PPG COVERAGE 1ST QUARTER

Politics refers to the state of affairs of a country, including the structure of its
government and the decisions taken by the ruling party, while the term “political
science “refers to the theoritical analysis of all political systems, including their
origins, their underlying values and goal.

POLITICS
The actual process of how humans interact in groups that constitute man’s
activities, in the real world and to practices the elective and non-elective
political systems by which people try to influence the government on how to
decides which policies will be enacted and also the practice of state and
government to address issues, problems, and activities taking place in society
in a day-to-day actual activities of the government.

The values of politics.

1. Politics helps you to know your rights
2. Politics clarifies what you yourself believe.
3 .Politics is a living, breathing subject.
4. Politics helps you to understand our nation’s parties.
5. Politics prepares you for adult life.

Example:
1.Political system it is the process for making official government decisions.
2.Political ideology it is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or
symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how
society should work and offers some political and and cultural blueprints for a certain
social order.

POLITICAL SCIENCE
The systematic study of the state and the government, the practice and theory
of politics, the analysis of political systems, and the study of political behavior.
Some political scientist also includes the study of public policy, political theory
and international relation.

Goal or purpose of studying political science: Education for citizenship which primary
objective is to equip students to discharge the obligations of democratic citizenship, it
is also an essential parts of liberal education to be responsible citizen to save
democracy.
Government and Governance
The concept of governance which is defined as the process of decision-making and the
process by which decisions are implemented. While government is defined as the
group of people with the authority to govern a country or state; a particular ministry
in office. (Oxford Dictionary)
Governance is the act of governing or ruling. It is the set rulesand laws framed by the
government that are to be implemented through the representatives of the state. On a
similar pattern, the government is a body of elected representatives which is headed
by a single person.
Government and governance are interchangeable in the sense the process of
governing, but they differ in other senses. Government often refers to the governing
body itself, while governance often refers to the act of governing. So members of a
government are engage in governance.
Meanwhile governance is often the better word for the administration of non-
governmental organization, (corporation for example), while government works better
in reference to the public administration of nations, states, municipalities, etc.(
Philippines Politics and Governance Book by: Rhene Tabajen and Erlinda
Pulma, pp: 1-5)

Political Ideology

Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined the term “ideology” during the

French Revolution and was used in public in 1796. According to
him, it is a new science of ideas. Ideology becomes a political
weapon to condemn or criticize opposing arrays of ideas or belief
system. Belief are people’s assessment of reality and what they hold
to be true whereas, values are people’s ideas about right and
wrong. Therefore, when belief and values are put together, they
form an ideology.

Political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths, or

symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how
society should work, and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain
social order. Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society,
including (for example): the economy, education, health care, labour law, criminal law,
the justice system, the provision of social security and social welfare, trade, the
environment, minors, immigration, race, use of the military, patriotism, and
established religion.

Some of the meanings of ideology are: a political belief system; an action-oriented set
of political ideas; the ideas of the ruling class; the world view of a particular social
class or social group; political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interests;
ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploited or oppressed; ideas
that state the individual within a social context and generate a sense of collective
belongings; an officially sanctioned set of ideas used to legitimate a political system or
regime; an all-embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth; and an
abstract and highly systematic set of political ideas. Political ideology is seen as
commitments in order to change the political system.

Characteristics of Ideology

 Ideologies have their levels end in – ism

 Ideologies provide an explanation for problems that confronts modern societies
by providing futuristic vision
 Ideology is action-oriented
 Ideologies mobilized a large number of people

Features of Ideology (Heywood, 2012)

 It offers an account of the existing order, usually in the form of a world view
 It advances a model of the desired future, a vision of the good society.
 It explains how political change can and should be brought about.

Intellectual Components of an Ideology

 Values
 The vision of the Ideal Polity
 The strategy of Action
 Political Tactics

Functions of Ideology

 Ideology addresses a basic human psychological needs such as safety, freedom,

and community
 Ideology provides its believers with a sense of understanding history
 Ideology is Essential
 Ideology is Powerful
Societal Role of Ideologies

 Answer eternal questions and cut off competing beliefs and values
 Explain how the universe works and why it works that way
Tell us how to behave; they help us predict the future

Kinds of Political Ideologies

1. Liberalism (The Left)

The term derived from the Latin word which means “free men.” Philosopher John
Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct tradition, arguing that
each man has a natural right to life, liberty and property, adding that governments
must not violate these rights based on the social contract. It is a view that base itself
from the concepts of freedom and equality and generally support civil rights,
individualism, democracy, secularism, rise of welfare States, gender and race equality,
internationalism and the freedoms of speech, the press, religion and markets. It regard
competition amongst human being as natural and healthy as it encourages each
individual to work hard and develop whatever skills or abilities they possess and that
individuals should be awarded based on their personal achievements.

Liberalism became a distinct movement in the Age of

Enlightenment. It sought to replace the norms of Question:
hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute What do you think is the
monarchy and the divine right of kings with main problem with
representative democracy and the rule of law. liberalism?
Leaders in England’s Glorious Revolution of 1688,
the American Revolution of 1776 and the French __________________________
Revolution of 1789 used liberal philosophy to justify __________________________
the armed overthrow of royal tyranny. Liberalism _______________________
started to spread rapidly especially after the French
Revolution.

Set of values of Liberalism (Heywood, 2012)

 Individualism
 Freedom
 Reason
 Toleration
 Justice

Classical Liberalism
- a belief in negative freedom; the state is regarded at best as necessary evil.
- egotistical individualism
Neoliberalism
- revival of economic liberalism
- a belief in market fundamentalism
 “Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.”

John Stuart Mill

On individual freedom, the heart of liberalism
2. Conservatism (The Right)

This is a political and philosophical term that supports the status quo and advocates
only moderate changes and seeks to preserve all that is good about the past. The term
was first used as a reaction to the growing pace of political and economic change that
occurred during the French Revolution. Conservatives seek to preserve a range of
institutions such as monarchy, religion, parliamentary government and property
rights with the aim of emphasizing social stability and continuity.

Conservatism Key Concepts:

 Conservation
 Political philosophy that tends to support the status quo
 Advocates change only in moderation upon holding the value of tradition and
seeks to preserve all that is good about the past

Did you know that …

 Ronald Wilson Reagan, the 40th President of the United

States opposed the new measures put forward by the
Democratic US Presidents before him. And,
 Corazon C. Aquino who succeeded Ferdinand Marcos
reversed many of her predecessor’s policies and adapted
policies of US Pres. Ronald Reagan.
Ronald Reagan Cory Aquino

3. Socialism

It is the broadest of all political ideologies which encompass a range of theories and
traditions. It is an economic and political doctrine characterized by social or collective
ownership and democratic control of the means of production. The birth of socialism
started as a reaction against the social and economic conditions generated in 19 th
century Europe by the growth of industrial capitalism. It is linked to the development
of a new and growing class of industrial workers who suffered poverty and
degradation.

It opposes capitalism and advocate

cooperation over competition and it adheres Question:
to social equality which is believed to be the
main way to attain social stability. It is the Do you think Socialism is
applicable to Philippine setting
right now? Explain

__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
transitional state from overthrowing capitalism and realization of communism. A
democratic state controls the mean of production and not private companies. Workers
shares what they can to contribute to the greater good and all equally shares in that
good ex. Universal heart care and social services like public schools funded by taxes.

Distinctive ways of understanding socialism:

 Socialism is seen as an economic model

 Socialism as an instrument of the labor movement
 Socialism as a political creed encompasses community, cooperation, equality,
collective ownership

“From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.”

Karl Marx
On dedicating one’s labour to the betterment of society

4. Communism

An economic, social and political ideology that seeks total government/state

ownership of the means of production and all aspect of society and economy and the
abolition of private property with an intention of creating a classless, moneyless and
stateless society where everyone are working in a collective goal of living healthy and
happy and free.

Communism key ideas:

 Economic, social, and political system seeking government ownership of the

means of production and services directed by a process of scientific
administration
 Based on the revolutionary socialist teaching of Karl Marx
 Each should work to their capability and will receive according to their needs.
 Rejecting democracy
 Rejecting equality and replaces the principle of hierarchy to a supreme leader
whose will is law
 Has a strong anti-rational. Anti-liberal, anti-conservative, anti-capitalism, anti-
bourgeoisie, anti-communist, etc.

5. Fascism

It is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism, characterized by dictatorial power,

forcible suppression of opposition and control of industry and commerce, which came
to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in
Italy during World War I before it spread to other European countries. Fascists believe
that liberal democracy is obsolete and they regard the complete mobilization of society
under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict
and to respond effectively to economic difficulties. Such a state is led by a strong
leader to forge national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society.
Question:
Salient features of fascism:
Do you think people will support this kind of
ideology? If they do so, why would they throw
their support to a government which will
oppress them?
___________________________________________________
  Totalitarianism
 Nationalism
 Anti-liberalism
 Militarism
 Violence
 Leadership
6. Feminism

It is concerned with the attainment of gender equality in the political, economic and
social spheres of life. Its primary focus is the position and status of women in society.
The basic idea is that women experience a poor status in society as a consequence of
the patriarchy, male domination of women which has historically characterized all
social relationships and that this disadvantage can and should be overthrown.

“Feminism is the struggle to end sexist oppression”

--beel books, Femenist Theery: From Margin to Center

Question:

What is the difference between feminism and gender equality?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

7. Religious Fundamentalism
Religious fundamentalism is an unusual political ideology. The word fundamentalism
is taken from the Latin word fundamental, meaning base. It is associated with
inflexibility, dogmatism, authoritarianism, or worst violence. It is characterized by a
rejection of the distinction between politics and religion.
The following are the themes of religious fundamentalism:
 Religion as politics
 The fundamentalist impulse
 Anti-modernism
 Militancy

“You can safely assume you’ve created in your own image when it turns out that God
hates all the same people you do”

8. Social Democracy
It is a moderate reformist brand of socialism that favor a balance between the market
and the state rather than abolition of capitalism. It is an ideological stance that
supports a full balance between market capitalism, on one hand, and the state
intervention, on the other side.
Question:

In your own opinion, is democracy good for the Philippines?

__________________________________________________________________________________________
If you are a voter during the 2016 elections, who’s presidential candidate are you going to vote
Rodrigo Duterte, Mar Roxas, Grace Poe, Jojo Binay, or Miriam Defensor Santiago? Why?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Environmentalism
Environmentalism is an ideology on the idea that environment is endangered and
must be preserved through regulation and lifestyle changes (Roskins etal., 2012). Its
concern is about the natural environment and particularly about reducing
environmental degradation that is more than an ideological stance (Heywood, 2012).
The regulation was only part of the environmental credo.
Question:

If you are part of the law making body of the Philippines, give one law that will protect the
Philippine forest landscape? Explain your law in 3-5 sentences.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Politics always involves the exercises of power by one person or persons to

another person or persons (Shively, 2012). Power is ability to get someone to do
something he/she wants to accomplish, thus making things happen in the way
he/she wants. In having such ability, along with the exercise of power is an influence.
Thus, influence is the process by which a person affects the behavior and feeling of
another person. In order to influence a person there must an authority which is the
right to change another person. However, there are instances that power becomes
cynical, brutal, and self – destructive that affirmed Lord Acton’s dictum. “Power tends
to corrupt: absolute power corrupts absolutely.”
Dimensions of Power
The channels of power are the way in which power is enacted. They can
perhaps more readily be remembered as “head, hands and hearts”.
Physical Power- possessed by a living being, exerted upon an object
Information Power- the ability to influence others based on your control of
dissemination of information and your control of dissemination of
information that is important to subordinates and others yet not
otherwise easily obtained
Emotional Power- A strong feeling. A feeling such as joy, sadness, fear, or anger that
moves us. The experience makes you live not just exist. It
 transforms our life from a series of plain tasteless events and facts
into a living, breathing experience.

Types and Sources of Power

Every person is born a bundle of potentialities. Power is foremost an existence
concept basic to understanding a reality of potentialities and actualities.
1. Organizational Power is a power derived from a person’s position in an
organization and from control over valuable resources afforded by that
position.
 This power is held by those who can motivate people to respond in
order to win raises promotions and awards. Example of reward
power, “Both Diane and Bob hold a certain amount of reward
power if they administer performance reviews that determine raises
and bonuses for their people.”
 Coercive power is the opposite of reward power, a leader who can
punish an employee or team member. Because the threat of
punishment can persuade an employee to act a certain way.
 This power happens when someone is in a high position, giving
them control over others. For example, “If Jecel rises to the
position of Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and her employees believe
she deserves this position, they will respond favorably when she
exercises her legitimate power.”
 Information power. This is a short –term power that doesn’t
necessarily influence or build credibility. For example, a project
manager may have all the information for a specific project, and
that will give her “informational power.”
 Process power. The leader has full control over the methods of
production and analysis.
 Representative power. The legal right conferred to speak by the
firm as a representative of a potentially significant
group composed of individuals from departments or
outside the firm.
2. Individual power or personal power is a power derived from personal
characteristics that are of value to the organization
 Your power in the workplace doesn’t just exist because of the job
title you hold. Power can be present without a formal title, and can
exist outside of any formal chain of command that is in place. One
particular type of power is called Expert Power

 Rational persuasion
 The ability to control another person’s behavior by
convincing the other person of the desirability of a goal and a
reasonable way of achieving it.
  From the entertainment world, Lady Gaga is an example of
someone with referent power, having 67 million Twitter followers.
These people respect her and want to know what she is up to.
Some even aspire to be like her, in this respect, she has referent
power over her followers.

 Influence Tactics
a. Consultation, getting others to participate in
planning, making decisions and changes.
b. Rational Persuasion, trying to convene someone
with logic and fact.
c. Inspirational Appeal, trying to build enthusiasm
by appealing to other emotions, ideals or values.
d. Ingratiation, getting someone in a good mood
prior to making a request.
e. Coalition Tactics, getting others to support your
effort to persuade someone.
Two Faces of Power
McClelland takes a stand for the use of authority in a right or wrong fashion.
1. Personal power is used for personal gain, and results in a win-lose
approach.
2. Social control involves the use of power to create motivation or to
accomplish group goals.

Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of people. It can be seen
as evil or unjust. The ability of a person to influence another person or group to
perform an act.

NATURE
 Power can be defined in many ways. Most simply, it is the ability to get
what you want, or as scholar Kenneth Boulding said, power is “the
ability to change the future.” Some scholars make a distinction between
three kinds of power- “power over”, “power to”, and “power with”
 “Power over” is the ability to dominate another person or group- as in “I
have a power over him. This means, I have the ability to make him do
what I want him to do.” Power-over usually comes from force and threat.
If the subordinate fails to do what he or she is asked to do, the dominant
person will use force to make the subordinate person comply.
 “Power to” is the ability to do something on one’s own. It refers to one’s
abilities. Sources of this kind of power are intellect, resources,
knowledge, stamina, etc. These resources give some to people the power
to accomplish things that others cannot.
  “Power with” is similar to “power to” in that reflects ability, but “power
with” is the ability to work with others to get something done by
cooperation. This is the power of consensus- the power of people working
together to solve a common problem.

DIMENSIONS
Dimension of power fits in with the pluralist view and states that there is an
open, transparent system, while recognizing that political resources are not
distributed evenly, they are also not completely centralized with a small group of the
elite. The real decision-making power, the power to vote legislation, introduce new bills
rests with political actors. However, they are influenced by a number of other factors
such as their constituents, lobbyists and pressure groups. Power is often exercised in
a much subtler way that the one dimensional view suggests.
CONSEQUENCES
The consequences of using coercive power.
No one likes to be threatened. Department members may do what the head
wants if they are threatened with political, social, financial- or even physical (!)-
retribution if they do not but coercion is also likely to cause anger and alienation. As a
consequence, even if department members appear to agree to a head’s demand, they
may follow the letter but not the spirit of a new policy, refuse to enact it when no one
is watching them, sabotage it, and be less willing to accept the head’s influence in the
future.
The consequences of using reward power.
Reward power is simply the power to give some type of reward as a means
to the employee to act. It is the extent to which a leader can use intrinsic and
extrinsic reward to control and influence other people.
The President is the head of state and head of government, and function as the
Commander- in- chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. As a chief executive, the
President exercises control over all the executive departments, bureaus, and offices.
According to Article VII section 18, the President shall authorize whenever it
becomes necessary to call out such armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless
violence, invasion, or rebellion. The president has the control of the military
organization and personnel whether in peace time or in war time. A writ of habeas
corpus, also known as the great writ, is a summons with the force of a court order.
STATE is taken from the Latin word stare meaning to stand. It is a political
community that has sovereign jurisdiction over a clearly defined territory, and
exercises authority through several institutions, including the government. It is also
defined as a self-governing entity. The term state can be used interchangeably with the
country.
5 Features of a State (Heywood, 2013):

 The state is sovereign. It exercises absolute power. Thomas Hobbes

identified the state as a “leviathan”.
 State institutions are public.
 The state is an exercise in legitimation.
 The state is an instrument of domination. State authority is backed up
by coercion. For Max Weber, the state was defined by its monopoly of the
means of “legitimate violence”.
 The state is a territorial association.

Elements of the State

1. People – the organization of human beings living together as a community. Also
known as population or inhabitants.
2. Territory – refers to the land, sea, and airspace the state exercises jurisdiction
on.
3. Sovereignty – refers to supreme and absolute power within its territorial
boundaries.

Types of Sovereignty
1. Internal is the power of the state to rule within its territory.
2. External is the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without
subjection to or control by other states.
Characteristics of Sovereignty

- Is absolute from the legal point of view

- Is permanent
- Sovereignty of the state is universal
- Is inalienable
- Cannot be divided between or shared by a
plurality
- Is exclusive
4. Government – refers to the institution or agency or instrumentalities through
which the state maintains social order, provide public services, and
enforces binding decisions.

Forms of Government

1. According to Distribution of Power

a. Unitary. Government power is held by one central authority.
Ex. Philippines, Denmark, Italy, Finland, Peru, Rwanda
 b. Confederation. It is a voluntary association of independent states that
often only delegate a few powers to the central government. Weak or loose
organization of states agrees to follow a powerful central government.
Ex. The Commonwealth of Independent State (CIS) formerly known as
Soviet Union, Switzerland’s canton system.
c. Federal. Government power is divided between one central and several
regional authorities.
Ex. Malaysia, USA, Nigeria, Australia

2. According to Citizen participation

a. Autocracy. Form of government wherein one person possesses unlimited
power. The citizen has limited, if any, role in the government. The leader is from a
family or from a social class or from a strong party.

Forms of Autocratic Government

1. Absolute or Totalitarian Dictatorship. The ideas of a single leader glorified.
Government tries to control all aspect of social and economic life. The
government is not responsible to the people. Thus, the people lack the
power to limit their rulers.
Ex. Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin
2. Absolute Monarchy. The king, queen or emperor exercises the supreme
and unlimited powers of government wherein the position is usually
inherited. Absolute monarch rules by divine right are rare today but from the
1400s to the 1700s they ruled most of Western Europe.
Ex. King of Saudi Arabia
(The counterpart of absolute monarchy is limited monarchy wherein the ruler
has a limited power as mandated by the constitution.)

b. Oligarchy. It is the government by the few. Sometimes a small group

exercises control, especially for corrupt and selfish purposes. The group gets its power
from military power, wealth, religion, or a combination. In here, the citizen has a very
limited role. Thus, political opposition is usually suppressed-sometimes violently.
Ex. Communist countries such as China. Leaders in the party and armed
forces control government.

c. Democracy. It is a government base on the consent of the governed. The

people are the sovereign, thus, they hold the highest political authority. Citizens have
freedom to criticize their leaders because they are the one who elected them in the
position. People have a high degree of participation in every government processes.

Democracy has two forms: Indirect democracy or representative

democracy is a form of democratic government wherein the people directly elect their
leader who will govern the and perform governmental functions; and Direct
democracy is a form of government wherein the people will convene in a mass
assembly and directly formulate and expressed will of the state.

3. According to Legitimacy
a. De jure. It is a form of government wherein it has the people’s support and
possess constitutional mandate. Therefore, it is a legitimate government.
b. De facto. It is a form of government supported by the people but no
 constitutional mandate or legal support.

4. According to Executive and Legislative Relationship

a. Presidential. A form of government in which executive branch exists
separately from the legislative. The president is constitutionally independent of the
legislature because they are elected directly by the people.
b. Parliamentary. A form of government in which members of an executive
branch (the cabinet and its leader – a prime minister, premier, or chancellor) are
nominated to their positions by a legislature or parliament, and are directly
responsible to it.

Types of States (based on strength)

Characteristics

 control and tax entire territory

 ensure laws are obeyed
Effective  corruption is minor
 tend to be better off
 Ex. US, Japan, Western Europe

 crime penetrates politics

 government unable to fight lawlessness,
corruption, breakaway movements
Weak  justice is bought
 election often rigged
 most revenue disappears into private pockets
 Ex. Mexico, Nigeria, Latin America

 No real national government with little if any

control of territory
Failed  Warlords and criminal cartels free to do
what they want
 Threatened with territorial breakup
 Ex. Afghanistan, Somalia

An Independent State
 Has space or territory which has internationally recognized boundaries
(boundary dispute are okay)
 Has people who live there on an ongoing basis.
 Has economic activity and an organized economy. A country regulates foreign
trade and domestic trade and issue money.
 Has the power of social engineering, such as education.
 Has transportation system for moving goods or services.
 Has a government which provided public services and police power.
  Has sovereignty. No other state should have power over the country’s territory.
 Has externa recognition. A country has been “voted into the club” by other
countries.

Origin of the State

1. The theory of Divine Origin - This is the oldest among the origin of the state. It
stated about the right of kings. The formal statement of this theory is the that
the state has been established by and ordinates of God; its rulers divinely
appointed; they are accountable to no authority but God, as described in Bible.

2. Social Contract Theory – The Divine Theory established the “Divine Right” of
kings. In contradiction, the social contract theory emphasized that the state was
not the creation of God but it was the result of agreement entered into by men
who originally had no government organization
In the 16th and 17th century, the Social Contract Theory gained popularity. Social
Contract Theory raised to peak in the hands of Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John
Locke (1632-1704) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1978).

Thomas Hobbles John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau

 Men live in a  Man sought peace  Good person was
primitive society and preservation corrupted
where there is war of all humanity  Society is ruled by
“of every man,  Man produce a greed, lust and
against every standing rule to violence
man.” live by  Nation-state got
 Man’s life was  Man entered into worse
solitary, poor, contract to assure  Called for the
nasty, brutish and safety and peace government of the
short that life, liberty, citizen to meet and
 Out of this and property may discuss difficulties
condition the State be enjoyed to the  Consensus knew
was born fullest as the General will
 To escape this  The contract is
cruel reality, men two-way
would give up
some freedom to
the state; in
return, the
government (state)
would offer people
security through
law & order

3. Force Theory – The exponent of the force theory was of the view that the origin of
state and its development was based on force, that is, force used by the strong
over the weak and their consequent control over them. In such a way, wherever
the strong group out did the weak the strong became the master and ruled the
weak. States emerged from the conquest of other families or tribes.
4. Evolution Theory – States evolved from family units. The families grew into a
large extended family that heads of the family served as a government.
eventually evolved into tribal councils with a hierarchy of authority.

Inherent Power of the State

1. Police Power – power of the state to regulate freedoms and property right of
individuals for the protection of public safety, health, and morals or the promotion of
the public convenience and general prosperity. This is because the welfare of the
people is the supreme law.

2. Eminent Domain or Power of Expropriation – power to take private property for

public use upon payment of just compensation. It is exercised through national or
local government and private persons or corporations authorized to exercise functions
of public character.

3. Taxation – power to impose tax on individuals and properties to support the

government.
 Tax – lifeblood of government
 Uniform Taxation – persons or things belonging to the same class shall be
taxed at the same rate.
 Equitable taxation – tax burden must be imposed according to the taxpayers’
capacity to pay.
 Progressive taxation – as the resources of the taxpayer becomes higher his
rates likewise increase

Concept of Nation
Nation is defined as a large body of people, associated with a particular territory, that
is sufficiently conscious of its unity to seek or to possess a government peculiarly its
own.
It is a group of people bound together by commonalities in language, history,
traditions, and religions.
Nation is a cultural-political community.
A nation is formed by factors like common race, common language, common culture,
common history, common territory etc. But none of these are absolute essentials. For
example, a nation can survive without a territory, but love for a common territory may
unite the nation. The elements that result in a nation are not always constant. Nation
is always the result of evolution.
Nation is not a legal entity. It is the strong bond between people and common
elements like ethnicity, language, and descent that keeps the nation together.
There could be a nation composed of different states or a nation with only one state,
but a state can only have one nation.
For example, the States of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, and Lebanon belong to
the Arab Nation.

State vs Nation
The nation-state is at the
STATE vs NATION
intersection of the cultural
aspect of the nation and
Definition An independent political entity A large body of people united
the political aspect of the
with fixed geographic by common origin, history,
state.
boundaries culture, ethnicity, or language.

Reference Refers to a territory Refers to a group of people

Territory Has a fixed territory Doesn’t have a fixed territory

Type A political and legal entity A socio-cultural entity

Origins Can be created consciously Cannot be created consciously

Stability State is not as stable as a Nation is more stable than a

nation since it is created state
concept

Sovereignty Cannot exist without Can exist without sovereignty

sovereignty

Unity United by laws and regulations United by bonds and shared

histories

Home State can be home to more People belonging to different

than one nation nations can live in different
states

Moreover, the term nation-state as being defined by UNESCO “is one where the great
majority are conscious of a common identity and share the same culture”. A nation-
state is a country formed and dominated politically by a particular/distinct ethnic
group. In this case, a vast majority of the population of such a country tend to be of
the same nationality. This is as opposed to a multinational state, such as can be
found in many parts of Africa and South America due mainly to the colonial influence,
where there are no one ethnic group clearly holds dominance over the others.

 Globalization refers to the growing economic interdependence of

countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross
border transactions in goods and services and of international capital
flows, and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion of
technology.
 -International Monetary Fund

 Globalization is the acceleration and intensification of interaction and

integration among the people, companies, and government of different
nations.
-The American Forum for Global Education

 Globalization is the process through which societies have become so

intertwined or interconnected that events and decisions in one part of
the worlds have significant effects the lives of people in the other part of
the world.

Characteristics of Globalization

1. Declining relevance of geographical distance

2. Lessening significance of territorial boundaries
3. Deepening and broadening of political processes, such that the local,
national global events constantly interact

Globalization has various aspects which affects the world in several

different ways. These aspects include:

 Industrial globalization – development of worldwide production

markets and broader access to a range of foreign products for
consumers and companies involving particularly movement of
material and goods between and within national boundaries.
 Financial globalization – development of worldwide financial
markets and better access to external financing for borrowers.
 Economic globalization – establishment of global common market,
based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital.
 Political globalization – creation of international organization to
regulate the relationships among government and to guarantee the
rights arising social and economic globalization.
 Informational globalization – increase in information flows between
geographically remote locations.
 Cultural globalization – sharing of ideas, attitudes and values
across national borders. This sharing generally leads to an
interconnectedness and interaction between peoples of diverse
cultures and ways of life. Mass media and communication
technology are the primary instruments for cultural globalization.

What are the drivers of globalization?

In general, three factors have been identified as the main drivers of this process:
1. Technology - Many believe that technology is the number one driver behind it,
making easier for people, goods, and ideas to move across borders. The development of
transportation technology, for example, has made it possible to move vast amounts of
products and people in a short period of time. Inventions in the area of
microprocessors and telecommunications enabled highly effective computing and
communication at a low-cost level. The rapid growth of the internet, is the latest
technological driver that created global e-business and e-commerce.
2. Trade - The effect of trade is mainly based on its ability to strengthen
interdependence between different countries.
3. Investment - The international investment drove globalization by increasing
economic integration. Many countries have experienced the benefits of international
investments, namely foreign direct investments, commercial loans, and foreign
portfolio investments. These have created new companies, jobs, and sources of
income.

Political globalization

The political dimension is a newer feature of the globalization debate, as over

the last 30 years there has been a rise in the influence and power of international and
regional institutions such as the European Union (EU), Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), the United Nations (UN), the World Trade
Organization (WTO), MERCOSUR in South America, and the Association for Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN). These international and supranational actors increasingly
shape domestic politics.
One of the key aspects of the political globalization is the declining importance
of the nation-state and the rise of other actors on the political scene. The creation and
existence of the United Nations is called one of the classic examples of political
globalization. This is one of the reason why there is a heated debate over Political
Globalization and Nation State. The question arises whether or not political
globalization signifies the decline of the nation-state. Hyper globalist argue that
globalization has engulfed today’s world in such a way that state boundaries are
beginning to lose significance. However, skeptics disregard this as naive, believing that
the nation-state remains the supreme actor in international relations.

Pros of political globalization:

  Access to international aid and financial support
 It contributes to world peace. It reduces risk of invasions, more checks on big
powers and limitation on nationalism
 International organizations are often committed to spread values like freedom
and to fight abuses within countries
 Smaller countries can work together and gain more influence internationally
 Governments can learn from each other

Cons of political globalization:

 State sovereignty is reduced

 The functioning of international and supranational organizations is often not
“democratic” in terms of representation and accountability
 Big countries can shape decisions in supranational organizations
 Sometimes countries can veto decisions and slow down decision making
processes
 Coordination is difficult and expensive

He initiated liberal economic reforms, including reforming the country's

tax system. He also established freedom of information under the
executive branch to eliminate corruption and red tape. Additionally, he
granted free irrigation to small farmers and liberalized rice imports with
the Rice Tariffication Law. – DUTERTE

reformed the country's basic education system by establishing

Aquino
the K-12 program. He enacted the Reproductive Health Bill, providing
universal access to methods on contraception. – AQUINO

Achievements of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as president

Economy. Arroyo, who earned a master's degree and doctorate in
economics, made the Philippine economy the focus of her presidency.
Annual economic growth in the Philippines averaged 4.5% during the
Arroyo administration, expanding every quarter of her presidency. –
ARROYO
 Name Vice
N Electi
Portrait (Lifespan Party Term presid Era
o. )
on
ent

Januar
y 23,
Emilio 1899 –
Aguinal March First
1 None 1899 None[b]
do 23, Republic
(1869–
1901[a]
1964)
(2 years,
59 days)

August
14,
1898 – U.S.
July 4, Military
1902 Governme
nt
(3 years,
324 day
s)
None[c] –[d] None
July 4,
1901 –
Novem
U.S.
ber 15,
Insular
1935
Governme
(34 year nt
s,
134 day
s)

Manuel Nacionali Novem 1935 Sergio Commonw

2 L. ber 15, Osmeñ
sta Party ealth
Quezon Nationalist 1935 – 1941 a
 (1878– Party August
1944) 1, 1944[e]
(8 years,
260 days)

Octobe
KALIBA r 14,
PI 1943 –
Jose P. Associatio August
Laurel n for Second
3 17, 1943 None[b]
(1891– Service to Republic
1959) the New
1945[f]
Philippine (1 year,
s 307 day
s)

August
1, 1944
Sergio
Nacionali – May
Osmeñ 28,
sta Party Vacant[g
4 a 1941 Commonw
Nationalist 1946 ]

(1878–
Party ealth
1961) (1 year,
300 day
s)

Manuel May
Roxas Liberal 28, Elpidio
5 1946 – 1946 Third
(1892– Party Quirino
1948) April Republic
15,
 1948[e]
(1 year,
323 days)

Vacant[g
]

April
17,
1948 –
Elpidio
Liberal Decem
6 Quirino
(1890– Party ber 30, Fernan
1956) 1953 1949 do
(5 years, Lopez
257 day
s)

Decem
ber 30,
Ramon 1953 –
Nacionali Carlos
Magsay March
7 sta Party P.
say Nationalist 17,
(1907– Garcia
Party 1957[e] 1953
1957)
(3 years,
77 days)

Carlos March Vacant[g

Nacionali 18,
]
P.
8 sta Party 1957 –
Garcia Nationalist
(1896– Decem Diosda
Party 1957 do
1971) ber 30,
1961 Macap
 agal
(4 years,
287 days)

Decem
Diosda ber 30,
do 1961 –
Emman
Macapa Liberal Decem
9 1961 uel
gal Party ber 30,
Pelaez
(1910– 1965
1997)
(4 years,
0 days)

1965 Fernan
do
Lopez
1969
Nacionali Decem
sta Party ber 30, Martial
Ferdina Nationalist 1965 – 1973[i]
Party
Law
nd Februa None[b]
10 Marcos ry 25,
(1917– 1986[h] 1977[i] New
1989) (20 year Society
s,
57 days)
Kilusang
Bagong Fourth
1981 Vacant[j]
Lipunan Republic
New
Society
 Movement

United
Nationali
st Februa Provisional
Democra ry 25, Governme
Corazo tic 1986 – nt
n Organiza June Salvad
11 Aquino tion 30, 1986 or
(1933– 1992 Laurel
2009) (6 years,
126 day
Indepen s)
dent

Lakas– June
Fifth
NUCD 30,
Republic
Fidel V. People 1992 –
Power- June Joseph
12 Ramos 1992
National 30,
(1928– Estrada
Union of
2022)
Christian
1998
Democrat (6 years,
s 0 days)
 Laban
ng June
Makabay 30,
ang 1998 –
Joseph Gloria
Masang Januar
Estrada Macap
13 Pilipino y 20,
(born agal
1937) Struggle 2001[k]
Arroyo
of the
(2 years,
Patriotic
204 day 1998
Filipino
s)
Masses

14 Gloria Lakas– Januar Vacant

Macapa CMD y 20,
gal People 2001 – Teofist
Arroyo Power- June o
(born Christian
30, Guingo
1947) Muslim
Democrat 2010 na Jr.
s
(9 years,
161 day 2004 Noli de
s) Castro
 June
Benign 30,
o 2010 –
Aquino Liberal June Jejoma
15 2010
III Party 30, r Binay
(1960– 2016
2021)
(6 years,
0 days)

16 Rodrigo PDP– June 2016 Leni

Duterte Laban 30, Robred
(born Philippine 2016 – o
1945) Democrati June
c Party-
30,
People's
Power 2022
(6 years,
0 days)
 Partido
June
Federal
Bongbo 30,
ng
ng 2022 –
Pilipinas Sara
17 Marcos Federal incumb 2022
Duterte
(born Party of ent
1957) the
(1 year,
Philippine
89 days)
s

The Executive Branch of Government

The Executive branch carries out laws.
It is composed of the President and the Vice
President who are elected by direct popular
vote and serve a term of six years. The
Constitution grants the President authority to
appoint his Cabinet. These departments form
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/about/gov/exec/ a large portion of the country’s bureaucracy.

Key roles of the executive branch include:

 President – The President leads the country. He/she is the head of state, leader
of the national government, and Commander in Chief of all armed forces of the
Philippines. The President serves a six-year term and cannot be re-elected.

 Vice President – The Vice President supports the President. If the President is
unable to serve, the Vice President becomes President. He/she serves a six-year
term.

 The Cabinet – Cabinet members serve as advisors to the President. They

include the Vice President and the heads of executive departments. Cabinet
members are nominated by the President and must be confirmed by the
Commission of Appointments.

Powers of the President

1) Executive Power
President shall have the control of all the executive departments, bureaus,
and offices. He shall ensure that laws are faithfully executed (Article V11,
Sec.17)

2) Power of Appointment
 The President may appoint officials of the Philippine government as provided
by the constitution and laws of the Philippines. Some of these appointments,
however, may need the approval of the Committee on Appointments (a
committee composed of members from the House of Representatives and the
Senate of the Philippines).

3) Power ordinance power

The President of the Philippines has the power to give executive issuances,
which are means to streamline the policy and programs of an administration.
There are six issuances that the President may issue. They are the following as
defined in the Administrative Code of 1987:
a) Executive orders — Acts of the President providing for rules of a general
or permanent character in implementation or execution of constitutional
or statutory powers shall be promulgated in executive orders.
b) Administrative orders — Acts of the President which relate to particular
aspects of governmental operations in pursuance of his duties as the
administrative head shall be promulgated in administrative orders.
c) Proclamations — Acts of the President fixing a date or declaring a status
or condition of public moment or interest, upon the existence of which
the operation of a specific law or regulation is made to depend, shall be
promulgated in proclamations which shall have the force of an executive
order.
d) Memorandum orders — Acts of the President on matters of
administrative detail, or of subordinate or temporary interest which only
concern a particular officer or government office shall be embodied in
memorandum orders.
e) Memorandum circulars — Acts of the President on matters relating to
internal administration, which the President desires to bring to the
attention of all or some of the departments, agencies, bureaus, or offices
of the government, for information or compliance, shall be embodied in
memorandum circulars.
f) General or special orders — Acts and commands of the President in his
capacity as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines
shall be issued as general or special orders.

4) Power of Control
Control – The power of an officer to alter, modify nullify, or set aside what a
subordinate officer had done in the performance of his duties and to
substitute the judgment of the former for that of the latter.
Supervision – Overseeing or the power or authority of an officer to see that
subordinate officers performs their duties. If the latter fail or neglect to fulfill
them, then the former may take such or steps as prescribed by law to make
them perform these duties.

5) Military Powers
a) Commander-in-Chief clause
 To call out the Armed Forces to prevent or suppress lawless
violence, invasion or rebellion (whenever it becomes necessary):
 Vested directly by the Constitution
 Authority to declare a state of rebellion
  Military Tribunals are simply instrumentalities of the executive
power provided by the legislature for the Commander-in-Chief to
aid him in enforcing discipline in the armed forces.
b) Suspension of writ of Habeas Corpus
 A writ directed to the person detaining another, commanding him
to produce the body of the prisoner at a designated time and place
xxx the object of which is the liberation of those who may be in
prison without sufficient cause.
 Ground for suspension: invasion, rebellion, when public safety
requires it.
Effect of suspension of Writ:
 Does not affect the right to bail
 Applies only to persons facing charges of rebellion
 The arrested must be charged within 3 days; if not they
must be released.
c) Martial Law
 Grounds for declaration: Invasion and Rebellion
The following cannot be done:
 Suspend the operation of the Constitution
 Supplant the function of the civil courts and legislative
assemblies
 Violate Open Court Doctrine (civilians cannot be tried by
military courts if the civil courts are open and function)
 Automatically suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus
Meanwhile there are ways to lift proclamation or suspension such as (1) By the
President himself, (2) Revocation by Congress, (3) Nullification by the Supreme Court,
and (IV) By operation of law after 60 days.
6) Pardoning Power
Except in cases of impeachment, or as otherwise provided in this Constitution,
the President may grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons, and remit fines
and forfeitures, after conviction by final judgment.
He shall also have the power to grant amnesty with the concurrence of a
majority of all the Members of the Congress. (Article VII, Sec. 19)

7) Borrowing Power
The President may contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the Republic
of the Philippines with the prior concurrence of the Monetary Board, and
subject to such limitations as may be provided by law. The Monetary Board
shall, within thirty days from the end of every quarter of the calendar year,
submit to the Congress a complete report of its decision on applications for
loans to be contracted or guaranteed by the Government or government-owned
and controlled corporations which would have the effect of increasing the
foreign debt, and containing other matters as may be provided by law. (Article
VII, Sec. 20)

8) Diplomatic Power
No treaty or international agreement shall be valid and effective unless
concurred in by at least two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate. (Article VII,
 Sec. 21) The power to rectify is vested in the President, subject to the
concurrence of the Senate.
Other Foreign affairs powers:
a) power to make affairs powers,
b) the power to appoint ambassadors, public ministers, and consuls,

c) power to receive ambassadors and other public minister

d) deportation power.

9) Budgetary Power
Within 30 days from the opening of every regular session, President shall
submit to Congress a budget or expenditures and sources of financing,
including receipts from existing and proposed revenue measure. Congress may
not increase the appropriation recommended by the President for the operation
of the Government as specified in the budget.

10) Informing Power

The President shall address Congress at the opening of its regular session. He
may also appear before it at any other time. The President usually discharges
the informing power through what is known as the State of the Nation Address
(SONA)

11) Residual Power

As declared by the Supreme Court, the residual power it is the power borne by
the President’s duty to preserve and defend the Constitution. It may also be
viewed as a power implicit in the President’s duty to take care that the laws are
faithfully executed. (Marcos v. Manglapus, 177 SCRA 668) This power has been
further enunciated by the Supreme Court where it stated that “The Presidents
power to conduct investigations to aid him in ensuring the faithful execution of
laws in this case, fundamental laws on public accountability and transparency
is inherent in the President’s powers as the Chief Executive.” Thus, the
Executive Department is given much leeway in ensuring that our laws are
faithfully executed. (Biraogo et al. vs. The Philippine Truth Commission of
2010, G.R. Nos. 192935 and 193036, December 7, 2010).

12) Other Powers

a) Call to Congress to a special session
b) Approve or veto bills
c) Deport Aliens
d) Consent to deputization of government personnel by COMELEC and
discipline them
e) Exercise emergency (war, law, limited, necessary) and Tariff powers
f) Power to classify or reclassify lands

Duties and Responsibilities of Vice President

According to the constitution, the vice president may concurrently assume a
cabinet position should the President of the Philippines offer the former one. The vice
president will become a secretary concurrent to the position of vice president.
 Aside from the cabinet post, the vice president is mandated to assume the
presidency in case of the death, disability, or resignation of the incumbent President.

Power of a Cabinet Secretary

POWERS OF A CABINET SECRETARY
As stated above, a cabinet secretary is the alter ego of the President in their
respective departments. Thus, they possess the power to issue directives relative to
their departments, such as department orders. These orders only apply to offices
under a specific department under the cabinet secretary’s jurisdiction. Cabinet
secretaries also act as advisors to the President of the Philippines for their areas.

The Legislative branch is authorized to make laws, alter, and repeal them through
the power vested in the Philippine Congress. In 1987 Constitution of the Republic Art.
VI, Sec. 1, states that:
“The legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines, which
shall consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives, except to the extent
reserved to the people by the provision on initiative and referendum”.
The Philippine Congress is divided into two houses (bicameral) which are the Upper
House (the Senate) and the Lower House (the House of Representatives).

 The Senate of the Philippines (Article VI, Sec. 2 and 3). There are 24
senators that are elected at large by the electorate (voters). The term of office is
six years. There is no limit for a senator to be elected provided it is not
consecutive for more than two terms.

 The House of Representatives (Article VI, Sec. 5). There are 250 members
that constitutes the Lower House. A member of the House of Representative
shall have a term of three years and can be elected for not more than three
consecutive terms. The regular election is held simultaneously with that of
Senators. There are two kinds of Representatives:

1. District Representatives - elected directly from the congressional districts

they belong based on proportionate representation.
2. Party-list Representatives- elected indirectly via a party-list election
wherein the voter votes for the party and not for the party's nominees. The
elected for party-list representative are not individuals but the registered
sectorial parties that submitted to the COMELEC a list of their nominees in
case they will win.
There are sectors of society that are represented by the Party-List. They include
the youth, women, senior citizens, peasants, urban poor, handicapped,
professionals, LGBT, etc.

Questions:

1. What does the legislative branch do?

2. Who is your district representative?
3. What is the sector of society that you think is the most
underrepresented? Why do you say so?
 Roles of the Philippine Senate and the House of Representatives

1. Policymakers/lawmakers. They make public policy through the passage of

legislation. A law goes through process before it becomes as such. Passing a
bill into a law can take years. Only a small number of bills become law.
First, a bill is drafted, proposed, and presented to the Congress. The
Members of Congress discuss it amongst themselves. They even debate on
it. A bill goes through three readings. They vote and explain why they voted
for approval or rejection of the bill. If the bill is passed in the Congress, the
bill will either be approved or vetoed by the President.
2. Representatives. The members of the Senate represents the entire nation
while the members of the House of Representatives represents their
districts.
3. Constituent servants. They address the problems and needs of the citizens.
4. Committee members. They serve on committees, such as agriculture,
education, health, energy, foreign affairs, etc.
5. Politicians/party members. They work to support their political party
platform

Responsibilities of the Philippine Senate and the House of Representatives

1. Lawmaking. The primary job of the senators and members of the House of
Representatives is creating laws. That is why there are called lawmakers. They
prepare and file bills in order to create laws. They also amend existing laws.

Note: Amend is to change, modify, or revise.

2. Raise and provide public money and oversee its proper expenditure. The
House of Representatives submit budget bill to the Senate which is based on an
expenditure program prepared by the executive branch. The senators examine
and amend it based on the national budget.

3. Impeach and try government officials. Senators serve as judges in an

impeachment trials of government officials accused of committing an
impeachable offense while the Members of the House of Representatives serve as
prosecutors.

Note: Impeachment is a charge against a government official for crimes alleged to

have been committed, ex. graft and corruption, treason, and other actions that
violate public trust.
4. Declare war. Senators, together with House of Representatives, can declare war.
5. Agreement on amnesty. The grant of amnesty by the President needs the
concurrence of Congress.

6. Oversight and investigation. This is the best example of check and balance
between the branches of government. Senators can limit the powers of each
branch of government so that the powers of the other branches are balanced
between them. They also investigate and review how particular laws are
implemented by government agencies. Example of checks and balances: The
president can veto (reject) a bill passed by Congress, but as long as there is a
two-thirds vote in Congress, they can override the veto of the president meaning
the bill can be passed as law.

7. Confirm presidential appointments. The president has the power to appoint

officials but it is subject by the Senate’s confirmation.

8. Approve treaties. A treaty that is entered by the Philippine government can take
effect if at least 16 out 24 senators approve it. Therefore, the Senate can reject a
treaty. In the Philippines, the President can ratify a treaty when the Senate
approves it.

Note: Treaty is a formal written agreement by two or several sovereign states or

international organizations. Ratify means give a formal or official consent to make
a treaty, contract, or agreement valid.

9. Revoke or extend martial law. The Senate, together with the House of
Representatives can revoke (to put an end) or extend martial law or the
suspension of the privilege of writ of habeas corpus