Liberal

UNIT 4 MARXIST*
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 What is Marxism?
4.2.1 Utopian and Scientific Socialism
4.2.2 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism
4.3 Basic Principles of Marxism
4.3.1 Dialectical Materialism
4.3.2 Historical Materialism
4.3.3 Theory of Surplus Value
4.3.4 Class Struggle
4.3.5 Revolution
4.3.6 Dictatorship of the Proletariat
4.3.7 Communism
4.4 Theory of Alienation
4.5 Theory of Freedom
4.6 Critical Appraisal
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 References
4.9 Answers to Check your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, you will read about the theory and practice of Marxism, propounded
by Karl Marx and others. The basic tenets of the philosophy comprising of
dialectical and historical materialism, the theory of surplus value, class struggle,
revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat and communism are discussed at length.
After going through the unit, you should be able to:
Discuss the pre-Marxian strands of socialism such as utopian socialism;
Enumerate, describe and discuss the basic postulates of Marxism;
Comment on other important components of the Marxist theory such as the
theories of alienation and freedom and finally; and
Critique Marxism as well as comment on its contemporary relevance.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The present unit aims at examining and explaining the principles of Marxism,
which is the most revolutionary ideology of our age. Along with liberalism,
Marxism ranks as the most important philosophy of our time. Liberalism, Idealism
and Marxism are the three important theories of Political Science. C.L Wayper
has divided various views regarding the state into three parts, viz., state as a

* Prof. Tejpratap Singh, Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, adapted from Unit 26, EPS-11
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Approaches to Political machine (organic view), as an organism (mechanistic view) and as a class (class
Theory
view). The organic view is idealism, the mechanistic view is Liberalism and the
class view is Marxism. The present unit is subdivided into the definition of
Marxism, Utopian and Scientific Socialism, Revolutionary and Evolutionary
Socialism, the main principles of Marxism, a critique and a conclusion.

4.2 WHAT IS MARXISM ?

Marxism generally refers to the ideas of the German philosopher, Karl Marx.
But Marxism does not mean exclusively the ideas of Marx. It includes the ideas
of Marx, Friedrich Engels and their supporters, who call themselves Marxists.
Thus, Marxism refers to the body of ideas, which predominantly contains the
ideas of Karl Marx. Marxism is a living philosophy. Marxist thinkers are
continuously contributing to the philosophy of Marxism. Thus, it is said that
Marx is dead, but Marxism is still alive. The Marxist philosophy existed even
before the birth of Karl Marx. This is the reason David Mclellan has written
three volumes on Marxism, viz., Marxism before Marx; Thought of Karl Marx
and Marxism after Marx. Similarly, the Polish thinker Leszek Kolakowski has
authored three volumes on Marxism. The point once again is that Marxism does
not mean only the ideas of Karl Marx.

4.2.1 Utopian and Scientific Socialism

As said earlier, Marxism existed before Marx. These are known as the early
socialist thinkers. Karl Marx calls them Utopian Socialists. They were utopian,
because their diagnosis of the social ills was correct, but their remedy was wrong.
It was impracticable, and therefore, they were called utopian. The world ‘utopia’
was derived from a novel of Thomas Moore titled, ‘Utopia.’ It refers to an
imaginary island, called Utopia, where a perfect socio-economic- political system
existed. There was no exploitation and people were happy. Some important
utopian socialist thinkers are Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Saint
Simon, Sismondi and Proudhon. Marx calls his socialism as ‘Scientific
Socialism’. It is scientific, because it offers the economic interpretation of history
by using the scientific methodology of dialectical materialism. It explains not
only the true causes of exploitation, but also offers the scientific remedy of
revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat to cure the social ills of exploitation.
It not only offers scientific reasons for class division and also struggle in society,
but also provides for a scientific mechanism to establish a classless and
exploitation less society.

4.2.2 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism

Socialism is further divided into evolutionary and revolutionary socialism.
Evolutionary socialism does not believe in revolution and wants to attain
socialism through peaceful means. Evolutionary Socialists have faith in
parliamentary democracy and want to bring social change through the ballot.
They eschew violence and so, are opposed to a violent revolution. They also do
not subscribe to the dictatorship of the proletariat and advocate a peaceful
democratic transition from a class divided to a classless society. Fabian Socialism,
Guild Socialism, Democratic Socialism are all various types of evolutionary
socialism. Revolutionary socialism, on the other hand, believes in class struggle,
48 revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat. According to them, social change
cannot be peaceful. It has to be violent. A peaceful revolution is a contradiction Marxist
in terms. Revolution is the midwife of social change, and this revolution must
be violent. Revolutionary Marxism is generally identified with the scientific
socialism of Karl Marx. Syndicalism is also a type of revolutionary socialism.

Evolutionary socialism also traces its roots from the ideas of Karl Marx and
Engels. They have talked about the withering away of the state. Exponents of
evolutionary socialism have picked up the theory of withering away of the state,
and argued that gradually through peaceful means, social change can be effected
and an exploitation free and classless society can be established. However, the
critics of evolutionary socialism do not accept this thesis, and argue that the
idea of withering away of the state applies only to the socialist state or the
dictatorship of the proletariat and not to the capitalist state. It will never wither
away. It has to be smashed through a violent revolution. Therefore, the logic of
evolutionary socialism is flawed.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Distinguish between Utopian and Scientific Socialism.
or
between Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism.
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4.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MARXISM

The basic tenets of Marxism are the following: dialectical materialism, historical
materialism, the theory of surplus value, class struggle, revolution, dictatorship
of the proletariat and communism. Now, these principles will be discussed in
detail.

4.3.1 Dialectical Materialism

Dialectical materialism is the scientific methodology developed by Marx and
Engels for the interpretation of history. Here, Marx has borrowed heavily from
his predecessors, particularly, the German philosopher Hegel. Dialectics is a
very old methodology, employed to discover truth by exposing contradictions,
through a clash of opposite ideas. Hegel refined it by developing the trilogy of
thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis. It is popularly known as the Dialectical Triad.
Progress or growth takes place through the dialectical process. At every stage of
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Approaches to Political growth, it is characterised by contradictions. These contradictions induce further
Theory
changes, progress, and development. The thesis is challenged by its anti-thesis.
Both contain elements of truth and falsehood. Truth is permanent, but falsehood
is transitory. In the ensuing conflict of the thesis and the anti-thesis, the truth
remains, but the false elements are destroyed. These false elements constitute
contradictions. The true elements of both the thesis and the anti-thesis are fused
together in a synthesis. This evolved synthesis during the course of time becomes
a thesis and so, it is again challenged by its opposite anti-thesis, which again
results in a synthesis. This process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis continues
until the stage of perfection is reached. In this evolutionary process, a stage will
come, when there will be no false elements. These will be destroyed at different
stages of evolution. Ultimately, only the truth remains, because it is never
destroyed. It will constitute the perfect stage and there will be no contradictions
and so, there will be no further growth. The dialectical process will come to an
end after arriving at the perfect truth. It is the contradictions, which move the
dialectical process and a complete elimination of contradictions marks the end
of the dialectical process itself.

For materialism, Marx is highly indebted to the French school of materialism,

mainly the French materialist thinker Ludwig Feuerbach. It is the matter, which
is the ultimate reality and not the idea. The latter is a reflection of the former.
How we earn our bread determines our ideas. It is not the consciousness of men
that determines their existence but, on the contrary, it is their social existence
that determines their consciousness. Marx has observed that “Hegel’s dialectics
was standing on its head and I have put it on its feet”. Hegel has developed
dialectical idealism. For him, it is the idea, which ultimately matters. Idea lies in
the base or the sub-structure, which determines everything in the superstructure.
Society, polity, economy are in this superstructure which is shaped by the
prevalent dominant ideas of the age. Ultimately it is the idea, which matters,
and the other things are only its reflection. Marx replaced idea with matter.
According to Marx, the material or the economic forces are in the substructure
and the idea is a part of the superstructure. Idea is the reflection of material
forces. The economic forces determine the idea and not vice-versa.

Thus, Marx has reversed the position of idea and matter. This is the reason that
he claims that “in Hegel it was upside down and I have corrected it”. The base
or the substructure consists of the forces of production and the relations of
production. These two together constitute the mode of production. When there
is a change in the forces of production because of development in technology, it
brings changes in the relations of production. Thus, a change in the mode of
production brings a corresponding change in the superstructure. Society, polity,
religion, morals, values, norms, etc. are a part of the superstructure and shaped
by the mode of production.

4.3.2 Historical Materialism

Historical materialism is the application of dialectical materialism to the
interpretation of history. It is the economic interpretation of world history by
applying the Marxian methodology of dialectical materialism. The world history
has been divided into four stages: primitive communism, the slavery system,
feudalism and capitalism. Primitive communism refers to the earliest part of
human history. It was a propertyless, exploitationless, classless and stateless
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society. Means of production were backward, because technology was Marxist
undeveloped. The community owned the means of production. They were not
under private ownership and so there was no exploitation. Stone made hunting
weapons, the fishing net and hooks were the means of production. The entire
community owned these. Production was limited and meant for self-consumption.
There was no surplus production and so there was no private property. Since
there was no private property, there was no exploitation. Since there was no
exploitation, there was no class division. Since there was no class division, there
was no class struggle. Since there was no class struggle, there was no state. It
was, thus, a communist society, but of a primitive type. Though life was difficult,
it was characterized by the absence of exploitation, conflict and struggle.

Technology is not static; it evolves continuously. Technological development

results in the improvement of production. This leads to surplus production, which
results in the emergence of private property. Means of production are now not
under the community, but private ownership. Society is, thus, divided into
property owning and propertyless classes. By virtue of the ownership of the
means of production, the property owning class exploits the propertyless class.
Class division in society and exploitation cause class struggle. Since there is
class struggle, the dominant class, the property owning class creates an institution
called the state to suppress the dissent of the dependent class which is the
propertyless class. Thus, the state is a class instrument and a coercive institution.
It protects the interests of its creator, the property owning class. In the beginning,
this society is divided into masters and slaves. Masters are the haves and the
slaves are the have nots. The slaves carry out all the production work. The masters
live on the labour of slaves. They exploit the slaves and whenever the slaves
resent, the state comes to the rescue of the masters. Thus, the state serves the
interests of the master class. It uses its coercive powers to suppress the voice of
the slaves.

The slave system is succeeded by feudalism. Technological development leads

to changes in the means of production and this brings about corresponding
changes in the relations of production and the superstructure. The slave system
is replaced by the feudal mode of production and it is reflected in the society,
polity, morality and the value system. The division of society into feudal lords
and peasants characterizes feudalism. The feudal lords own the means of
production, that is land, but the peasants carry out the production work. By
virtue of ownership of the land, the feudal lords get a huge share of the produce
without doing anything. Thus, the feudal lords are like parasites, who thrive on
the labour of peasants. Feudal lords exploit the peasants and if the peasants ever
resist their exploitation, their resistance is ruthlessly crushed by the state, which
protects and serves the interests of the feudal lords. The peasants are a dependent
and exploited class, whereas the lords are a dominant and exploiting class.

Capitalism succeeds feudalism. Technological development continues and so

there is change in the forces of production, which leads to a mismatch between
the forces of production and the relations of production, which is resolved through
a revolution. Thus the contradiction between the forces of production and the
relations of production is resolved. The feudal mode of production is replaced
by the capitalist mode of production. Division of society into the bourgeois and
the proletariat class characterises capitalism. The bourgeois class owns the means
of production, but the proletariat class carries out the production. Proletariats
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Approaches to Political are the industrial workers. They sell their labour in lieu of meager wages. It is
Theory
usually a subsistence wage, which is sufficient only to support them and their
families, so that an uninterrupted supply of labour force can be maintained.
Production is not for consumption by the self, but for profit. The desire to
maximise profit leads to a reduction in wages and a rise in working hours. This
further deteriorates the lot of the working class, which is eventually pushed into
a situation, where it has nothing to lose except its chains. This paves the way for
the proletariat revolution.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain in your own words the meaning of Dialectical Materialism.
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2) Enumerate and describe the salient features of either primitive communism

or feudalism.
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4.3.3 Theory of Surplus Value

Marx has developed the theory of surplus value to explain the exploitation in
the capitalist society. Here, Marx was influenced by the theories of classical
economists. He subscribed to the labour theory of value. The value of a
commodity is determined by the amount of labour consumed in its production.
Labour is also a commodity. It can be bought and sold like other commodities.
Out of the four factors of production, labour is the most vital. In its absence, the
other factors of production are useless. Land, capital and organisation are the
other factors of production. It is the application of labour to these factors of
production, which makes them productive. In the absence of labour, they are
sterile. If a wage is paid in proportion to the amount of value created by a labourer,
then there is no exploitation, But this is not the case in capitalism. Labour is
unique in the sense that it creates more value than is required for its maintenance.
The difference between the value created by the worker and the value paid to
the worker, as wages, constitute the surplus value and the profit of the capitalist.
For instance, if a worker has created a value of say Rs. 25,000 in a month and
has been paid Rs. 15,000 as wages, then the remaining Rs. 10,000 will constitute
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the profit of the capitalist. Thus, the worker always creates more value than he Marxist
is actually paid. This surplus value created by the worker is the profit of the
bourgeois, which has been defended by the classical economists, because it leads
to capital accumulation, which is invested further in new industries and
enterprises and leads to growth and prosperity. For the Marxists, it is the
exploitation of the workers, which has to be abolished.
With the growth of capitalism and the rise in competition, the wages of the
workers continue to fall and reach the stage of subsistence level. Subsistence
wage is the minimum possible wage; beyond this the wage cannot be reduced. It
is the minimum possible wage for the survival and perpetuation of the labour
force. Thus, cut throat competition in capitalism leads to deterioration of the lot
of the proletariat. This intensifies class struggle and eventually leads to revolution.

4.3.4 Class Struggle

According to Marx, the history of all hitherto existing society has been the history
of class struggle. Except the primitive communist stage, all historical ages have
been characterised by the antagonism between the dominant and dependent
classes or the haves and the have nots. This antagonism is caused by class
contradictions; it is the result of exploitation by the property owning class of the
property less class. Throughout history, there have been two contending classes
in every epoch. In the slavery system, they were the masters and the slaves, in
feudalism, the feudal lords and the peasants and in capitalism, the bourgeois
and the proletariat. The masters, the feudal lords and the bourgeois are the owners
of the means of production. However, it is the slaves, the peasants and the
proletariat, who carry out production, but their produce is taken away by their
exploiters and in return, they are given just enough for their survival. By virtue
of the ownership of the means of production, the property owning class exploits
the propertyless class. This is the main source and cause of class struggle. The
interests of the contending classes are irreconcilable. No compromise or
rapprochement is possible between the contending classes. The inherent
contradictions of contending classes of every epoch can be resolved only through
the annihilation of the exploiting classes.

4.3.5 Revolution
Class struggle paves the way for revolution. Class struggle is imperceptible, but
revolution is perceptible. Intensification of class struggle prepares the ground
for revolution. Class struggle is a long drawn affair, but revolution is short,
swift and violent. In the words of Marx, ‘revolution is the indispensable mid-
wife of social change’. Transition from one historical stage to another occurs
through revolution. Feudal revolution brought an end to the slavery system; the
bourgeois revolution ended feudalism and the proletariat revolution will bring
an end to capitalism. Thus, any epoch making social change is always brought
about by a revolution. Revolution occurs when there is incompatibility between
the means or forces of production and the relations of production. To resolve
this incompatibility, revolution occurs, which brings corresponding changes in
the relations of production and the superstructure to make it compatible with the
forces or means of production. Technological development brings changes in
the means of production. The hand-mill gives you a society with the feudal lord,
and the steam-mill, a society with the industrial capitalist.
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Approaches to Political Proletarian revolution will be the last revolution in the annals of history.
Theory
Revolution occurs to resolve contradictions. So revolution will not take place, if
there is no contradiction in society. After the proletarian revolution, there will
not be any further revolution, because there will be no contradiction. However,
revolution will take place only when the forces of production have fully matured.
Revolution cannot be advanced or postponed. It will occur when the forces of
production have matured and do not match the relations of production. Revolution
brings an end to this mismatch. The sequence and direction of social evolution
cannot be changed. No stage can overleap another stage. No stage can be short-
circuited. Primitive communism will lead to the slavery system, the slavery
system to feudalism and feudalism to capitalism. Dictatorship of the proletariat
or socialism will succeed capitalism, which is the penultimate stage of social
evolution. Dictatorship of the proletariat will eventually lead to the establishment
of communism. With the proletarian revolution, revolution itself will come to
an end.

4.3.6 Dictatorship of the Proletariat

The proletariat revolution will lead to the establishment of the dictatorship of
the proletariat. It is also known as the socialist state. The state apparatus created
by the bourgeois to oppress the proletariat will be taken over by the proletariat
themselves. Now, the table will be turned and the proletariat will use the state
apparatus against the bourgeois. The bourgeois will try to stage a counter-
revolution to restore the old system and so, the coercive institutions of the state
are needed to restrain the bourgeois. The state has always been the instrument
of oppression. The dominant class to oppress the dependent class has created
the state. It is a class instrument. The state protects and serves the interests of its
creator, which is the property owning class. This class has always been in a
minority, whether it is the masters or the feudal lords or the capitalists. Thus, a
minority has been oppressing a majority viz., the slaves or the peasants or the
proletariat through the coercive organs of the state. Under the dictatorship of the
proletariat, for the first time the state comes under the control of the majority.
Now, for the first time, the state’s coercive apparatus is used by the majority
against the minority.

According to Marx, all states have been dictatorships and so the socialist state is
no exception. It is also a dictatorship. The state has always been used by one
class to suppress the other class. In the socialist state, the proletariat class will
use the coercive organs of the state such as the army, the police, prison, judicial
system etc., against the bourgeois class. Marx argues that if democracy means
the rule of the majority, then the proletariat state is the most democratic state,
because for the first time in the annals of history, power comes into the hands of
the majority. Before the proletariat state, power has always been in the hands of
the minority. So if majority rule is the criterion, then only the proletariat state
can be called a democratic state.

4.3.7 Communism
Under the living care of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the socialist state will
blossom forth into communism. Socialism is a transitory stage. It will pave the
way for the eventual emergence of communism which is stable and permanent.
This will be the phase of social evolution. After the establishment of communism,
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there will be no further social change. The dialectical process will come to an Marxist
end. A perfect, rational social system will be established, free from antagonisms
and contradictions. There will be no class contradictions and so, no class struggle.
In fact, communism will be a classless, stateless, private propertyless and
exploitationless society. In a communist society, there will be no private property
in the form of private ownership of the means of production. The means of
production will be under the ownership of the community. Cooperation and not
cutthroat competition will be the basis of communist society. Production will be
for consumption and not to earn profit. Profit motive will be replaced by social
needs. Since there will be no private property, there will be no exploitation.
Since there will be no exploitation, there will be no class division, no property
owning and propertyless class, no haves and have nots or no dominant and
dependent class. Since there is no class division, there is no class struggle and
so no need of the state. This is the reason why a communist society will be a
classless and stateless society. State is the instrument of exploitation. It is a
class instrument and a result of class division in society. Since there is only one
class of workers in communism and no other class to suppress or oppress, there
will not be any need of the state. It will become redundant in a communist
society. It will be relegated to the museum. The state, however, will not be
smashed; it will gradually wither away. Communist society will be governed by
the Louise Blanc principle of ‘from each according to his capacity to each
according to his need’. There will be no place for parasites. He who will not
work will not eat also. There will be only one class of workers. The entire society
will be converted into the working class. There will be no place for exploitation.
It will be an egalitarian society. There will be harmonious relationship among
the people.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What is the theory of surplus value?
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2) Explain the concept of class struggle.

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Approaches to Political 3) Enumerate and describe the salient features of a communist society.
Theory
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4.4 THEORY OF ALIENATION

There have been two distinct phases in the Marxist philosophy. Economic and
Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, present the human face of Marxism. In the
Manuscripts, Capitalism has been analysed without reference to class antagonism,
class struggle and violent revolution. Here, the evil influences of capitalism
have been explained through alienation and loss of identity and freedom. These
views of Marx have been identified with a younger Marx. There occurs an
epistemological break in Marx’s philosophy with the writing of Communist
Manifesto in 1848. The later Marx is known as mature Marx, who developed
the theory of scientific socialism. Marx’s earlier ideas were discovered only in
1932, with the publication of the Manuscripts. The theory of alienation is an
important Marxian concept. The Hungarian Marxist George Lukacs had
developed the theory of alienation entirely on his own even before the publication
of Manuscripts in 1932. However, the concept of alienation became popular
only after the publication of the Manuscripts. Marx has identified four levels of
alienation. Firstly, man is alienated from his own product and from his work
process, because the worker plays no part in deciding what to produce and how
to produce it. Secondly, man is alienated from nature. His work does not give
him a sense of satisfaction as a creative worker. Under mechanisation, work
tends to become increasingly routinised and monotonous. Thirdly, man is
alienated from other men. The competitive character of the capitalist system
forces everyone to live at someone else’s expense and divides society into
antagonistic classes. Lastly, man is alienated from himself. The realm of necessity
dominates his life and reduces him to the level of an animal existence, leaving
no time for a taste of literature, art, and cultural heritage. The capitalist system
subordinates all human faculties and qualities to the conditions created by the
private ownership of capital and property. The capitalist himself, no less than
the worker, becomes a slave of the tyrannical rule of money.

4.5 THEORY OF FREEDOM

As a humanist philosophy, Marxism is primarily a philosophy of human freedom.
Freedom consists not only in securing material satisfaction of human needs, but
also in removing the conditions of dehumanisation, estrangement and alienation.
The capitalist system is characterised by necessity as opposed to freedom.
Necessity refers to the conditions under which the inevitable laws of nature
govern the life of man. These laws of nature exist independent of man’s will.
Man can acquire scientific knowledge of these laws, but cannot change them at
his will. Freedom does not consist in an escape from necessity. Freedom lies in
the knowledge of these laws of nature and the capacity to make these laws work
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towards the definite end of the emancipation of human society. Thus, a sound Marxist
knowledge of the productive forces operating behind the capitalist system and a
programme to make these forces work toward human ends were essential
instruments of human freedom. Only a programme of socialist revolution would
accomplish humanity’s leap from the kingdom of necessity to the kingdom of
freedom. The emancipation of human society and the realisation of true freedom
is possible only with the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of
communism.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss either the theory of alienation or the theory of freedom.
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4.6 CRITICAL APPRAISAL

Marxism has been subjected to severe criticism. It has simplified the class division
of society into two classes, the haves and the have nots. This is far from the
reality. Society is very complex and is divided into numerous groups. There is
no clear cut division of classes as envisaged by Marxism. Moreover, there exists
a huge middle class. Marxian thinkers predicted that with the advancement of
capitalism, the middle class would disappear and merge with the proletariat
class. But this has not happened so far and there is no possibility of it ever
happening. In fact, the reverse has happened; the middle class has strengthened
its position and increased its size. Marxists also predicted the narrowing of the
capitalist class. Here again, just the opposite has happened. Instead of shrinking,
the base of the capitalist class has been enlarged. Marx predicted the accumulation
of capital, but there has been the dispersal of capital. The condition of the
proletariat class has not deteriorated as predicted by Marx. Thus, the actual
working of the capitalist system has proved the Marxist theory of classes to be
wrong.

Marxists had predicted that the inherent contradictions of capitalism would lead
to its collapse. But this has not happened so far. No advanced capitalist system
has collapsed. Capitalism has proved its resilience. It is the socialist system,
which has collapsed in various parts of the world. Capitalism has the tremendous
capacity of adaptation. This is the main reason for its survival. Marx failed to
assess capitalism correctly. According to Marx, the proletarian revolution will
occur only when capitalism has matured. There is no chance of the proletarian
revolution occurring and succeeding in a backward feudal society. But this is
exactly, what has happened in reality. Revolution has taken place only in feudal
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Approaches to Political societies such as Russia, China, Vietnam, Cuba etc. This was the main issue of
Theory
debate between two factions of Russian Marxists, the Mensheviks led by
Plekhanov and the Bolsheviks led by Lenin. Ultimately, the Bolsheviks prevailed
over the Mensheviks, but the latter were closer to classical Marxist teachings.
According to Marx, his teachings can lessen the birth pangs, but cannot short
circuit the various stages of social evolution. However, Lenin and Trotsky in
Russia and Mao in China established communism in a feudal society without
going through the process of first establishing capitalism. To resolve this obvious
contradiction, Trotsky developed the theory of Permanent Revolution. He fused
the bourgeois revolution with the proletarian revolution in his theory. These two
revolutions can occur simultaneously in the view of Trotsky. Though this seems
to be a more practical view, it does not confirm to the basic Marxian principles.
The Marxian theory of economic determinism has been severely criticised. It is
not only the economic factor, but other factors also that are equally important in
bringing about social change. If economy determines polity, society, morality,
value system etc., then economy itself is shaped by these. It is a two way process.
Economic forces are not immune to the influences of polity, society, culture,
religion, values, norms etc. If the base or the substructure shapes the
superstructure, then the superstructure also shapes the substructure. Thus, the
theory of economic determinism cannot be accepted. Later Marxist thinkers
like Gramsci accepted the important role of the superstructure.

The Marxian concepts of the dictatorship of the proletariat and communism

suffer from several flaws. After the proletarian revolution, the proletariat will
seize the state apparatus from the bourgeois. With the establishment of
communism, the state will become redundant and will gradually wither away.
This has not happened. In socialist society, the state in fact became all-powerful.
This is evident from examples of Stalin and Mao in Soviet Union and China
respectively. Instead of weakening, the state has consolidated its position and
there is no possibility of its fading away. The Marxian dream of a stateless society
will never be realised. The state will continue to play a leading role in a socialist
and communist society and there is no possibility of it ever being relegated to
the museum. The socialist state, wherever it has been established, has either
been overthrown or discredited. Wherever, it is still surviving, it has been
compelled to introduce wide ranging changes, which do not confirm to the
teachings of classical Marxism. Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe,
disintegration of Soviet Union and economic reforms in China have prompted
thinkers like Francis Fukuyama to write obituary of Marxism. Fukuyama in his
famous book End of History proclaims the triumph of capitalism over
communism in the post-cold war world. According to him, with the victory of
capitalism over communism, history has come to an end. Here, Fukuyama talks
of history in the Hegelean sense. After capitalism, there will be no further
economic and political evolution. Capitalism is the most rational and perfect
system.

It is the most perfect ideology and philosophy. So, ideological and philosophical
evolution comes to an end with the emergence of capitalism. Its main challenger
Communism has been defeated and this further proves its claim that it is the
best possible social, economic and political system ever evolved by humanity.
It is very difficult to accept the thesis propounded by Fukuyama. The importance
of Marxism lies in two fields. Firstly, it has been used as a tool for social analysis.
Secondly, it gives a voice to the voiceless. It is the philosophy of the poor, the
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oppressed and the suppressed people. If the contribution of Marxism is analysed Marxist
in these two fields, we will reach the conclusion that it is still relevant and has
not become redundant as claimed by the liberal critics. Marxism as an approach
of social analysis is still relevant as it was in the past. Its importance as a method
of social analysis will never diminish, irrespective of whether the socialist state
survives or not.

Marxism as an ideology has definitely lost its edge, but it has not become totally
redundant. As long as exploitation will continue, people will be oppressed and
suppressed, Marxism will remain relevant. Marxism as a philosophy of the
exploited and the oppressed will continue to inspire the masses to strive for
their emancipation. So there is no question of its defeat and irrelevance. In fact
the systems, which have collapsed, were not organised on classical Marxian
principles. They were a variant of Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism. So it is the
Leninist-Stalinist systems, which have collapsed in Europe and elsewhere and
not classical Marxism. Marxism as an approach will continue to be used by
scholars for social analysis and the exploited-oppressed people will continue to
espouse Marxist philosophy for their emancipation. Here, Marxism will never
become irrelevant. It will always provide an alternative philosophy to liberalism.
Marxism will also act as an effective check on the excesses of liberalism. It will
mitigate the rigors of the capitalist system.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss the major grounds of attack on the Marxist theory.
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2) Examine the contemporary relevance of Marxism.

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4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed various kinds of socialism such as utopian and
scientific socialism, evolutionary and revolutionary socialism. The basic
principles of Marxism such as dialectical materialism, historical materialism,
surplus value, class straggle, revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat, 59
Approaches to Political communism have been discussed in detail. These principles constitute the
Theory
foundation of scientific and revolutionary socialism. Marxism is not only the
philosophy of class antagonism, class conflict, class struggle and violent
revolution. It is basically a philosophy of humanism and freedom. Capitalist
society has led to the estrangement, alienation and loss of identity and freedom.
We find the human face of Marx in his early writings, particularly in his Economic
and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. In the theory of alienation and freedom,
we find a humanist Marx. In the Communist Manifesto and Das Capital, which
are his later writings, we find a mature and revolutionary Marx. Thus, there are
two Marx’s, a younger and humanist Marx and a mature and revolutionary Marx.
However, there is no dichotomy between the two. There is a continuity of thought
between the two and so any distinction is superficial. Marxism is a living
philosophy. After Marx it has been enriched by Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin, Rosa
Luxembourg, Gramsci, Lukacs, Althusser, Mao etc. Exponents of the end of
ideology and the end of history have written off Marxism. But Marxism as an
approach for social analysis and the philosophy of the oppressed class will
continue to be relevant. It will inspire the masses to strive for their emancipation.
Marxism is a revolutionary philosophy. It is a philosophy of social change. In
the words of Marx, philosophers have sought to interpret the world; what matters,
however, is to change it. It aims to establish an egalitarian society, free from
exploitation of one class by another. Only through Marxism, arguably, humanity
will take a leap from the realm of necessity to the realm of freedom.

4.8 REFERENCES
Avineri, Shlomo. (1971). The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berlin, Isaiah. (1996). Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Fukuyama, Francis. (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. New York:
Free Press.
Tucker, Robert. (1961). Philosophy and Myth of Karl Marx. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
McClelland, J.S. (1996). A History of Western Political Thought. London:
Routledge.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer should mention the word ‘Utopia’ and the names of Utopian
Socialists, how Marx’s socialism is scientific and not that of Utopian
Socialists and also mention use of violence for social change in evolutionary
versus revolutionary socialism.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Your answer should explain the meaning of Dialectics and highlight how
matter is privileged over idea.
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2) Your answer should highlight that under primitive communism ownership Marxist
of the means of production was vested in the community and that production
was for self-consumption and not for profit. Regarding feudalism mention
the division of society into feudal lords and peasants and how the former
exploited the latter.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Your answer should:
Highlight how a capitalist generates profit by always under pricing the
labour put into the production of a commodity.
2) Your answer should:
Highlight how in every stage of history, there has been a conflict between
the property owning and propertyless classes.
3) Your answer should:
Highlight how it is a classless, exploitation less and stateless society.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Your answer should:
Mention Marx’s Economic and Political Manuscripts of 1844 and
younger Marx.
Highlight four forms of alienation mentioned by Marx.
Check Your Progress 5
1) Your answer should:
Highlight How Marx’s class division is simplistic.
How capitalism survived and socialism collapsed.
How state has not withered away.
Critique of economic determinism.
2) Your answer should:
Highlights its utility in social analysis.
Elaborate its contribution as a philosophy of the oppressed.

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