Review of Plane Waves, Transmission Lines and Waveguides: by Professor David Jenn

Naval Postgraduate School Distance Learning
Antennas & Propagation

LECTURE NOTES
VOLUME I
REVIEW OF PLANE WAVES,
TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES
by Professor David Jenn
SUBSTRATE
(DIELECTRIC)
GROUND
PLANE
CONDUCTOR
E
r
DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION
(ver 1.3)
1
Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning
Antennas & Propagation (1)
Antennas and propagation play a key role in the performance of communication, radar and
electronic warfare systems. Antennas serve as transitions from guided wave structures to
free space.
Example of a free-space communication channel:
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
EARTH
IONOSPHERE
SATELLITE
TROPOSPHERE
RAIN, CLOUDS
& FOG
2
Antennas & Propagation (2)
Example of a monostatic radar:
TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER
TARGET
EARTH
IONOSPHERE
SATELLITE
TROPOSPHERE
RAIN, CLOUDS
& FOG
Topics of interest: general EM wave propagation
transmission lines
antennas
propagation
system issues involving antennas & propagation
3
Electromagnetic Fields and Waves (1)
Electrical properties of a medium are specified by its constitutive parameters:
permeability,
o
r
(for free space,
o
4 10
7
H/m)
permittivity,
o
r
(for free space,
o
8.85 10
12
F/m)
conductivity, (for a metal, ~ 10
7
S/m)
Electric and magnetic field intensities are

r
E ( x, y, z, t) V/m and

r
H (x, y, z, t) A/m
they are vector functions space and time, e.g., in cartesian coordinates

r
E ( x, y, z, t) x E
x
(x, y, z, t) + y E
y
(x, y, z, t) + z E
z
(x, y, z, t)
similar expressions for other coordinates systems
fields arise from currents

r
J and charges
v
on the source (

r
J is the volume
current density in A/m
2
and
v
is volume charge density in C/m
3
)
Electromagnetic fields are completely described by Maxwells equations:

(1)
r
E
r
H
t
(3)
r
H 0
(2)
r
H
r
J +

r
E
t
(4)
r
E
v
/
4
Electromagnetic Fields and Waves (2)
Most sources of electromagnetic fields have a sinusoidal variation in time (time-harmonic
sources). All of the field quantities associated with the sources will have the same
sinusoidal time variation. Therefore, we suppress the time dependence for convenience,
and work with a time independent quantity called a phasor. The two are related by
{ }
t j
e z E t z E

) ( ) , (
r r

r
E (z) is the phasor representation;

r
E (z, t) is the instantaneous quantity
{} is the real operator (i.e., take the real part of)
1 j
Since the time dependence varies as
t j
e

, the time derivatives in Maxwells equations
can be replaced by / t j in the time-harmonic case:

(1)
r
E j
r
H (3)
r
H 0
(2)
r
H
r
J + j
r
E (4)
r
E
v
/
Any fields or waves that exist in a particular region of space must satisfy Maxwells
equations and the appropriate boundary conditions.
5
Derivation of the Wave Equation (1)
The wave equation in a source free region of space ( 0 , 0
v
J
r
) is derived by taking the
curl of Maxwells first equation:
( ) ( )
2
2
t
E
t
E
t
H
t t
H
E
r r
r
r
r

,
_

,
_

where it is assumed that the medium is time invariant ( and not time dependent). Now
use the vector identity
( ) E E E E
v
r r
3 2 1
r r
2 2
0

to obtain
0
2
2
2
2
2
2

t
E
E
t
E
E
r
r
r
r
In the frequency domain, using phasors, and noting that / t j yields
0
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + E E E k E E E
c c c
r r r r r r

6
The subscript c denotes the possibility of a complex quantity:

j
c
and

j
c
. The imaginary terms are nonzero if the medium is lossy. Also, we have
defined
c c c
j jk j +
where attenuation constant (Np/m) and / 2 phase constant (rad/m). In free
space, which is a lossless medium, the subscripts o are often used
o o o c o c
, 0 ,
Frequently k is used in place of when the medium is lossless and unbounded. There is a
similar wave equation that can be derived for the magnetic field intensity
0
2 2
H H
r r
The simplest solutions to the wave equations are plane waves. An example of a plane
wave propagating in the z direction is:
z
o
e E x z E

) (
r
In general,
o
E is a complex constant that depends on the strength of the source and its
distance from the observer at z.
7
The instantaneous value of the electric field is
{ } ) cos( ) ( ) , ( z t e E x e z E t z E
z
o
t j

r r
Time snapshots of the field are shown below
z
1
t
2
t
x
E
DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION
o
E
o
E
wave propagates in the +z direction

wavelength
f 2 (rad/sec)

p
u
f frequency (Hz)
phase velocity is

1

p
u (in
free space u
p
c 2.99810
8
m/s)
x polarized (direction of the electric
field vector is x )
maximum amplitude of the wave is E
o
8
The magnetic field vector is obtained from Maxwells first equation H j E
r r

( )
( )
z j
H
o
z j
o
z j
o
e E y y e E
z
j
j
e E x
j
E
H
o

3 2 1
r
r

The intrinsic impedance of the medium is

o
o
H
E

. Plane waves are

transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
waves, and obey the simple relationship
E k
H
r
r

where k
is a unit vector in
the direction of propagation ( z in this
case). The vectors ( H E k
r r
, ,
) are
mutually orthogonal and form a right-
handed system.
PROPAGATION
DIRECTION
H
r
E
r

k
9
Plane Wave Amplitude
Snapshot of a plane wave propagating in the +y direction ) cos( ) , ( y t E z t y E
o

r
at
time t 0
10
Poyntings Theorem
Poyntings theorem is a statement of conservation of energy. For a volume of space, V,
bounded by a closed surface, S, and filled with a medium ( , , )
( )
43 42 1 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 2 1 4 43 4 42 1
r
r r
S
V
S
V
S
S
dv E dv H E
t
s d H E
IN LOSS
POWER
2
OF INSIDE FIELDS
THE IN STORED POWER
2 2
THROUGH
FLOWING POWER
2
1
2
1
) (

+

The quantity H E W
r r r
(W/
2
m ) is known as the Poynting vector. The instantaneous
value of the Poynting vector is
{ } { }
t j t j
e z y x H e z y x E t z y x H t z y x E t z y x W

) , , ( ) , , ( ) , , , ( ) , , , ( ) , , , (
r r r r r

and the time-averaged Poynting vector is
{ }
*
2
1
0
1
av
) , , ( ) , , ( ) , , , ( z y x H z y x E dt t z y x W W
T
T
r r r r

The time-averaged value can be found directly from the phasor fields quantities.
11
Debye Model (1)
The Debye model has been used to predict the interaction of EM waves with materials
since about 1910. Molecules are represented by positive and negative charge centers.
ELECTRON
CLOUD (-)
NUCLEUS (+)
THE CHARGE CENTERS ARE COINCIDENT
IN THE ABSENCE OF AN EXTERNAL FIELD
The response of a molecule to an external electric field is expressed in terms of a
polarization,

r
P (t)
ELECTRON
CLOUD
CHARGE
CENTER (-)
NUCLEUS (+)

r
P
r
E
ext

r
E
ext
This is the simplest form of a dipole: two equal and opposite charges that are slightly
displaced. The separation that arises due to the external field is referred to as the
electronic polarization and the quantity is the susceptibility.
12
Debye Model (2)
It takes a finite amount of time for the molecules to respond to an applied external field.
The response is of the form

P(t) P
o
(0)E
ext
{
e
t /
where is the relaxation constant (about
15
10
second).
Assumptions are that all dipoles are identical, independent, and all relaxation times are the
same. In fact, dipoles are spatially and temporally coupled, relaxation times vary, and
other types of polarization exist. The Debye model is never seen in real materials, but it
can be approached for single particle non-interacting systems such as gases.
Other types of polarization:
Ionic: mutual displacement of the charge centers (10
13
second)
Orientational: rotation of the molecules (10
11
second)
Media have a far more complex EM relaxation behavior than previously realized. A new
theory (Dissado-Hill) takes all of these factors into account.
13
Permittivity of a Dielectric With Loss
Example of a material with resonances in the millimeter wave frequency region
Complex dielectric constant:

j
c
Below millimeter wave frequencies, 1 and approximately constant and 0
(From Bohren and Huffman, Absorption and Scattering of
Light by Small Particles)
Phase velocity ( is the real
part)
1
p
u
High frequencies travel faster than
low frequencies
14
Propagation in Lossy Media (1)
As waves propagate through a lossy medium, energy is extracted from the wave and
absorbed by the medium. There are three general sources of loss:
1. ohmic loss, which is due to the collision of free charges in a conductor, and is
accounted for by a finite conductivity, < ( is a perfect electric
conductor, PEC)
2. dielectric loss, due to polarization of molecules caused by an external electric field,
and it is accounted for in the imaginary part of
c
3. magnetic loss, due to magnetization of the molecules caused by an external

magnetic field, and it is accounted for in the imaginary part of
c
Most materials are non-magnetic (

o
) and therefore magnetic losses can be neglected.
For all other materials, either ohmic loss or dielectric loss dominates. For an imperfect
conductor, an equivalent complex dielectric constant can be derived by introducing the
conduction current into Maxwells second equation
E
j
j J
E j E J H
c
r
43 42 1
r
r r r r
,
_
+ +
+ +
15
Propagation in Lossy Media (2)
The attenuation constant determines the rate of decay of the wave. General formulas for
the attenuation and phase constants of a conductor are:
2 / 1
2
2 / 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
2
'
1
1
]
1
,
_
'
1
1
]
1
,
_

For lossless media 0 0 .
Traditionally, for lossless cases, k is
used rather than . For good
conductors ( / >> 1), f ,
and the wave decays rapidly with
distance into the material. A sample
plot of field vs. distance is shown.
(To apply the formulas to a dielectic
with losses, substitute and
/ .)
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C

F
I
E
L
D

S
T
R
E
N
G
T
H

(
V
/
m
)
DEPTH INTO MATERIAL (m)
0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
16
Surface Current and Resistivity (1)
For good conductors the current is concentrated near the surface. The current can be
approximated by an infinitely thin current sheet, with surface current density,

r
J
s
A/m and
surface charge density,
s
C/m
2

r
E
i

k
i

r
J
BOUNDARY

r
E
i

k
i
BOUNDARY

r
J
s
Current in a good conductor Surface current approximation
At an interface between two media the boundary conditions must be satisfied:

(1) n
21
(
r
E
1

r
E
2
) 0 (3) n
21
(
r
E
1
r
E
2
)
s
/
(2) n
21
(
r
H
1

r
H
2
)
r
J
s
(4) n
21
(
r
H
1

r
H
2
) 0
REGION 2
REGION 1

r
J
s
n
21
INTERFACE
s
17
The field in a good conductor is significant only within the first skin depth from the
surface. The skin depth is the distance into the material at which the amplitude has
decayed by a factor of 1/e.
x
y
z
H
r
E
r
i
k
l
w
t
J
r
SMALL RECTANGULAR
BRICK AT THE SURFACE
n
The resistance of the block is
tw A
R

l l
, where A is the cross sectional area transverse
to the direction of current flow. If we choose a square of surface area, w l , and the
thickness a skin depth
s
, then the result is the surface resistivity, which is defined as
s
s
R
1
. It has units of ohms per square ( / )
18
For a plane wave normally incident on a metal surface, the time-averaged power density
in the material is
{ } { }
z o z o z o
e
RE z
z e
E
z e
E
H E W

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
*
2
*
av
2
2
1
2
1

'

r r r
It is assumed that
o
E is real for convenience. For a good conductor the intrinsic
impedance is approximately
s
j
jX R
+
+
1
(Note that the real part is equal to the surface resistivity previously defined.) We can
replace the original infinitely thick medium with an infinitesimally thin sheet that satisfies
the same boundary condition:
( ) ( )
s s s
J n n n H H n n J n H n n J H n
r r
3 2 1
r r r r r

0
where
s s
i
E n E k
H

r r
r

and
s
is the surface impedance of the thin sheet.
19
The boundary condition can be written as
tan
E J E n J n
s s s s
r r r r

and the power dissipated by the current flowing on the boundary is
{ }
{ }
s
s
s
s
J
s s
J n
R
J J
H n J
H E n n H E P
s
s s
2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
*
*
*
loss
*
r r
3 2 1
r r
r
3 2 1
r r r
r
r

'
'
The surface impedance concept gives a convenient means of computing the ohmic loss of
conductors. We can avoid integrating the volume current inside of the conductor (a
volume integral), and need only integrate the surface current (a surface integral). This is
only an approximation, but it is very accurate for good conductors. These calculations are
necessary in order to determine transmission line loss.
20
Circular Polarization (1)
A circularly polarized plane wave can be obtained by superimposing two equal amplitude
linearly polarized plane waves that are in space and time quadrature (quadrature implies 90
degrees):
1. space quadrature,
2 1
E E
r r
(for example,
x
E vs.
y
E )
2. phase quadrature, a
2 / j
e
t
factor between the two fields
Example: Two linearly polarized plane waves propagating in the z direction
z j
o
x
e E x E

1
r
and
2 /
2
j z j
o
y
e e E y E
t
r
Equal amplitudes,
o
o
y
o
x
E E E
( ) y j x e E e e E y e E x z E z E z E
z j
o
j
j z j
o
z j
o
) ( ) ( ) (
2 /
2 1
t + +

t
t
3 2 1
r r r
The instantaneous value at 0 z is
{ } ) sin( ) cos( ) ( ) , ( t E y t E x e z E t z E
o o
t j

m
r r

The vector rotates about the z axis. The tip of the electric field vector traces out a circle of
radius
o
E . The direction of rotation depends on the sign of j.
21
Circular Polarization (2)
The designation of RHCP is determined by the right-hand rule: the thumb of the right hand
is pointed in the direction of propagation, and the fingertips give the direction of rotation
of the electric field vector. Similarly, LHCP satisfies the left-hand rule.
x
y
z

r
E
LEFT-HAND CIRCULAR
POLARIZATION (LHCP)
x
y
z

r
E
RIGHT-HAND CIRCULAR
POLARIZATION (LHCP)
2
+
2
The above signs hold for

z j
e

. If
o
y
o
x
E E then the tip of the electric field vector
traces an ellipse. The resulting polarization is referred to as elliptical polarization.
22
Example
We want to find the reflected field when a RHCP plane wave is normally incident on a flat
perfectly conducting surface,
z j
o
z j
o i
e E y j e E x z E

) (
r
Assume that the reflected field is of the form
z j
ry
z j
rx r
e E y e E x z E
+ +
+ ) (
r
The total tangential field at the boundary ( 0 z ) must be zero
( ) ( ) 0 ) ( ) ( + + +
o ry rx o r i
jE E y E E x z E z E
r r
Equate x and y components to obtain
o ry
o rx
jE E
E E

The total field is
z j
o
z j
o r
e E y j e E x z E
+ +
+ ) (
r
which is a LHCP wave.
i
E
r
r
E
r
z
0 z
23
Spherical Waves (1)
An ideal point source for electromagnetic waves has no volume. It radiates a spherical
wave (i.e., the equiphase planes are spherical surfaces). An arbitrarily polarized spherical
wave can written as
( )

) (
o o
R j
E E
R
e
R E +
r
x
y
z
r k

SOURCE
r R
E
E
r
R= distance from the source (Note that
if the source is at the origin of the
spherical coordinate system then R=r.
Thus we will move the source to the
origin and use r in the next few charts.)
impedance of the medium, assumed
to be real

o o
E E

, are complex constants
24
Spherical Waves (2)
Spherical waves are TEM, so the magnetic field intensity is
( )
( )

) (
) (
o o
r j
r j
o o
E E
r
e
e
r
E E r
r E k
r H +
+
r
r
and the time-averaged Poynting vector (assuming
o o
E E

, are real)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )r E E
r
E E E E
r
r H r E W
o o
o o o o
2
1

2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
2 2
2
*
2
*
av

+
+ +
r r r
The power flowing through a spherical surface of radius r is
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
0
2 2
2
2
0 0
2
2 2
av
2
sin
2
2
sin
1
2
1
av
o o o o
o o
S
E E d E E
d d r r r
r
E E ds W P

+ +
+

43 42 1
r
25
Spherical Waves (3)
Note that the power spreads as
2
1
r
(the inverse square law). We will see that a far field
region can be defined for any antenna. It is the region beyond a minimum distance,
ff
r ,
where the wave becomes spherical with the following properties:
1. the wave propagates radially outward
2. it is TEM (there are only and field components)
3. the field components vary as
r
1
At a large distance from the source of a spherical wave, the phase front becomes locally
plane.
SOURCE
FAR FIELD
ff
r
SOURCE
r
LOCALLY A GOOD
APPROXIMATION TO
A PLANE WAVE
26
Spherical Wave Amplitude
Snapshot of a spherical wave propagating outward from the origin. The amplitude of the
wave ) cos(
) , ( r t
r
E
t r E
o

r
in the x-y plane is plotted at time t 0
27
Ray Representation for Waves
Rays are often used to represent a propagating wave. They are arrows in the direction of
propagation (k
) and are everywhere perpendicular to the equiphase planes (wavefronts)

The behavior of rays upon reflection or refraction is given by a set of rules which form the
basis of geometrical optics (the classical theory of ray tracing)
We will see that if an observer gets far enough from a finite source of radiation, then the
wavefronts become spherical
At even larger distances the wavefronts become approximately planar on a local scale
SPHERICAL WAVE FRONTS
PLANE WAVE FRONTS
RAYS
28
Wave Reflection (1)
For the purposes of applying boundary conditions, the electric field vector is decomposed
into parallel and perpendicular components

r
E
r
E
+
r
E
||

r
E
is perpendicular to the plane of incidence

r
E
||
lies in the plane of incidence
The plane of incidence is defined by the vectors

k
i
and n
MEDIUM 2
MEDIUM 1
NORMAL
INCIDENT REFLECTED
TRANSMITTED
i

r
1
,
1
2
,
2

r
E

r
E
||

r
E
x
y
z
n
i
INTERFACE

k
i
PLANE WAVE INCIDENT ON AN
INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO DIELECTRICS
DECOMPOSITON OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD
VECTOR INTO PARALLEL AND
PERPENDICULAR COMPONENTS
29
Wave Reflection (2)
r

r
o
FREE SPACE
DIELECTRIC
n
k
i
k
r
i
E
r
r
E
r
t
E
r
z
i
H
r
r
H
r
r
H
r
t
k
r

r
o
FREE SPACE
DIELECTRIC
n
k
i
k
r
i
E
r
r
E
r
t
E
r
i
H
r
r
H
r
t
H
r
t
k
z
PERPENDICULAR POLARIZATION PARALLEL POLARIZATION
The incident fields (
i i
H E
r r
, ) are known in each case. We can write expressions for the
reflected and transmitted fields (
r r
H E
r r
, ) and (
t t
H E
r r
, ), and then apply the boundary
conditions at 0 z :
( ) ( )
tan tan
t r i
E E E
r r r
+ and ( ) ( )
tan tan
t r i
H H H
r r r
+
There is enough information to solve for the coefficients of the reflected and transmitted
waves.
30
Wave Reflection (3)
Summary of results:
REGION 1 REGION 2
r

t
r

r
o
FREE SPACE
DIELECTRIC
INTERFACE

n

k
i

k
r
t
r r
r i
sin sin sin
o
o
o
and
r
r
o
o r
o r

Reflection and transmission coefficients:
Perpendicular polarization:
and
cos cos
cos 2
cos cos
cos cos
0
0
0

i t i r
t i
i
t i
t i
E E E E

Parallel polarization:
|| || || || || ||
0
||
0
0
||
and
cos cos
cos 2
cos cos
cos cos
i t i r
i t
i
i t
i t
E E E E

31
Wave Reflection (4)
Example: A boundary between air ( 377
o
) and glass ( 4
r
, 5 . 188 ).
See the following charts for plots of reflection coefficients vs. incidence angle.
Two special cases:
1. Brewsters angle is the incidence angle at which the reflection coefficient is zero. For
parallel polarization this requires 0 cos cos
i o t
, or
o
4 . 63 tan sin
1
1 sin 1 cos cos
1 2 2

r B i
r o
t
o
t
o
i

2. Total internal reflection ( 2 /

t
) occurs at the critical angle of incidence, when the
wave is impinging on the boundary from the more dense medium
( )
o
30
2
1
sin
sin
2 / sin
sin
sin

c c r
o o c o o i
t

This is the basis of fiber optic transmission lines.

32
Wave Reflection (5)
Boundary between air (
r
1) and glass (
r
4)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
theta, degrees
|
g
a
m
m
a
|
PARALLEL
POLARIZATION
PERPENDICULAR
POLARIZATION
AIR-GLASS INTERFACE,WAVE INCIDENT FROM GLASS AIR-GLASS INTERFACE,WAVE INCIDENT FROM AIR
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
theta, degrees
|
g
a
m
m
a
|
BREWSTER'S
ANGLE
PERPENDICULAR
POLARIZATION
PARALLEL
POLARIZATION
33
Wave Reflection (6)
Example of a plane wave incident on a boundary between air and glass (
r
4,

i
45
o
)
-10 -5 0 5 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
x
z
BOUNDARY
INCIDENT WAVE
GLASS
AIR
NORMAL
INCIDENT REFLECTED
TRANSMITTED
i

r
t
34
Wave Reflection (7)
Example of a plane wave reflection: reflected and transmitted waves (
r
4,

i
45
o
)
-10 -5 0 5 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
x
z
BOUNDARY
REFLECTED WAVE
-10 -5 0 5 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
x
z
BOUNDARY
TRANSMITTED WAVE
35
Wave Reflection (8)
Example of a plane wave reflection: total field
z
-10 -5 0 5 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
x
BOUNDARY
The total field in region 1 is the sum of the
incident and reflected fields
If region 2 is more dense than region 1
(i.e.,
r2
>
r1
) the transmitted wave is
refracted towards the normal
If region 1 is more dense than region 2
(i.e.,
r1
>
r2
) the transmitted wave is
refracted away from the normal
36
Example (1)
An aircraft is attempting to communicate with a submerged submarine. The frequency is
0.5 MHz and the power density of the normally incident wave at the ocean surface is 12
kW/
2
m . The receiver on the submarine requires 0.1 V/m to establish a reliable link.
What is the maximum depth for communication?
AIR
OCEAN
0 , ,
o o
S/m 4 , 72 ,
r o
z
0 z
i
k
t
k
i
E
r
t
E
r
i
H
r
t
H
r
x
The phasor expression for the incident plane wave is
z j
o i
o
e E x z E

) (
r
where
o
o o o

2
, 600
10 5 . 0
10 3
6
8

f
c
o
m. The time-averaged power density is
given by the Poynting vector, ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
*
av
z H z E z W
i i
i
r r r

37
Example (2)
At the ocean surface, z=0, and from the information provided we can solve for
o
E
3008 ) 377 )( 2 )( 10 12 ( W/m 10 12
2
) (
3
2
2 3
2
av

o o
o
o
E E
E
z W
i
r
V/m
Below the ocean surface the electric field is given by
z
o t
e E x z E

) (
r
, where the
transmission coefficient is determined from the Fresnel formulas
0
0

+
, and
o

+
+
2
1 .
To evaluate this we need the impedance of seawater
,
_
r o
r o
o o
c
j
j
1
Note that 1 2000
) 72 )( 10 85 . 8 )( 10 5 ( 2
4
12 5
>>

r o
which is typical of a good
conductor. Thus we drop the 1 in the denominator for good conductors.
38
Example (3)

+
+

j
j
o o
e e j
j
j
o
45
9899 . 0 ) 1 ( 7 . 0
2
1
Now the transmission coefficient is

+ +
+
j j
o
e e
j
j
o
89 . 44 3
10 25 . 5
377 ) 7 . 0 )( 1 (
) 7 . 0 )( 1 ( 2 2
At depth z the magnitude of the electric field intensity is
( ) ( )
z
o
z j
o
z j
o t t t
e E e E x e E x z E z E z E

+ +
1
]
1

2 / 1
*
) ( ) ( *
) ( ) ( ) (
r r r
where the attenuation constant is
Np/m 81 . 2 ) 4 )( 10 4 )( 10 5 (
2
1 1
2
7 5
2 / 1
2

'
1
1
]
1
,
_

o
o
f
39
Example (4)
Similarly, for a good conductor the phase constant is
'
1
1
]
1
,
_
+
2
1 1
2
2 / 1
2
o
At what depth is 1 . 0 ) ( z E
t
r
V/m?
m 7 . 6
88 . 18 81 . 2
) 10 24 . 5 )( 3008 ( 10 1 . 0
81 . 2 3 81 . 2 6

z
z
e e E
z z
o

A common measure of the depth of penetration of the wave in a conductor is the skin
depth,
s
. It is the distance that the wave travels into the material at which its magnitude is
1/e of its value at the surface

f e E e E e E
s s o o t
s
/ 1 / 1 1 ) 0 (
1 1

r
(Note that for a nonmagnetic conductor
o
.)
40
Example (5)
The instantaneous (time-dependent) expression for the field is
{ }
t j z j
o t
e e E x t z E

) , (
r
Note that in general
o
E can be complex and written in polar form .
o
j
o o
e E E

The
phase depends on the altitude of the transmitter and the phase of the wave upon leaving
the aircraft antenna. We can not determine
o
from the information provided, and
furthermore, it is not important in determining whether the link is established. Thus,
{ } ( )

+ +
+
o
z
o
t j z j j
o
j
t
z t e E x e e e E e x t z E
o
cos ) , (
) (
r
The magnetic field intensity phasor is
z o t t
t
e
E y z E k
z H

) (
) (
r
r
and the
instantaneous value
( )

+ +
'

o
z o
t j z j
j
j
o
j
t
z t e
E x
e e
e
e E e x
t z H
o
cos
) , (
) (
r
41
Common Two-Wire Transmission Lines
Twin lead or two-wire
E
r
DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION
CONDUCTORS
(RADIUS a)
CONDUCTOR
SEPARATION d
Coaxial (coax)
E
r
DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION
INNER CONDUCTOR
(RADIUS a)
OUTER CONDUCTOR
(RADIUS b)
Microstrip
SUBSTRATE
(DIELECTRIC)
GROUND
PLANE
CONDUCTOR
E
r
DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION
r
d
42
Transmission Line Equations (1)
A short length ( z ) of a two-wire transmission line has the equivalent circuit shown
below:
z
L
C
R
G
) , ( t z i ) , ( t z z i +
) , ( t z v
) , ( t z z v +
+
+

B A
R is the total resistance of the conductors ( m / )
L is the inductance due to the magnetic field around the conductors (H/m)
C is the series capacitance due to the electric field between the conductors (V/m)
G is the is the conductance due to loss in the material between the conductors (S/m)
Special case: lossless transmission line
1. perfect conductors, and therefore 0 R
2. perfect dielectric filling the region between the conductors, 0 and
therefore 0 G
43
Use Kirchhoffs voltage law at node A and take
0
lim
z
t
t z i
L t z i R
z
t z v
) , (
) , (
) , (
Use Kirchhoffs current law at node B and take
0
lim
z
t
t z v
C t z v G
z
t z i
) , (
) , (
) , (
For the time-harmonic case j t /
( )
( ) ) 2 ( ) (
) (
) 1 ( ) (
) (
z V C j G
dz
z dI
z I L j R
dz
z dV
This is a set of coupled integral equations. Take dz d/ of (1) and substitute it in (2) to get a
second order differential equation for ) (z V
( )( ) 0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
+ +
z V C j G L j R
dz
z V d
4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 2 1

44
The propagation constant is determined from the transmission line parameters
( )( ) j C j G L j R +
+

+
The phase velocity is /

p
u .
In a similar manner a differential equation can be derived for the current. Together they
are the transmission line equations (wave equations specialized to transmission lines)
0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
z V
dz
z V d
and 0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
z I
dz
z I d
A solution for the voltage is

z
o
z
o
e V e V z V
+ +
+ ) (
The first term is a wave traveling in the +z direction and the second a wave traveling in the
-z direction. If this is inserted into (1) on the previous page then the result is
( )
z
o
z
o
e V e V
L j R
z I

+ +
+
) (
45
The corresponding solution of the differential equation for the current is
z
o
z
o
e I e I z I
+ +
+ ) (
Comparing the coefficients of the terms in the two equations gives the characteristic
impedance
C j G
L j R
C j G
L j R
I
V
I
V
Z
o
o
o
o
o
+
+
Example: Air line ( 0 , ,

o o
) with perfect conductors (
cond
) operates at
700 MHz and has a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms and a phase constant of 20 rad/m.
Find L, C and the phase velocity.
Since 0 0
G R , and 20 j j C L j C j L j

50
C
L
C j G
L j R
Z
o
. Solve the two equations to obtain 9 . 90 C pF/m and

227 L nH/m. The phase velocity is c C L u
p
0.733 m/s 10 2 . 2 / 1 /
8
.
46
Formulas are available for computing the transmission line parameters of various
configurations. For example, a coax with inner radius a and outer radius b:
) / ln(
2
a b
G

,
) / ln(
2
a b
C

, ) / ln(
2
a b L
, ) / 1 / 1 (
2
b a
R
R
s
+
where
cond
cond
f
R
s
is the surface resistance of the conductors,
cond
is its permeability
and
cond
its conductivity. Note that , and are the constitutive parameters of the
material filling the medium between the conductors.
For transmission lines that support transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves the following
relationships hold:
C L and
C
G
An important characteristic of TEM waves is that E
r
, H
r
and the direction of propagation
z are mutually orthogonal. That is, the electric and magnetic field vectors lie in a plane
transverse to the direction of propagation.
47
Transmission Line Circuits (1)
A transmission line circuit is shown below. The source (generator) and receiver are
connected by a length l of transmission line. Assume a lossless line ( j )
l z 0 z
g
Z
L
Z
L
V
g
V
o
Z
in
V
in
I
L
I
+
The current and voltage on the line are given by

z j
o
z j
o
e V e V z V
+ +
+ ) ( and
z j
o
o
z j
o
o
e
Z
V
e
Z
V
z I
+
+
) (
The boundary condition at the load ( 0 z ) can be used to derive a reflection coefficient
+
+

+

+

j
o L
o L
o
o
o
Z
o
V
o
Z
o
V
o o
L
e
Z Z
Z Z
V
V V V
I
V
Z
) 0 (
) 0 (
48
Three special load conditions are:
1. If the load is matched to the characteristic impedance of the line then
o L
Z Z and
0
2. If the line is open circuited then
L
Z and 1 ( 1 , 0
)
3. If the line is short circuited then 0
L
Z and 1 ( 1 ,
)
The total voltage at a point on the line is given by
( ) ( )
{ }
2 / 1
2
*
) 2 cos( 2 1 ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ + +
+ +
,
_
+ +
z V z V z V z V
e e e V e e V
e
V
V
e V e V e V z V
o
z j j z j
o
z j z j
o
z j
o
o z j
o
z j
o
z j
o

The maximum and minimum values of the voltage are
) 1 (
max
max
+
+
o
V V V and ) 1 (
min
min

+
o
V V V
If 0 there is a standing wave component to the voltage and current.
49
Voltage plots for three load conditions ( 1 m):
-2 -1 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
z
|
V
|
-2 -1 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
z
|
V
|
-2 -1 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
z
|
V
|
1 (OPEN)
0.2 e
j / 3
1 (SHORT)
z 2.5 z 0
L
Z
Z
o
The load impedance for the last case can be computed from the reflection coefficient
41 . 0 14 . 1
1
1
2 . 0
1
1
3 /
j
Z
Z
Z e
Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
o
L
L
j
L
L
o L
o L
+

+

50
Voltage maxima occur when n z z 2 2 1 ) 2 cos( + +

. (Note that
increasing n is in the z direction.) Maxima are spaced 2 / .
Voltage minima occur when ) 1 2 ( 2 1 ) 2 cos( + + +

n z z . Minima
are spaced 2 / .
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined as
) 1 (
) 1 (
min
max

+

V
V
s . Note that
< < s 1 .
Plot of voltage and current for 1 . 0
L
Z ( 1 m).
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
z
|
V
|

o
r

|
I
|
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
LOAD
AT z=0
51
Transmission Line Impedance (1)
The impedance at any point on the line is the ratio of the voltage to current at that point
[ ]
[ ]
z j
z j
o
z j z j
o
o
z j z j
o
e
e
Z
e e
Z
V
e e V
z I
z V
z Z

2
2
1
1
) (
) (
) (

+

+

+
+
+ +
At the input of the line l z
1
]
1
+
+
) tan(
) tan(
1
1
2
2
in
l
l
l
l
L o
o L
o
j
j
o
jZ Z
jZ Z
Z
e
e
Z Z
For the purpose of computing the power delivered to the load, the load and transmission
line can be replaced by an equivalent impedance
in
Z
g
Z
g
V
in
V
in
I
+
in
Z
in
in
Z Z
V
I
g
g
+
and
in
in
in in in
Z Z
Z V
Z I V
g
g
+

The power delivered to the load and line combination
is
*
in in in
I V P
52
Power on a lossless line is computed from the voltage and current
ref inc
WAVE
REFLECTED
WAVE
INCIDENT
ref inc
) (
) (
I I e
Z
V
e
Z
V
z I
V V e V e V z V
z j
o
o z j
o
o
z j
o
z j
o
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ + +
43 42 1 43 42 1

The incident instantaneous power in the incident wave is
{ } { }
{ } ( )
o
o
o t j
o
j
o t j j
o
t j
i
t j
i i
t
Z
V
e
Z
e V
e e V
e I e V P
o
o
+
'

+ +
+

2
2
cos
| | | |
| |
where it has been assumed that
o
Z is real. A similar analysis of the reflected wave yields
( )
+
+ +
o
o
o
r
t
Z
V
P
2
2
cos
| |
53
The time-averaged power is obtained by integrating the instantaneous value over a period
( )
o
o
o
o
f
o
o
o
T
i
Z
V
Z
V
dt t
f Z
V
dt t P
T
P
i
2
| | | |
2
cos
) / 1 (
| |
) (
1
2 2 / 1
0
2
2
0
av
+ + +

Similarly for the reflected power

i r
P P
av
2
av

and the average power delivered to the load is
( )
2
2
av av av
1
| |
+
+
o
o
Z
V
P P P
r i L
In order to deliver all power to the load we must have 0
2
.
54
Input impedances for the special load conditions
1. Short circuit: l l
l
l
l

o o
o
o
o
jZ jZ
j Z
jZ
Z Z
0
sc
in
) tan(
) tan( 0
) tan( 0

1
]
1
+
+
which is inductive
2. Open circuit: l
l l
l
l
/
) tan( ) tan(
) tan(
0
oc
in o
o
o
o
o
jZ
j
Z
j Z
jZ
Z Z
1
]
1
+
+
which is
capacitive
3. Matched line:
o
o o
o o
o
Z
jZ Z
jZ Z
Z Z
1
]
1
+
+
) tan(
) tan(
in
l
l
(Note it is independent of the line

length.)
Input impedances for some special line lengths:
1. Half-wavelength line:
L
L o
o L
o
Z
jZ Z
jZ Z
Z Z
1
]
1
+
+
) tan(
) tan(
in
2. Quarter-wavelength line:
L o
L o
o L
o
Z Z
jZ Z
jZ Z
Z Z /
) 2 / tan(
) 2 / tan(
2
in

1
]
1
+
+
55
Impedance Matching
For off-the-shelf components that must be used in a system, fixed values of
o
Z are used.
Common values are 50, 75 and 300 ohms. Most devices (antennas, couplers, phase
shifters, etc.) are not naturally 50 ohms. An impedance matching circuit must be
inserted between the 50 line and the device. The impedance matching circuit is usually
incorporated into the device and sold as a single package as illustrated below.
L
Z Z
o
L
Z
MISMATCHED
JUNCTION
L
Z
Z
o
Z
o
MATCHED
JUNCTION
IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
NETWORK
Three common matching techniques:
1. quarter-wave transformers
2. stub tuners
3. series and parallel lumped elements
In general, the imaginary component of the load impedance must be cancelled and the real
part shifted to
o
Z
56
Quarter-Wave Transformers (1)
L
Z
Z
o
o
Z Z
in
MATCHED
JUNCTION
o
Z
4 /
If a quarter-wavelength section is inserted between the transmission line and load, the
input impedance is
L o o o L o
L o
o L
o
Z Z Z Z Z Z
jZ Z
Z j Z
Z Z
1
]
1
+
+
/
) 2 / tan(
) 2 / tan(
2
in
Note that all of the impedances involved must be real.

Example: What is the characteristic impedance of a quarter-wave section if it is to match
a 100 ohm load to a 50 ohm line?
7 . 70 ) 100 )( 50 (
L o o
Z Z Z
57
Quarter-Wave Transformers (2)
A quarter-wave
transformer is designed so
that reflections from the
two junctions cancel
(destructive interference).
If the frequency is changed
from its design value, then
the cancellation is no
longer complete.
100 200 400 400
/ 4
1/ 3
4 / 3
1/ 3
2 / 3
1/ 3
4 / 3
1 4/3
1/3
j4/3
j4/9
-4/9
16/9
-8/27
-8/243
-8/2187
16/81
4/27 j4/27
-4/81
4/243
j4/81
j4/243
17/729
-4/729
4/2187
j4/729
1 1/3 V
SUMS
TO -1/3 V
SUMS
TO 2 V
ROUND TRIP GIVES
PHASE SHIFT (- SIGN)

M

M

M
58
Stub Tuning (1)
We have seen that short sections of transmission line can be capacitive or inductive. By
adjusting the location and length of a shorted or open stub, any complex impedance can be
tuned.
L
Z
Z
o
o
Z
d
Z
o
l
L
Z Z
o
o
Z
d
Z
o
l
SHORTED SERIES STUB SHORTED PARALLEL STUB
The stub impedance is usually chosen to be the same as that of the transmission line
(
o o
Z Z
).
Both shorts and opens can be used. Shorts are generally preferred because there is less
fringing of the field (and therefore less coupling to external objects)
When dealing with devices in series we work with impedance, because the impedances
of devices in series add: jX R Z + ( R resistance, X reactance)
When dealing with devices in parallel we work with admittance, because the
admittances of devices in parallel add: jB G Y + ( G conductance, B susceptance)
59
Stub Tuning (2)
Example of the parallel stub tuning process for a load with admittance
L L L
L L L
jX R Z
jB G Y
+
+
1 1
L L L
B j G Y the admittance at distance d from the load, which can be found from the
in
Z formula and then computing
in in
/ 1 Z Y
s s
B j Y the admittance at a distance l from the short (note that a shorted or open stub
can provide only an imaginary part to the impedance or admittance)
The total admittance at the junction looking into the parallel combination of stub and load
is
o s L L s L
Y B j B j G Y Y Y
in
. Thus
the two conditions are:
1. Choose d so that
o L
Y G
2. Choose l so that 0
s L
B B
L L
Z Y / 1
o
Y
o
Y
d
in
Y
l
o
Y
L
Y
s
Y
60
Stub Tuning (3)
The disadvantages of stub tuning:
the required location and length of the stub may not be practical or convenient
it is designed for a single frequency, and hence is narrow band
Example of short-circuited stub tuner on microstrip:
DEVICE BEING
TUNED
SHORTED
STUB
d
r
SHORTING PIN STUB

TRANSMISSION LINE
LOAD LOCATION
l
GROUND
PLANE
61
Lumped Element Tuning (1)
At low frequencies (about 1 GHz and below) lumped inductors, capacitors and resistors
are effective and more compact that stubs.
Diode phase shifter with discrete components
METALLIZED VIA
THICK FILM
CAPACITOR
THICK FILM
CONDUCTOR
PIN
DIODE
Printed circuit inductor
62
Lumped Element Tuning (2)
Example: An antenna with impedance 25 90 j Z
L
ohms must be matched to a 50 ohm
transmission line using an inductor or capacitor (no resistor). Design an impedance
matching circuit.
The tuning element adds only a reactance, and therefore d must be chosen so that the
impedance of the combination of load plus transmission line has a real part of 50.
25 90 j Z
L
Z
o
Z
o
MATCHED
JUNCTION
jX
L
X j Z + 50
in
d
L
L o
o L
o
X j
d jZ Z
d jZ Z
Z Z
+
+
+
50
) tan(
) tan(
in
This equation can be separated into real and imaginary parts the real part solved for d.
After much work one finds that the result is 068 . 0 d . Using this in the above equation,
the impedance is 35 50
in
j Z . Therefore a series reactance of + 35 j must be
added, which is an inductor whose value is determined from 35 j L j .
63
Example: Lossless Power Divider
Design a lossless power divider that splits the power in the ratio of 2:1 between the two
output arms.
50
o
Z
o
V
1
Z
2
Z
o
Z
o
V
o
P
2
2
2
2
2
2
Z
o
V
P
1
2
2
1
Z
o
V
P
Because the device is lossless
2 1
P P P
o
+ . We want
150 3
2 3
1
2 3
1
1
2
1
2
1 o
o
o o
o
Z Z
Z
V
Z
V
P P
and, similarly,
75
2
3
2 3
2
2 3
2
2
2
2
2
2 o
o
o o
o
Z Z
Z
V
Z
V
P P
64
Transmission Line Loss (1)
Transmission lines between the antenna and receiver or transmitter in a systems can have
significant losses. Traditionally they have been called plumbing loss because the primary
contributor was long sections of wavguide. Sources of loss include:
1. cables and waveguide runs (0.25 to 1 dB per meter)
2. devices have insertion loss
duplexer, rotary joints, filters, switches, etc.
3. devices and connectors have mismatch loss (VSWR 1)
RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSS
DUPLEXER/
CIRCULATOR LOSS
65
Transmission Line Loss (2)
Consider a length l of transmission line
2
in in
~ E P
Z
o
l
2
out out
~ E P
If the incident wave is TEM, then the field at the output can be expressed as
l
e E E
in out
and the transmission coefficient of the section is
( )
l l

,
_
e
E
E
e
E
E
log 20 log 20
in
out
dB
in
out
Example: A shorted 5m section of transmission line has 8 dB of loss. What is the
attenuation coefficient?
Because the line is shorted the wave travels 10m and therefore,
( )
( )
092 . 0
10
10 ln
10 8 log 20
4 . 0
) 20 / 8 ( 10 10

e e Np/m
66
Waveguides (1)
Waveguides are an efficient means of transmitting microwaves. They can be hollow or
filled with dielectric or other material. The cross section can be of any shape, but
rectangular and circular are most common. First, we examine propagation in a rectangular
waveguide of dimension a by b.
x
z
y
a
b
Waves propagate in the z t direction:
z j
e z H z E
t
~ ) ( ), (
r r
. First separate Maxwells
equations into cartesian components ( , refer to the material inside of the waveguide)
H j E
H j
y
E
x
E
H j
x
E
E j
H j E j
y
E
z
x
y
y
z
x
x y
z
r r
67
Waveguides (2)
E j H
E j
y
H
x
H
E j
x
H
H j
E j H j
y
H
z
x
y
y
z
x
x y
z
r r
Rearranging
,
_
,
_
x
H
y
E j
E
y
H
x
E j
E
z z
y
z z
x

2 2
2 2
,
_
,
_
y
H
x
E j
H
x
H
y
E j
H
z z
y
z z
x

2 2
2 2
68
Waveguides (3)
The wave equations are:
H H
E E
r r
r r

2 2
2 2

Note that
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x
and ( )
2 2
2
2

j
z
and the wave equations for the
z components of the fields are
( )
( )
z z
z z
H H
y x
E E
y x

2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2

,
_
,
_
TEM waves do not exist in hollow rectangular waveguides. The wave equations must be
solved subject to the boundary conditions at the waveguide walls. We consider two types
of solutions for the wave equations: (1) transverse electric (TE) and (2) transverse
magnetic (TM).
69
Waveguides (4)
Transverse magnetic (TM) waves: 0
z
H and thus H
r
is transverse to the z axis. All field
components can be determined from
z
E . The general solution to the wave equation is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z j
y y x x
z j
z z
z j
z z
e y D y C x B x A
e y E x E e y x E z y x E

t
t t
+ +

sin cos sin cos
) ( ) ( ) , ( ) , , (
where A, B, C, and D are constants. The boundary conditions must be satisfied:
0
z
E at
'

0 0
0 0
C y
A x
Choose
x
and
y
to satisfy the remaining conditions.
0
z
E at a x : ( )
a
m
m a a
x x x
0 sin ( K , 2 , 1 m )
0
z
E at b y : ( )
b
n
n b b
y y x
0 sin ( K , 2 , 1 n )
70
Waveguides (5)
For TM waves the longitudinal component of the electric field for a +z traveling wave is
given by
z j
z
e y
b
n
x
a
m
U z y x E

,
_
,
_
sin sin ) , , (
where the product of the constants AB has been replaced by a new constant U . Each
solution (i.e., combination of m and n) is called a mode. Now insert
z
E back in the wave
equation to obtain a separation equation:
2 2
2 2
,
_
,
_

b
n
a
m

If 0
2
> then propagation occurs; 0
2
defines a cuttoff frequency,
mn
c
f ,
2 2
2
1
,
_
,
_
b
n
a
m
f
mn
c
Waves whose frequencies are above the cutoff frequency for a mode will propagate, but
those below the cutoff frequency are attenuated.
71
Waveguides (6)
Transverse electric (TE) waves: 0
z
E and thus E
r
is transverse to the z axis. All field
components can be determined from
z
H . The general solution to the wave equation is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z j
y y x x
z j
z z
z j
z z
e y D y C x B x A
e y H x H e y x H z y x H

t
t t
+ +

sin cos sin cos
) ( ) ( ) , ( ) , , (
But, from Maxwells equations,
,
_
y
b
n
y
H
E
z
x
cos ~ and
,
_
x
a
m
x
H
E
z
y
cos ~ .
Boundary conditions: 0
x
E at 0 0 D y
0
y
E at 0 0 B x
0
x
E at
b
n
b y
y
, K , 1 , 0 n
0
y
E at
a
m
a x
x
, K , 1 , 0 m
Therefore,
z j
z
e y
b
n
x
a
m
V z y x H

,
_
,
_
cos cos ) , , ( ( 0 n m not allowed)

The same equation for cutoff frequency holds for both TE and TM waves.
72
Waveguides (7)
Other important relationships:
Phase velocity for mode (m,n),
( )
2
/ 1 f f
u
u
mn
c
p
where / 1 u is the phase

velocity in an unbounded medium of the material which fills the waveguide. Note the
the phase velocity in the waveguide is larger than in the unbounded medium (and can be
greater than c).
Group velocity for mode (m,n), ( )
2
/ 1 f f u u
mn
c g
. This is the velocity of energy
(information) transport and is less than the velocity in the unbounded medium.
Wave impedance for mode (m,n),
( )
( )
2
TM
2
TE
/ 1
/ 1
f f Z
f f
Z
mn mn
mn
mn
c
c

where / is the wave impedance in the unbounded medium.

Phase constant for mode (m,n), ( )
2
/ 1 f f
u u
mn
c
p
mn

73
Waveguides (8)
Guide wavelength for mode (m,n),
( )
2
/ 1 f f
mn
mn
c
g

where is the wavelength
in the unbounded medium.
The dominant mode is the one with the lowest cutoff frequency. For rectangular
waveguides with a > b the
10
TE mode is dominant. If a mode shares a cutoff frequency
with another mode(s), then it is degenerate. For example,
11
TE and
11
TM are degenerate
modes.
Example: If the following field exists in a rectangular waveguide what mode is
propagating?
z j
z
e y
b
x
a
E
2
sin
2
sin 5

,
_
,
_

Since 0
z
E it must be a TM mode. Compare it with the general form of a TM mode field
and deduce that m=2 and n=1. Therefore, it is the
21
TM mode.
74
Waveguides (9)
Example: What is the lowest frequency that will readily propagate through a tunnel with a
rectangular cross section of dimension 10m by 5m?
If the walls are good conductors, we can consider the tunnel to be a waveguide. The
lowest frequency will be that of the dominant mode, which is the
10
TE mode. Assume
that the tunnel is filled with air
15
) 10 ( 2
1
2
1
10

,
_
c
a
f
o o
c

MHz
Example: Find the five lowest cutoff frequencies for an air-filled waveguide with a=2.29
cm and b=1.02 cm.
2 2
0102 . 0 029 . 0 2
1
,
_
,
_
n m
f
mn
c
Use Matlab to generate cutoff frequencies by looping through m and n. Choose the five
lowest. Note that when both m,n > 1 then both TE and TM modes must be listed. (The
frequencies are listed in GHz.)
) 10 . 13 ( TE ), 10 . 16 ( TM and TE ), 55 . 6 ( TE ), 71 . 14 ( TE
20 11 11 10 01
75
Waveguides (10)
Example: Find the field parameters for a
10
TE mode, f=10 GHz, a=1.5 cm, b=0.6 cm,
filled with dielectric, 25 . 2
r
.
Phase velocity in the unbounded medium,
8 8
10 2 5 . 1 / 10 3 25 . 2 / c u m/s
Wavelength in the unbounded medium, 02 . 0 10 1 / 10 2 /
10 8
f u m
Cutoff frequency,
10
10 67 . 0
) 015 . 0 )( 2 (
25 . 2 /
) 2 /(
10

c
a u f
c
Hz
Phase constant, ( ) ( )

5 . 74 1 / 067 . 0 1
25 . 2 /
2
/ 1
745 . 0
2 2
10

4 4 3 4 4 2 1
c
f
f f
u
mn
c
radians
Guide wavelength,
( )
0268 . 0
745 . 0
02 . 0
/ 1
2

f f
mn
c
g
m
Phase velocity,
8 8
10 68 . 2 745 . 0 / 10 2 745 . 0 / u u
p
m/s
Wave impedance,
( )
4 . 337
) 5 . 1 )( 745 . 0 (
) 377 (
745 . 0
25 . 2 /
/ 1
2
TE
10

o
c
f f
Z
mn

ohms
Group velocity,
8 8
10 49 . 1 ) 745 . 0 )( 10 2 ( 745 . 0 u u
g
m/s
76
Mode Patterns in Rectangular Waveguide
From C.S. Lee, S. W. Lee, and L. L. Chuang, Plot of Modal Field
Distribution in Rectangular and Circular Waveguides, IEEE Trans. on
MTT, 1985.
77
Table of Waveguide Formulas
QUANTITY TEM ( E
z
H
z
0 ) TM ( H
z
0) TE ( E
z
0)
WAVE
IMPEDANCE, Z
Z
TEM

GENERAL: Z
TM

j
f > f
c
: 1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f < f
c
:
jh
1 ( f / f
c
)
2
GENERAL: Z
TE

j
f > f
c
:

1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f < f
c
:
j
h 1 ( f / f
c
)
2
PROPAGATION
CONSTANT,
jk j GENERAL: h 1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f > f
c
: j jk 1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f < f
c
: h 1 ( f / f
c
)
2
GENERAL: h 1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f > f
c
: j jk 1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f < f
c
: h 1 ( f / f
c
)
2
PHASE
VELOCITY, u
p
u
1
GENERAL: /
f > f
c
:
u
1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f < f
c
: NO PROPAGATION
GENERAL: /
f > f
c
:
u
1 ( f
c
/ f )
2
f < f
c
: NO PROPAGATION
VECTOR FIELD
RELATIONSHIP

r
H
1
Z
TEM

k
r
E

r
E
T

h
2

T
E
z
r
H
1
Z
TM

z
r
E
r
H
T

h
2

T
H
z
r
E Z
TE
z
r
H
Cutoff frequency: f
c

h
2
Propagation constant: h
2
k
2
Transverse Laplacian:
T
2

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
For a rectangular waveguide (a by b ): h
m
a

_
,

2
+
n
b

_
,

2
Guide wavelength:
g

1( f
c
/ f )
2
78
Waveguide Magic Tee
Ports 1 and 2 are the "sidearms." Port 4 is the "sum" port and 3 the "difference" port.
Sidearm excitation Port 3 Port 4
A
1
ae
j
, A
2
ae
j
A
3
0 A
4
2a
A
1
ae
j
, A
2
ae
j+
A
3
2a A
4
0
"Magic" originates from
the fact that it is the only
4-port device that can be
simultaneously matched
at all ports.
PORT 3
PORT 2
PORT 1
PORT 4
79
Circulators
Circulators "circulate" the signal from port to port in the direction indicated by the
arrow
1
2
3
Ideally: Signal into port 1 emerges out port 2; signal out port 3 is zero.
Signal into port 2 emerges out port 3; signal out port 1 is zero.
Signal into port 3 emerges out port 1; signal out port 2 is zero.
In practice:
1. There is some insertion loss in the forward (arrow) direction. Values depend
on the type of circulator. They range from 0.5 dB to several dB.
2. There is leakage in the reverse (opposite arrow) direction. Typical values of
isolation are 20 to 60 dB. That is, the leakage signal is 20 to 60 dB below
the signal in the forward direction.
3. Increasing the isolation comes at the expense of size and weight
Uses: 1. Allow a transmitter and receiver to share a common antenna without switching
2. Attenuate reflected signals (load the third port)
80
Microwave Switches
Microwave switches are used to control signal transmission between circuit devices.
A general representation of a switch is given in terms of "poles" and "throws"
INPUT
POLES THROWS
OUTPUTS

TRANSMISSION
LINE
ROTATING
VANE
SINGLE POLE - DOUBLE THROW (SPDT) DOUBLE POLE - DOUBLE THROW (DPDT)
Switches can be constructed in any type of transmission line or waveguide. Common
types:
Type Principle Applied to:
Mechanical Rotating or moving parts All types
Diode Forward/backward bias Stripline, microstrip, waveguide
yields low/high impedance
Gas discharge Confined gas is ionized Waveguide
Circulator Magnetized ferrite switches Stripline, microstrip, waveguide
circulation direction
81
Bandwidth (1)
The equivalent circuits of transmission lines and antennas are comprised of combinations
of resistors, capacitors and inductors. The transmission coefficient, or gain in the case of
an antenna, is frequency dependent. The range of frequencies over which the device has
acceptable performance is called the bandwidth of the device. For example, the gain of
a typical antenna has the following general frequency characteristic:
2
~ G
f
o
f
H
f
L
f
min
G
Note that gain can be viewed as a scaled value of the antennas transmission coefficient.
We will see that other performance measures, not just gain will determine its bandwidth.
Specifying frequencies where the gain exceeds the minimum value as in the operating
band, the bandwidth is
L H
f f . The center of the band is ( ) 2 /
L H o
f f f + .
82
Bandwidth (2)
Information transmission systems, such as radar and communications, require a finite (non-
zero) bandwidth. Consider the following waveform as an approximation to a modulated
carrier that a radar would employ. In the time domain the signal is
,
_
,
_
+

2 2
) cos( ) cos( ) (
t j t j t j t j
m o
m m o o
e e e e
t t t s

The spectrum of this signal has two spikes centered about the carrier frequency,
o
t
t
m o
+
o

m o

B
1
Therefore, in order to pass this signal without removing any frequency components, the
required bandwidth is
m
f B 2 . This is an example of a bandpass device. Ideally we
would like the amplitude of the transmission coefficient to be constant over the passband.
It is usually bell-shaped as depicted in the previous chart. Common cutoff choices for
the edges of the band are the 3dB, 6dB, and 10dB points.
83
Filter Characteristics
Filters are characterized by their transfer functions
2
1 ) ( f H , where
is reflection coefficient. It is usually plotted as return loss in dB, 20log
10
( ), or
transmission loss in dB, 20log
10
( ). Note that in many cases the phase of the
characteristic function is also important.
PASSBAND
f
H
f
0
f
LOW PASS
FILTER
PASSBAND
f
L
f
H
f
f
BAND PASS
FILTER
T
R
A
N
S
M
I
S
S
I
O
N

L
O
S
S
,

d
B
0
T
R
A
N
S
M
I
S
S
I
O
N

L
O
S
S
,

d
B
0
f
H
PASSBAND
f
f
PASSBAND
BAND STOP
FILTER
STOPBAND
f
L
f
L
f
H

PASSBAND
f
f
HIGH PASS
T
R
A
N
S
M
I
S
S
I
O
N

L
O
S
S
,

d
B
0
T
R
A
N
S
M
I
S
S
I
O
N

L
O
S
S
,

d
B
0
84
Multiplexers
Multiplexers are frequency selective circuits used to separate signals by frequency
spectrum. They are comprised of filter networks. The example illustrated is a waveguide
manifold multiplexer that separates signals into four subbands:

'

FILTER
NETWORK
EFFECTIVE SHORT LOCATIONS
1 2 3
A B C D
f
1
+ f
2
+f
3
+f
4
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
The plane at 1 appears as a short in the band f
1
, but matched at other frequencies .
The waveguide junction at A appears matched at f
1
, but shorted at other frequencies.
Similarly for planes 2, 3, 4 and junctions B, C, D. Frequency characteristic:
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f f
f
1
+ f
2
+f
3
+ f
4
INPUT OUTPUT
85
Waveguide Filters
From Gamma-F Corporation advertisement
86
Decibel Refresher
In general, a dimensionless quantity Q in decibels (denoted Q
dB
) is defined by
Q
dB
10log
10
(Q)
Q usually represents a ratio of quantities, where the denominator is the reference.
Characters are added to the "dB" to denote the reference quantity. For example:
Power referenced to 1 watt:
P
1w
P
dBw
Power referenced to 1 milliwatt:
P
1mw
P
dBm
( P
dBw
+30)
Antenna gain referenced to an isotropic source:
G
1
G
dBi
Recall that the gain of an ideal isotropic source is 1. This notation is not usually used
because the definition of gain implies an isotropic reference. However, a dipoles gain (=
1.5) is sometimes is used as a reference, and the notation is dBd.
Note: 1. 10 dB represents an order magnitude change in the quantity Q
2. the dB unit does not depend on the reference that is used to define it
3. when quantities are multiplied their dB values add:
ERP
dBw
(PG)
dBw
P
dBw
+ G
dB
87
Coordinate Transform Tables
x y
z

cos sin 0

sin cos 0

z 0 0 1
Rectangular and cylindrical
x y
z

r sin cos sinsin cos

coscos cossin sin

sin cos 0
Rectangular and spherical

z

r sin 0 cos

cos 0 sin

0 1 0
Cylindrical and spherical
Example: from top table, reading across,

x cos + y sin
and reading down,
x

cos

sin
The tables also can be used to transform
vectors. The unit vectors in the table
headings are replaced by the corresponding
vector components. For example, given

r
A A
x
x + A
y
y + A
z
z
in cartesian coordinates, the vector can be
expressed in cylindrical coordinates as
A
A
x
cos + A
y
sin + A
z
0
88
Coordinate Systems
x,u
y,v
z,w
r

r

r x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2

2
+ z
2
tan
1
y
x

_
,
tan
1

z

_
,
d d r ds
r
sin
Direction cosines are the projections of

points on the unit sphere onto the xy
plane. They are the x,y, and z
components of r:

cos
sin sin
cos sin
w
v
u
89
Radar and ECM Frequency Bands
90
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Review of Plane Waves, Transmission Lines and Waveguides: by Professor David Jenn

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review of Plane Waves, Transmission Lines and Waveguides: by Professor David Jenn

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review of Plane Waves, Transmission Lines and Waveguides: by Professor David Jenn

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Naval Postgraduate School Distance Learning

Antennas & Propagation

wave propagates in the +z direction

The intrinsic impedance of the medium is

. Plane waves are

3. magnetic loss, due to magnetization of the molecules caused by an external

Most materials are non-magnetic (

The above signs hold for

) and are everywhere perpendicular to the equiphase planes (wavefronts)

is perpendicular to the plane of incidence

2. Total internal reflection ( 2 /

This is the basis of fiber optic transmission lines.

The phase velocity is /

A solution for the voltage is

Example: Air line ( 0 , ,

. Solve the two equations to obtain 9 . 90 C pF/m and

The current and voltage on the line are given by

Similarly for the reflected power

(Note it is independent of the line

Note that all of the impedances involved must be real.

SHORTING PIN STUB

cos cos ) , , ( ( 0 n m not allowed)

where / 1 u is the phase

where / is the wave impedance in the unbounded medium.

Direction cosines are the projections of

You might also like