planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to
deny them the right to vote. He founded the Natal Indian
Congress and moulded the Indian community into a unified
political force.

1899-1902: The Boer War

The Boer War extended Britain’s control from Natal and Cape
Province to include Transvaal and Orange Free State.

During this time, Gandhi volunteered to form a group of stretcher-

bearers as the Natal Indian ambulance corps. It consisted of
indentured labourers and was funded by the Indian community
and helped treatment and evacuation of wounded British soldiers.
Gandhi Ji thought that helping the British war efforts would win
over the British imperial government and earn sympathy for the
plight of Indians there. He was also awarded the Queen’s South
Africa Medal for serving the British empire.

Till 1906, it was the moderate phase of the struggle for the
Indians in South Africa. During this time, Gandhi concentrated on
petitioning and sending memorials to the legislatures, the colonial
secretary in London, and the British parliament.

1906: The Civil Disobedience in South Africa

The failure of moderate methods led to the second phase of the

struggle, civil disobedience or the Satyagraha.

He started two settlements- the Phoenix settlement in Durban

and the Tolstoy farm in Johanessburg for helping the needy and
initiate a communal living tradition.

His first notable resistance was against the law passed by the
government, making it compulsory for Indians to take out
certifications of registrations that held their fingerprints and was
compulsory to carry it on the person at all times. Gandhi formed a
Passive Resistance Association against this.

Gandhi and his followers were jailed. Later the government

agreed to withdraw the law if Indians voluntarily registered. They
were tricked into the registrations and they protested again by
publicly burning their certificates.

1908: The existing campaign expanded to protest against the

new law to restrict migrations of Indians between provinces.
Gandhi and others were jailed and sentenced to hard physical
labour.

1910: Gandhi Ji set up the Tolstoy farm in Johannesburg to ready

the satyagrahis to the harsh conditions of the prison hence
helping to keep the resistance moving forward.
1911: Gopal Krishna Gokhale visited South Africa as a state guest
on the occasion of the coronation of King George V. Gokhale and
Gandhi met at Durban and established a good relationship.

1913: The satyagraha continued against varied oppressive laws

brought by the government. The movement against the law
invalidating marriages not conducted according to Christian rites
brought out many Indian women onto the movement.

Gandhi launched a final mass movement of over 2000 men,

women, and children. They were jailed and forced into miserable
conditions and hard labour. This caused the whole Indian
community in South Africa to rise on strike.

In India, Gokhale worked to make the public aware of the

situation in South Africa which led the then Viceroy Hardinge to
call for an inquiry into the atrocities.

A series of negotiations took place between Gandhiji, Viceroy

Hardinge, CR Andrews (Christian missionary and Indian
Independence activist), and General Smuts of South Africa. This
led to the government conceding to most of the Indians’
demands.

Gandhiji’s return to India: 1915

1915: On the request of Gokhale, conveyed by CF
Andrews (Deenbandhu), Gandhi Ji returned to India to help with
the Indian struggle for independence.

The last phase of the Indian National movement is known as the

Gandhian era.

Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the National

Movement. His principles of nonviolence and Satyagraha were
employed against the British government. Gandhi made the
nationalist movement a mass movement.

On returning to India in 1915, Gandhi toured the country for one

year on Gokhale’s insistence. He then established an ashram in
Ahmedabad to settle his phoenix family.
He first took up the cause of indentured labour in India thus
continuing his fight in South Africa to abolish it.

Gandhiji joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced

to Indian issues and politics and Gokhale became his political
Guru.

1917: At this point, World war I was going on, and Britain and
France were in a difficult position. Germany had inflicted a
crushing defeat on both the British and French troops in France.

Russia’s war effort had broken down and the revolution was
threatening its government.

America had entered the war but no American troops had yet
reached the war front.

The British army required reinforcements urgently and they

looked to India for participation. Viceroy Chelmsford had invited
various Indian leaders to attend a war conference. Gandhi was
also invited and he went to Delhi to attend the conference.

After attending the viceroy’s war conference Gandhiji agreed to

support the recruitment of Indians in the British war effort. He
undertook a recruitment campaign in Kaira district, Gujarat.

He again believed that support from Indians will make the British
government look at their plight sympathetically after the war.

Early movements by Gandhiji

Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda Satyagraha, and Ahmedabad Mill
Strike were the early movements of Gandhi before he was
elevated into the role of a national mass leader.

1917: Champaran Satyagraha

Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was the first civil disobedience
movement organized by Gandhiji. Rajkumar Shukla asked Gandhi
to look into the problems of the Indigo planters.
The European planters had been forcing passengers to grow
Indigo on a 3/20 of the total land called the tinkatiya system.

Gandhi organized passive resistance or civil disobedience against

the tinkatiya system. Finally, the authorities relented and
permitted Gandhi to make inquiries among the peasants. The
government appointed a committee to look into the matter and
nominated Gandhi as a member.

Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, and other eminent

lawyers became inspired by Gandhi and volunteered to fight for
the Indigo farmers in court for free.

Gandhi was able to convince the authorities to abolish the system

and the peasants were compensated for the illegal dues extracted
from them.

1918: Kheda satyagraha

The Kheda Satyagraha was the first noncooperation movement
organized by Gandhi.

Because of the drought in 1918 crops failed in the Kheda district

of Gujarat. According to the revenue code if the yield was less
than one-fourth of the normal produced the farmers for entitled to
remission. Gujarat sabha sent a petition requesting revenue
assessment for the year 1919 but the authorities refused to grant
permission.

Gandhi supported the peasants’ cause and asked them to

withhold revenue. During the Satyagraha, many young
nationalists such as Sardar Vallabhbhai Pateland Indulal Yagnik
became Gandhi’s followers.

Sardar Patel led a group of eminent people who went around

villages and gave them political advisors and instructions.

The government finally agreed to form an agreement with the

farmers and hence the taxes were suspended for the years 1919
and 1920 and all confiscated properties were returned.
1918: Ahmedabad mill strike
This was Gandhi’s first hunger strike. He intervened in a dispute
between Mill owners of Ahmedabad and the workers over the
issue of discontinuation of the plague bonus.

The workers were demanding a rise of 50% in their wages while

the employees were willing to concede only a 20% bonus.

The striking workers turned to Anusuiya Sarabai in quest of justice

and she contacted Gandhi for help. He asked the workers to go on
a strike and to remain non-violent and undertook a fast unto
death to strengthen the workers’ resolve.

The mill owners finally agreed to submit the issue to a tribunal

and the strike was withdrawn in the end the workers receive a
35% increase in their wages.

Gandhiji’s active involvement in the Indian

National Movement
Gandhi’s active involvement in the Indian Freedom Struggle was
marked by many mass movements like the Khilafat Movement,
Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, and
Quit India Movement.

1919: Khilafat movement

During World War I Gandhi sought cooperation from the Muslims
in his fight against the British by supporting the Ottoman Empire
that had been defeated in the world war.

The British passed the Rowlatt act to block the movement. Gandhi
called for a nationwide Satyagraha against the act.

It was Rowlatt Satyagraha that elevated Gandhi into a national

leader. Rowlatt Satyagraha was against the unjust Rowlatt Act
passed by the British.

On April 13th, 1919 the Jallianwala Bagh incident took place.

Seeing the violence spread Mahatma Gandhi called off the civil
disobedience movement on the 18th of April.
1920: Non-Cooperation Movement
Gandhi convinced the congress leaders to start a Non-
Cooperation Movement in support of Khilafat as well as Swaraj. At
the congress session of Nagpur in 1920, the non-cooperation
program was adopted.

1922: Chauri chaura incident took place, which caused Gandhi to

withdraw from the non-cooperation movement.

After the non-cooperation movement ended, Gandhi withdrew

from the political platform and focused on his social reform work.

1930: The Salt March and The Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law
as the law gave the state the Monopoly on the manufacturer and
the sale of salt.

Gandhi along with his followers marched from his ashram in

Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi in Gujarat where they
broke the government law by gathering natural salt and boiling
seawater to produce salt.

This also marked the beginning of the civil disobedience

movement.

1931: The Gandhi Irwin pact

Gandhi accepted the truce offered by Irwin and called off the civil
disobedience movement and agreed to attend the second round
table conference in London as the representative of the Indian
National Congress.

But when he returned from London he relaunched the civil

disobedience movement but by 1934 it had lost its momentum.

1932: Poona pact

This was a pact reached between B.R Ambedkar and Gandhi

concerning the communal awards but in the end, strived to
achieve a common goal for the upliftment of the marginalized
communities of the Indian society.

1934: Gandhi resigned from the Congress party membership as

he did not agree with the party’s position on varied issues.

Gandhi returned to active politics in 1936 with the Lucknow

session of Congress where Jawaharlal Nehru was the president.

1938: Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose’s principles clashed

during the Tripuri session which led to the Tripuri crisis in the
Indian National Congress.

1942: Quit India movement

The outbreak of World war II and the last and crucial phase of
national struggle in India came together.

The failure of the Cripps mission in 1942 gave rise to the Quit
India movement.

Gandhi was arrested and held at Aga Khan Palace in Pune. During
this time his wife Kasturba died after 18 months of imprisonment
and in 1944 Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack.

He was released before the end of the war on 6th May 1944.
World war II was nearing an end and the British gave clear
indications that power would be transferred to Indians hence
Gandhi called off the struggle and all the political prisoners were
released including the leaders of Congress.

Partition and independence

Gandhiji opposed the partition of India along religious lines.

While he and Congress demanded the British quit India the

Muslim league demanded to divide and quit India.

All of Gandhi’s efforts to help Congress and the Muslim league

reach an agreement to corporate and attain independence failed.
Gandhiji did not celebrate the independence and end of British
rule but appealed for peace among his countrymen. He was never
in agreement for the country to be partitioned.

His demeanour played a key role in pacifying the people and

avoiding a Hindu-Muslim riot during the partition of the rest of
India.

Death of Mahatma Gandhi

30th January 1948

Gandhiji was on his way to address a prayer meeting in the Birla

House in New Delhi when Nathuram Godse fired three bullets into
his chest from close range killing him instantly.

Mahatma Gandhi’s legacy

Throughout his life, in his principles practices, and beliefs, he
always held on to non-violence and simple living. He influenced
many great leaders and the nation respectfully addresses him as
the father of the nation or Bapu.

He worked for the upliftment of untouchables and called them

Harijan meaning the children of God.

Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title of

Mahatma to Gandhi.

It was Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose who first addressed him as

the Father of the Nation.

Gandhian Philosophy inspired millions of people across the world.

Many great world leaders like Nelson Mandela followed Gandhiji’s

teachings and way of life. Hence, his impact on the global stage is
still very profound.

Literary works of Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhiji was a prolific writer and he has written many articles
throughout his life. He edited several newspapers including
Harijan in Gujarati, Indian opinion in South Africa, and Young India
in English.

He also wrote several books including his autobiography “The

Story Of My Experiments with Truth”.

Deendayal Upadyaya
DEENDAYAL UPADHYAYA is to the BJP [Bharatiya Janata Party] what
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was to Congress” opined R. Balashankar,
former editor of the Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh’s (RSS)
organ Organiser

Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya is undoubtedly the most significant

ideologue of the contemporary Hindutva movement. Upadhyaya’s writings
and speeches on the principles and policies of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh,
his philosophy of ‘Integral Humanism’ and his vision for the rise of modern
India, constitute the most comprehensive articulation of what might be
described as a BJP ideology.

In 1951, when Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana

Sangh, Deendayal became the first general secretary of its UP branch.
Next he was chosen as all-India general secretary. The acumen and
meticulousness shown by Deendayal deeply impressed Dr Mookerjee and
elicited his famous remark: ‘If I had two Deendayals, I could transform the
political face of India.’

After Dr Mookerjee’s death in 1953, the entire burden of nurturing the

orphaned organisation and building it up as a nation-wide movement fell
on the young shoulders of Deendayal. For 15 years, he remained the
outfit’s general secretary and built it up, brick by brick. He raised a band
of dedicated workers imbued with idealism and provided the entire
ideological framework of the outfit.

Political ideologies

 A fundamental political thinker, the key element was humanism in

his political thought.
 Pandit Upadhyay is one of those thinkers in India who exercised
on ‘Swaraj of ideas’ – means decolonisation of ideas, i.e.
decolonisation of Indian minds. India was free politically but
ideologically, colonial hangover was still there.
  Introduced the basic concept of Indian philosophy in political, social
and cultural discourses
 After the death of Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, he managed Bhartiya
Jan Sangh for 15 years
 Alternative of Congress
o In 1960, Deendayal Updhyay started polarisation against
Congress. He actualised it by 1965 and by 1967, there was
anti-congress regime. He is called architect of non-congress
movement along with Ram Manohar Lohiya. In 1967 election,
for the first time after independence, in the hindi belt of India,
a political non-congress government was formed.
o It was not opportunism. According to him, there should be
diversity in democracy. There shouldn’t be one leader-one
party-one policy. This is detrimental for democracy.
o His approach was constructive but at the same time he was
not soft when it came to his principles. For example, In
Rajasthan, he had expelled 6 MLAs of Jan Sangh out of 8 MLAs
because they were opposing Zamindari abolition act. For him,
quality mattered than quantity.
 Deplored the concept of territorial nationalism, which saw the
Indian nation as being formed of all the peoples who reside in this
land. A territory and its inhabitants, as Westernized Indians seemed
to believe; this would embrace Hindus, Muslims, Christians and
others under a common nationhood to resist British rule. This was a
fallacy, according to Upadhyaya. ‘A nation is not a mere
geographical unit. The primary need of nationalism is the feeling of
boundless dedication in the hearts of the people for their land. Our
feeling for the motherland has a basis: our long, continuous
habitation in the same land creates, by association, a sense of “my-
ness”.

Three cardinal principles for Indian politics:

1. Decentralisation – Rural development and agriculture to be given

importance – visualised for India a decentralized polity and self-
reliant economy with the village as the base.
2. Diversity in social and cultural ideas: It should not be an
environment of uniformity.
3. Planning should be decentralised: Bottom-top approach was
proposed so that real needs can be known and taken into account.

Hindu revivalism and Deendayal Upadhyaya

 Hindu revivalism represented a broad trend in the 19th and 20th

century India which sought to revitalise Hinduism after a millennium
of political, ideological and psychological subjection to Islamic and
Western hegemony.
 Unlike Hindu traditionalism, it sought to co-opt modernity in its
programme of Hindu revival or Hindu reconstruction. The concept of
 Hindu nationalism or ‘Hindutva’ was given expression by the Hindu
Mahasabha (HMS, 1915) and the family of organisations around the
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS, 1925), including the Bharatiya
Jan Sangh (BJS, 1951-1977) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP,
1980).

Chief Architect of Doctrine of integral humanism

Deriving from Shankara’s Advaitavad and similar to Buddha’s middle path,

Deen Dayal Upadhaya’s Integral Humanism is a negation of the extreme
prospects of Capitalism as well as Marxism.

Integral Humanism is different from western ideologies.

Most of western ideologies are based on materialism, emphasising more

on development in economic term and eventually every individual is
treated as economic man. His social contacts, his cultural milieu and
special bent of mind is ignored in this theory. Economic without ethics and
political discourse without morality are creating crisis in society. Therefore
he propounded that every economic theory and policy should be in
context of specialism, local tradition and nature, and temperament of
people. In Indian thought he said- dharm kaam arth moksh– all four are
important. If there is balance between them, there is social equilibrium.

Dharma and religion are different in Indian context. Dharma is more

related to morality of person in individual and collective life. It is less
about religion. But religion in western countries is more concerned about
sects. There is difference between sects and dharma. No society can live
without dharma but can live without religion. Dharma is above religion. On
the basis of this truth, he propounded Integral Humanism.

Integral Humanism is critical of individualism as well as Communism as

social systems. It defines society as a natural living organism with a
definitive national soul. Integral humanism insists upon the infusion of
religious and moral values in politics. It seeks a culturally authentic mode
of modernization that preserver the values of Hinduism.

Integral humanism consists of visions organized around two themes-

1. Morality in politics – can be a game changer

2. Swadeshi and small scale industrialization in economy – initiating
self-reliance that reflects in Gandhiji’s philosophy as well.

Thus, Integral Humanism revolves around the basic themes of harmony,

primacy of cultural-national values and discipline. This doctrine of Pandit
Upadhyay is quite relevant even in the present political and economic
situation of India.
Integral Humanism.
Integral Humanism was given by Deen Dayal Upadhyaya. He proposed
this concept in order to give independent India an ideological basis on
which nation-building into One India can be done. Integral humanism,
coined by Deendayal Upadhyaya, means that the human being is at the
core position of the social, political, and economic model.
 It is opposed to both Western liberalism and Marxian
socialism which it views as materialistic ideologies incapable of
dealing with native problems. According to Upadhyaya, four
ingredients of an individual were the body, mind, intelligence, and
soul. All of them were integrated. These four corresponded to the
four universal objectives of dharma (moral duties), Artha (wealth),
kama (desire or satisfaction), and moksha (total liberation or
'salvation').
 He pointed out that the confusion that had arisen in the West was
due to the fact that the westerners had treated each of the
ingredients of human beings separately and without any relation to
the rest. While the parameters for material success and
development emerged in the background of the industrial and
technological revolutions, they laid an undue emphasis on
evaluating the world in a segmental outside-in manner. An integral
understanding of life is, instead, holistic in nature. For example, a
medical model of health may be restricted to its biological needs,
while an integrated understanding of human life comprises of body,
mind, intellect, and soul. The practice of yoga is an example of
going back to this integrated view.
 Upadhyaya rejected social systems in which individualism 'reigned
supreme'. He also rejected communism in which individualism was
'crushed' as part of a 'large heartless machine'. Society, according
to Upadhyaya, rather than arising from a social contract between
individuals, was fully born at its inception itself as a natural living
organism with a definitive 'national soul' or 'ethos' and its needs of
the social organism paralleled those of the individual.
 The principles of Integral Humanism offer a non-dualistic prism for
perceiving the world we live in and acting upon the fundamental
unity of humankind — an outlook that offers powerful solutions for
political, social, and economic cooperation across the world. Such
relevance can be seen as follows:

Relevance in contemporary times:

 Climate issues: Integral Humanism proposes harmony between
man, nature, and spirit. This is reflected in SDG Goal 13 on climate
 action. Integral Ecology takes us back to the age-old wisdom of
interdependence with nature. Rejecting the difference between
human, animal, and plant forms, an integral framework treats the
environment as a global good, making environmental protection the
shared responsibility of all humanity. "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam", a
Sanskrit shloka meaning the entire world is my family, reiterates the
Advaita thought on how each one of us across the globe is
intrinsically connected both in our challenges and opportunities.
 Harmony: The concept of Satya and Purushartha encourages actions
while unattached to fruits. It encourages brotherhood and
discourages enmity among people, nations, and sub-national units.
Such principles are significant in ideas like peace, justice and strong
institutions (SDG Goal 16), cooperative federalism and panchsheel.
The idea of oneness amongst people of all races, castes, creeds,
geographies, and gender is fundamental to the interpretation of
integral frameworks in the international context. Perfectly compliant
with the modern notions of democracy and the UN, the integral
doctrine is perhaps the oldest framework for human rights.
 Culture: According to these ideas, suppression of natural desires will
make humans pervert. Natural food, music, paintings, and other arts
are necessary to carry forward civilization. These are crucial today
to preserve and propagate the diversity of cultures in a more
connected world.
 Governance: Middle path is suggested in the concept of Artha which
encourages neither too harsh policies nor too soft on violators.
These can form the basis for good governance, economic reforms,
corporate governance, and security doctrines in India.
Fighting against corruption: According to integral
humanism, honesty is not a matter of policy, but principle. This is a need
of the hour to make governance more transparent, our leaders and
bureaucrats more accountable and usher in significant electoral reforms.
 Global order: In the context of international relations, this doctrine is
not "utilitarian", nor does it promote the progress of one nation at
the cost of another. In this worldview, identifying with both one's
nation and the rest of humanity becomes the basis of peaceful co-
existence. Most importantly, this idea of collectivity is not
antagonistic to "nation first" thinking. Integral Internationalism is the
perfect balance between the need to defend your nation against
violent threats while simultaneously contributing to international
security.
 Reducing inequality: Wealth must be created and redistributed.
These concepts are implemented through taxation, MGNREGA, and
other social schemes for vulnerable sections of society. Integral
Humanism accords equal rights to all by virtue of the intrinsic unity
in life forms. This template is not only democratic but goes a step
 further in promoting the case for social justice and equal
opportunity for even the last man standing, namely, "Antyodaya".

Integral humanism builds on organic thought, where it imagines an Indian

nation, which is guided by common principles of moral order. A nation,
where all citizens identify themselves as a part of the same Indian ethos,
where we modernize but do not Westernise, where we have individual
economic liberty but that which is coupled with a social safety net, and
lastly, where we transcend group consciousness as members of different
religious and social communities to develop a common national
consciousness.

Chapter 3: Political Contributions of

Regional Freedom Struggle:
1.SangolliRayanna
Sangolli Rayanna: Sangolli Rayanna was a loyal follower of
Rani Chennamma. A brave freedom fighter, he emerged from
the rank of common people. After Chennamma’s imprisonment
he assumed the leadership of Kittur and organised an army. He
attacked British offices and looted their treasuries. An adept in
guerilla warfare, Rayanna was like a frightening dream to the
British.

As the British could not defeat him, they resorted to foul means
They bribed a few persons who turned traitors. They captured
Rayanna by deceit and handed him over to the British. Soon
Rayanna and his associates were hanged. Before being hung,
Rayanna fell at the feet of his mother Kenchavva who had
come to see him for

the last time, and got her blessings. Then he walked to the
scaffold and, with a smile on his face, embraced death. All the
martyrs were buried nearby. After the death of Sangolli
Rayanna, several others continued the revolt of Kittur.

One of Rayanna’s followers Bichhugatti Channabasappa planted a

seedling of banyan tree on the grave of Rayanna. For many years
thereafter, Channabasappa remained near the grave as a bairagi.
The banyan tree that he planted is seen even today.
2.KitturuRaniChennamma,
At present Kittur is a small place in Belagavi district. About two
centuries ago, the territory of Kittur was politically powerful and
well- known for its trade, agriculture and good administration.

Rani Chennamma

Rani Chennamma of Kittur was the younger wife of Mallasarja,

the Desai of Kittur. Both Mallasarja and his son and successor
died. Rani Chennamma, adopted Shivalinga Sarja and started
administering Kittur.

The Collector of Dharwad Thakeray objected to the adoption as

improper. He suggested to the British Government to take over
the administration of Kittur. Hearing this Chennamma became
extremely angry. She opposed the British policy of suppressing
Kittur, and decided to fight for the freedom of her land.
Thakeray with an army of 500 soldiers attacked Kittur. A fierce
battle took place. Chennamma led her army and fought
valiantly. The British army was shattered, and Thakeray, hit by
a bullet, died in the battle.

The British army, after a while, besieged the fort of Kittur.

Though Kittur had an army of just 6000 soldiers, Rani fought
against the huge British army for three days. Meanwhile a few
traitors of Kittur betrayed her. Thus Kittur was defeated.
Chennamma was taken captive and imprisoned at Bailahongal.
She continued to be in the prison for five years, secretly
guiding and inspiring the people to carry on the freedom
struggle

3.MadhakariNayakaa nd Onake Obavva.

Madakari Nayaka: Madakari Nayaka was the most powerful
and famous ruler of Chitradurga. He was only twelve years old
when he ascended the throne. Madakari Nayaka assisted
Haidar Ali in many battles. In spite of this, Haidar was jealous of
the bravery of Madakari Nayaka. Determining to destroy him,
Haidar laid siege to the fort of Chitradurga. But he failed to take
possession of the fort which had seven concentric walls. But his
soldiers discovered a secret path into the fort, and tried to slip
in when the watchman had gone to take food. But Obavva,
watchman's wife, discovered the movements of the soldiers in
time. Wielding a large onake (wooden pestle used for
pounding paddy), she killed many soldiers. Even today this
secret path on the western side of the fort is pointed out as
Obavva's Kindi.

Refusing to accept defeat, Haidar Ali again laid siege to the

Chitradurga fort. In the pitched battle that followed, Madakari
was defeated. He was imprisoned and killed. With this the rule
of the Nayakas of Chitradurga ended.

Chitradurga was a hill-fort with seven fortifications (defensive

structures). There are temples and tanks in the forests on the hill.
The Nayakas of Chitradurga built several temples. Baramasagara
and Bhimasamudra, the huge water reservoirs, were the
contributions made by the Nayakas. They are ever remembered for
their bravery. There is a rich folk literature on the Nayakas of
Chitradurga.

4.Halagali Bedas.
Revolts of the Bedanayakas: After the decline of Vijayanagara
the Bedanayaka paleyagars became dominant in Hyderabad-
Karnataka (Now it is known as Kalyana-Karnataka). They were
brave warriors. After 1800 they revolted against the British
several times.

Causes: • Exploitation by the local zamindars. • Oppression by

the British, and the passing of the Arms Act and the Forest Act.
Provoked by the oppressions, the local rulers, the paleyagars
and common people revolted. After 1800 there were more than
twenty-five revolts. In most of these, the Bedanayakas played a
major role. The aim of the revolts was to drive out the british.

Halagali is a village in Mudhol taluk of Bagalkot district. Well-known

for its wrestlers even today, the village rose to fame during the
Freedom Movement. In Halagali most of the villagers were
Bedanayakas who possessed arms for hunting and self-defence.

The Arms Act passed by the British in 1857 had put a condition
that the Indians could own arms only with the prior permission
of the Government. The brave and self- respecting
Bedanayakas could never accept such a condition. In order to
impose the condition, the British resorted to force. The leaders
who fought valiantly against the British were Jadaga, Baala,
Rami and others. In the conflict, several died, 290 taken
captives and 19 hanged. Though the revolt was suppressed, it
occupies a permanent place in the history of Freedom Struggle.

Rami: Rami was a valiant Bedanayaka woman who actively

participated in the revolt. She shot dead three British soldiers
and became a martyr.