AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC DOUBLE AXIS

WELDING MACHINE

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ABSTRACT:

The main focus of the project is to weld a given job in x-y axis to a particular
length. In this modern world minimizing production cost, time and manpower is
essential. Especially welding plays an important role in the field of fabrication.
Automated x-y axis welding fixture reduces manpower and time for an identical product.
The construction of this welding fixture consists of a movable (longitudinal and cross
wise) arrangement. The welding torch is fixed on the cross-traveling arm. The
longitudinal and cross traveling is achieved by motorized wheel and chain arrangement.
The movements can be controlled by a microcontroller. So that the welding on a
particular job in the x and y direction can be achieved.

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 CHAPTER:1

1.INTRODUCTION

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics, etc.,

of these sources, pneumatics form an attractive medium for low cost automation.
Automation plays an important role in automobile. Nowadays almost all the machines are
being atomized in order to product the human being. The automobile vehicle is being
atomized for the following reasons.

 To achieve high safety

 To reduce man power
 To increase the efficiency of the vehicle
 To reduce the work load
 To reduce the vehicle accident
 To reduce the fatigue of workers
 To high responsibility
 Less Maintenance cost

I.DESCRIPTION OF ASSEMBLY

The assembly unit consists of a base block, cylinders, rack and pinion, base plate,
tie rods, solenoid valves and gripper. Cylinder 1 is mounted on the base block with rack
and pinion assembly connected with tie rods. The vertical cylinder is mounted vertically
over the base plate to increase the height with a block and endplate provided at the end.
The horizontal cylinder is mounted on the block of the vertical cylinder horizontally to
increase length of the arm with a block and end plate provided at the end position.

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II. PRINCIPLE AND WORKING

The experimental setup consists of four cylinders, all are of double acting type.
The cylinder1 is used to actuate rack and pinion assembly, piston rod of cylinder 1is
connected to rack, which is meshed with the pinion. By operating the cylinder1, rack and
pinion turns the whole assembly for 180 degree. By varying the length of the rack the
turning angle can be altered. Vertical cylinder or cylinder2 is used to increase the height
of the setup. The height is limited to piston rod length.

III COMPONENTS USED

 Welding machine (Welding Holder)

 Pneumatic cylinders
 Solenoid valves
 Base frame

CHAPTER-2

2.PNEUMATICS

PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinder(s) (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical

devices which use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear
motion.

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 Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be
moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, and do
not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.

Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics are
used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets.

2.1 OPERATION

General

Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the piston and, hence,
imparts force on the piston. Consequently, the piston becomes displaced.

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2.1.1 Compressibility of gasses

One major issue engineers come across working with pneumatic cylinders has to do with
the compressibility of a gas. Many studies have been completed on how the precision of a
pneumatic cylinder can be affected as the load acting on the cylinder tries to further compress the
gas used. Under a vertical load, a case where the cylinder takes on the full load, the precision of
the cylinder is affected the most. A study at the National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan,
concluded that the accuracy is about ± 30 nm, which is still within a satisfactory range but shows
that the compressibility of air has an effect on the system.

2.1.2 Fail safe mechanisms

Pneumatic systems are often found in settings where even rare and brief system failure is
unacceptable. In such situations locks can sometimes serve as a safety mechanism in case of loss
of air supply (or its pressure falling) and, thus remedy or abate any damage arising in such a
situation. Leakage of air from the input or output reduces the pressure and so the desired output.

2.2 TYPES

Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function, they generally
fall into one of the specific categories shown below. However, there are also numerous other

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types of pneumatic cylinder available, many of which are designed to fulfill specific and
specialized functions.

2.2.1 Single-Acting Cylinders

Single-acting cylinders (SAC) use the pressure imparted by compressed air to create a
driving force in one direction (usually out), and a spring to return to the "home" position. More
often than not, this type of cylinder has limited extension due to the space the compressed spring
takes up. Another downside to SACs is that part of the force produced by the cylinder is lost as it
tries to push against the spring.

2.2.2 Double-Acting Cylinders

Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both extend and retract
strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for in stroke. Stroke
length for this design is not limited, however, the piston rod is more vulnerable to buckling and
bending. Additional calculations should be performed as well.

2.2.3 Multi-Stage, Telescoping Cylinder

Telescoping cylinders, also known as telescopic cylinders can be either single or double-
acting. The telescoping cylinder incorporates a piston rod nested within a series of hollow stages
of increasing diameter. Upon actuation, the piston rod and each succeeding stage "telescopes"
out as a segmented piston. The main benefit of this design is the allowance for a notably longer
stroke than would be achieved with a single-stage cylinder of the same collapsed (retracted)
length. One cited drawback to telescoping cylinders is the increased potential for piston flexion
due to the segmented piston design. Consequently, telescoping cylinders are primarily utilized in
applications where the piston bears minimal side loading.

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 Fig:pneumatic telescoping cylinder, 8-stages, single-acting, retracted and extended

2.3 OTHER TYPES

Although SACs and DACs are the most common types of pneumatic cylinder, the following
types are not particularly rare:

 Through rod air cylinders: piston rod extends through both sides of the cylinder, allowing
for equal forces and speeds on either side.

 Cushion end air cylinders: cylinders with regulated air exhaust to avoid impacts between
the piston rod and the cylinder end cover.

 Rotary air cylinders: actuators that use air to impart a rotary motion.

 Rodless air cylinders: These have no piston rod. They are actuators that use a mechanical
or magnetic coupling to impart force, typically to a table or other body that moves along
the length of the cylinder body, but does not extend beyond it.

 Tandem air cylinder: two cylinders assembled in series

 Impact air cylinder: high velocity cylinders with specially designed end covers that
withstand the impact of extending or retracting piston rods.

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2.3.1 Rodless Cylinders

Some rod less types have a slot in the wall of the cylinder that is closed off for much of
its length by two flexible metal sealing bands. The inner one prevents air from escaping, while
the outer one protects the slot and inner band. The piston is actually a pair of them, part of a
comparatively long assembly. They seal to the bore and inner band at both ends of the assembly.
Between the individual pistons, however, are camming surfaces that "peel off" the bands as the
whole sliding assembly moves toward the sealed volume, and "replace" them as the assembly
moves away from the other end. Between the camming surfaces is part of the moving assembly
that protrudes through the slot to move the load. Of course, this means that the region where the
sealing bands are not in contact is at atmospheric pressure.

Another type has cables (or a single cable) extending from both (or one) end[s] of the
cylinder. The cables are jacketed in plastic (nylon, in those referred to), which provides a smooth
surface that permits sealing the cables where they pass through the ends of the cylinder. Of
course, a single cable has to be kept in tension.

Still others have magnets inside the cylinder, part of the piston assembly, that pull along
magnets outside the cylinder wall. The latter are carried by the actuator that moves the load. The
cylinder wall is thin, to ensure that the inner and outer magnets are near each other. Multiple
modern high-flux magnet groups transmit force without disengaging or excessive resilience.

2.4 DESIGN

2.4.1 Construction

Depending on the job specification, there are multiple forms of body constructions available:

 Tie rod cylinders: The most common cylinder constructions that can be used in many
types of loads. Has been proven to be the safest form.

 Flanged-type cylinders: Fixed flanges are added to the ends of cylinder, however, this
form of construction is more common in hydraulic cylinder construction.

 One-piece welded cylinders: Ends are welded or crimped to the tube, this form is
inexpensive but makes the cylinder non-serviceable.

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  Threaded end cylinders: Ends are screwed onto the tube body. The reduction of material
can weaken the tube and may introduce thread concentricity problems to the system.

2.4.2 Material

Upon job specification, the material may be chosen. Material range from nickel-plated
brass to aluminum, and even steel and stainless steel. Depending on the level of loads, humidity,
temperature, and stroke lengths specified, the appropriate material may be selected.

2.4.3 Mounts

Depending on the location of the application and machinability, there exist different
kinds of mounts for attaching pneumatic cylinders:

Type of Mount Ends

Rod End Cylinder End

Plain Plain

Threaded Foot

Clevis Bracket-single or double

Torque or eye Trunnion

Flanged Flanged

Clevis etc.

2.4.4 Sizes

Air cylinders are available in a variety of sizes and can typically range from a small
2.5 mm (1⁄10 in) air cylinder, which might be used for picking up a small transistor or other
electronic component, to 400 mm (16 in) diameter air cylinders which would impart enough
force to lift a car. Some pneumatic cylinders reach 1,000 mm (39 in) in diameter, and are used in

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place of hydraulic cylinders for special circumstances where leaking hydraulic oil could impose
an extreme hazard.

CHAPETR-3

3. SOLENOID VALVE

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by

an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or
off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports.
Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut
off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids
offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the
materials used, low control power and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature

actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

3.1 OPERATION

There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valves can have many ports and fluid
paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is open, then the two ports are
connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the valve is closed, then ports are isolated. If
the valve is open when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed normally

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open (N.O.). Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is
termed normally closed. There are also 3-way and more complicated designs. A 3-way valve has
3 ports; it connects one port to either of the two other ports (typically a supply port and an
exhaust port).

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are required. To
generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid valve design may be possible. [1] In such a
design, the line pressure is used to generate the high valve forces; a small solenoid controls how
the line pressure is used. Internally piloted valves are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems
where the fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch (550 kPa) and the
orifice diameter might be 3⁄4 in (19 mm).

In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others use a small,
complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger valve. While the second type is
actually a solenoid valve combined with a pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold and
packaged as a single unit referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much less power
to control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full power at all times
to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full power for a short period
of time to open it, and only low power to hold it.

A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The operation

time of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150 milliseconds.

Power consumption and supply requirements of the solenoid vary with application, being
primarily determined by fluid pressure and line diameter. For example, a popular 3/4" 150 psi
sprinkler valve, intended for 24 VAC (50 - 60 Hz) residential systems, has a momentary inrush
of 7.2 VA, and a holding power requirement of 4.6 VA. Comparatively, an industrial 1/2" 10000
psi valve, intended for 12, 24, or 120 VAC systems in high pressure fluid and cryogenic
applications, has an inrush of 300 VA and a holding power of 22 VA. Neither valve lists a
minimum pressure required to remain closed in the un-powered state.

3.1.1 Internally Piloted

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 While there are multiple design variants, the following is a detailed breakdown of a
typical solenoid valve design.

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the valve mechanically.
A direct acting valve has only a small flow circuit, shown within section E of this diagram (this
section is mentioned below as a pilot valve). In this example, a diaphragm piloted valve
multiplies this small pilot flow, by using it to control the flow through a much larger orifice.

Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical
interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the valve opened (normally
open) or closed (normally closed) while the valve is not activated.

FIG: A- Input side B- Diaphragm C- Pressure chamber D- Pressure relief passage E- Electro
Mechanical Solenoid F- Output side

The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic valve, controlling the flow of water
in this example. At the top figure is the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure enters
at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it down. The diaphragm
has a pinhole through its center which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it.

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This water fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both
sides of the diaphragm, however the compressed spring supplies a net downward force. The
spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet because water pressure is equalized on both
sides of the diaphragm.

Once the diaphragm closes the valve, the pressure on the outlet side of its bottom is
reduced, and the greater pressure above holds it even more firmly closed. Thus, the spring is
irrelevant to holding the valve closed.

The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin which is the
armature of the solenoid and which is pushed down by a spring. If current is passed through the
solenoid, the pin is withdrawn via magnetic force, and the water in chamber C drains out the
passage D faster than the pinhole can refill it. The pressure in chamber C drops and the incoming
pressure lifts the diaphragm, thus opening the main valve. Water now flows directly from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the spring
needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main valve closes. In practice
there is often no separate spring; the elastomer diaphragm is molded so that it functions as its
own spring, preferring to be in the closed shape.

From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a differential of pressure
between input and output as the pressure at the input must always be greater than the pressure at
the output for it to work. Should the pressure at the output, for any reason, rise above that of the
input then the valve would open regardless of the state of the solenoid and pilot valve.

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3.1.2 Components

Fig: Example core tubes. Non-magnetic core tubes are used to isolate the fluid from the coil. The
core tube encloses the plugnut, the core spring, and the core. The coil slips over the core tube; a
retaining clip engages the depression near the closed end of the core tube and holds the coil on
the core tube

Solenoid valve designs have many variations and challenges.

Common components of a solenoid valve:

 Solenoid subassembly

 Retaining clip (a.k.a. coil clip)

 Solenoid coil (with magnetic return path)

 Core tube (a.k.a. armature tube, plunger tube, solenoid valve tube, sleeve, guide
assembly)

 Plugnut (a.k.a. fixed core)

 Shading coil (a.k.a. shading ring)

 Core spring (a.k.a. counter spring)

 Core (a.k.a. plunger, armature)

 Core tube–bonnet seal

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  Bonnet (a.k.a. cover)

 Bonnet–diaphram–body seal

 Hanger spring

 Backup washer

 Diaphragm

 Bleed hole

 Disk

 Valve body

 Seat

The core or plunger is the magnetic component that moves when the solenoid is energized. The
core is coaxial with the solenoid. The core's movement will make or break the seals that control
the movement of the fluid. When the coil is not energized, springs will hold the core in its
normal position.

The plugnut is also coaxial.The core tube contains and guides the core. It also retains the
plugnut and may seal the fluid. To optimize the movement of the core, the core tube needs to be
nonmagnetic. If the core tube were magnetic, then it would offer a shunt path for the field
lines. In some designs, the core tube is an enclosed metal shell produced by deep drawing. Such
a design simplifies the sealing problems because the fluid cannot escape from the enclosure, but
the design also increases the magnetic path resistance because the magnetic path must traverse
the thickness of the core tube twice: once near the plugnut and once near the core. In some other
designs, the core tube is not closed but rather an open tube that slips over one end of the plugnut.
To retain the plugnut, the tube might be crimped to the plugnut. An O-ring seal between the tube
and the plugnut will prevent the fluid from escaping.

The solenoid coil consists of many turns of copper wire that surround the core tube and
induce the movement of the core. The coil is often encapsulated in epoxy. The coil also has an
iron frame that provides a low magnetic path resistance.

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3.2 MATERIALS

The valve body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass, stainless
steel, aluminum, and plastic. The seals must be compatible with the fluid.

To simplify the sealing issues, the plugnut, core, springs, shading ring, and other
components are often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well. The requirements
present some special problems. The core tube needs to be non-magnetic to pass the solenoid's
field through to the plugnut and the core. The plugnut and core need a material with good
magnetic properties such as iron, but iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless steels can be used
because they come in both magnetic and non-magnetic varieties. For example, a solenoid valve
might use 304 stainless steel for the body, 305 stainless steel for the core tube, 302 stainless steel
for the springs, and 430 F stainless steel (a magnetic stainless steel) for the core and plugnut.

3.3 TYPES

Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid valve described above:

 one- or two-solenoid valves;

 direct current or alternating current powered;
 different number of ways and positions;

3.4 COMMON USES

Solenoid valves are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to control
cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial valves. Automatic irrigation sprinkler systems
also use solenoid valves with an automatic controller. Domestic washing
machines and dishwashers use solenoid valves to control water entry into the machine. Solenoid
valves are used in the paintball industry, solenoid valves are usually referred to simply as
"solenoids." They are commonly used to control a larger valve used to control the propellant In
addition to this, these valves are now being used in household water purifiers.

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 Solenoid valves can be used for a wide array of industrial applications, including general
on-off control, calibration and test stands, pilot plant control loops, process control systems, and
various original equipment manufacturer applications

CHAPTER-4
4.WELDING MACHINE
Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to
create heat enough to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result in a binding of
the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric
arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point.
They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by some type of
shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or
fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became
commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it remains
an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

4.1 WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or

thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining
techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to
melting the base metal, a filler material is often added to the joint to form a pool of
molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that can be as strong, or even
stronger, than the base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or
by itself, to produce a weld.

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Although less common, there are also solid-state welding processes such as friction
welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt.

Some of the best-known welding methods include:

 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) – also known as "stick welding or electric
welding", uses an electrode that has flux around it to protect the weld puddle. The
electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld
puddle from atmospheric contamination.
 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) – also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a
non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected
from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium.
 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) – commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a
wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based
shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to
protect it from atmospheric contamination.
 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) – almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a
special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas,
depending on the filler.
 Submerged arc welding (SAW) – uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and
a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.
 Electroslag welding (ESW) – a highly productive, single pass welding process for
thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or
close to vertical position.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric
arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, under

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water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are
required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and
fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which
blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc
welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the
century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology
advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world wars drove the demand for
reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding
techniques were developed, including manual methods like SMAW, now one of the most
popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as
GMAW, SAW, FCAW and ESW. Developments continued with the invention of laser
beam welding, electron beam welding, magnetic pulse welding (MPW), and friction stir
welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot
welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new
welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.

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4.2 POWER SUPPLIES

Engine driven welder capable of AC/DC welding.

A diesel powered welding generator (the electric generator is on the left) as used in
Indonesia.

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different
power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power
supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly
related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input.
Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such

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as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a
relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual
welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc
length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the
voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated
welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged
arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the
distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in
current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will
rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt,
returning it to its original separation distance.

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding.
Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc
welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or
negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat
concentration (around 60%)[2] and, as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode
affects weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, it will melt more quickly,
increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged
electrode results in more shallow welds. [3] Non-consumable electrode processes, such as
gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating
current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and
does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds,
while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. [4] Alternating current rapidly
moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of
AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed
with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of
the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and
minimizing the effects of the problem.

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Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes,
within a 10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For
example, an 80 A welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes
after 6 minutes of continuous welding.[6] Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could
damage the welder. Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100%
duty cycle.

4.3 HISTORY

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia. Called forge welding, the
earliest examples come from the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe and the Middle East.
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus states in The Histories of the 5th century BC that
Glaucus of Chios "was the man who single-handedly invented iron welding". Welding
was used in the construction of the Iron pillar of Delhi, erected in Delhi, India about 310
AD and weighing 5.4 metric tons.

The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths pounded
heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio
published De la pirotechnia, which includes descriptions of the forging operation.
Renaissance craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow
during the following centuries.

In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the short-pulse electrical arc and presented his
results in 1801. In 1802, Russian scientist Vasily Petrov created the continuous electric
arc, and subsequently published "News of Galvanic-Voltaic Experiments" in 1803, in
which he described experiments carried out in 1802. Of great importance in this work
was the description of a stable arc discharge and the indication of its possible use for
many applications, one being melting metals. In 1808, Davy, who was unaware of
Petrov's work, rediscovered the continuous electric arc. In 1881–82 inventors Nikolai
Benardos (Russian) and Stanisław Olszewski (Polish) created the first electric arc
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welding method known as carbon arc welding using carbon electrodes. The advances in
arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a
Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin (1890). Around 1900,
A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in Britain, which gave a more stable
arc. In 1905, Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed using a three-phase electric
arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J. Holslag but
did not become popular for another decade.

Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with
the first patents going to Elihu Thomson in 1885, who produced further advances over
the next 15 years. Thermite welding was invented in 1893, and around that time another
process, oxyfuel welding, became well established. Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by
Edmund Davy, but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable
torch was developed. At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding
methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed,
however, it fell out of favor for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc
welding, as metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode that stabilize the arc and
shield the base material from impurities continued to be developed.

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 Bridge of Maurzyce

World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various
military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes
would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the
"Fullagar" with an entirely welded hull. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during
the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process.
Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, the Maurzyce Bridge
designed by Stefan Bryła of the Lwów University of Technology in 1927, and built
across the river Słudwia near Łowicz, Poland in 1928

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 Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, 1918

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the
introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously.
Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to
protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and
brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use
of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres. During the following decade,
further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like aluminum and

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magnesium. This in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating
current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then
during World War II. In 1930, the first all-welded merchant vessel, M/S Carolinian, was
launched.

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. In 1930,
Kyle Taylor was responsible for the release of stud welding, which soon became popular
in shipbuilding and construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and
continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully
implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, after
decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding
followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but requiring
expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed during the 1950s,
using a flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal
arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the
self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly
increased welding speeds, and that same year, plasma arc welding was invented.
Electroslag welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, electro
gas welding, in 1961. In 1953 the Soviet scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the diffusion
bonding method.

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam
welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source.
Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several decades
later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. Magnetic
pulse welding (MPW) is industrially used since 1967. Friction stir welding was invented
in 1991 by Wayne Thomas at The Welding Institute (TWI, UK) and found high-quality
applications all over the world. All of these four new processes continue to be quite

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expensive due the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their
applications.
4.4 ARC WELDING HISTORY

While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, arc
welding did not come into practice until much later.

In 1800 Sir Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs. Independently a
Russian physicist Vasily Petrov discovered the continuous electric arc in 1802 and
subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. Arc welding
was first developed when Nikolai Benardos presented arc welding of metals using a
carbon electrode at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris in 1881, which was
patented together with Stanisław Olszewski in 1887. In the same year, French electrical
inventor Auguste de Méritens invented also a carbon arc welding method, patented in
1881, which was successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead-acid
batteries. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in
the late 19th century by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L.
Coffin. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released in Britain a coated metal electrode
which gave a more stable arc. In 1905 Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the
usage of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was
invented by C.J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.

Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were
developed during this time as well; but both, especially the latter, faced stiff competition
from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode, to
stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities, continued to be developed.

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 A young woman arc welding in a munitions factory in Australia in 1943.

During World War I welding started to be used in shipbuilding in Great Britain in place
of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more accepting of the new technology
when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in the
New York Harbor at the beginning of the war. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft
during the war as well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this
process. In 1919, the British shipbuilder Cammell Laird started construction of merchant
ship, the "Fullagar", with an entirely welded hull; she was launched in 1921.

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the 1920
introduction of automatic welding in which electrode wire was continuously fed.
Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention as scientists attempted to protect
welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness
were the primary problems and the solutions that developed included the use of
hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres. During the following decade,
further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as aluminum and
magnesium. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating
current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then
during World War II.

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. Submerged
arc welding was invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian,
Konstantin Khrenov successfully implemented the first underwater electric arc welding.

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Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941
and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous
materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and a
carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal
arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted in which the
self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly
increased welding speeds. In that same year, plasma arc welding was invented.
Electroslag welding was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin, electrogas
welding, in 1961.

4.5 PROCESSES

4.5.1 Arc
Main article: Arc welding

Play media Man welding a metal structure in a newly constructed house in Bengaluru,
India

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can
use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert
gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

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4.5.2 Power supplies

To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a variety of different
power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies are constant
current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the length of
the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the
current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding
processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they
maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important
because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and
as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power
supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often
used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc
welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since
any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified
by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close,
the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of
the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance

The type of current used plays an important role in arc welding. Consumable electrode
processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use
direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In
welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration, and as a
result, changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the electrode is
positively charged, the base metal will be hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding
speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.
Nonconsumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either
type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current,
because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively
charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes
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deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-
penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after
every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that
produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, making rapid zero
crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem.

4.5.3 Processes

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW); it
is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric current is
used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is
made of filler material (typically steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld
area from oxidation and contamination by producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas during the
welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler
unnecessary.

The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment,
making it well suited to shop jobs and field work.[28][29] An operator can become
reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with
experience. Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be
frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away
after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials,
though special electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum,
copper, and other metals.

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 Diagram of arc and weld area, in shielded metal arc welding.
1. Coating Flow
2. Rod
3. Shield Gas
4. Fusion
5. Base metal
6. Weld metal
7. Solidified Slag
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a
semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and
an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since the
electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW.
A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire
consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more
expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits
even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual
welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas
mixture, and a separate filler material.[32] Especially useful for welding thin materials, this
method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant
operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.
GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to
stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely
important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications. A related process, plasma
arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc
is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and
thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable
current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the
GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as

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GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of stainless steel is one important
application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel
cutting process.[33]
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is
struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in
the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes
off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition
rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes,
since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly
used in industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure
vessels. Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, electroslag
welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

4.5.4 Gas welding

Main article: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as oxyacetylene
welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it
has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes
and tubes, as well as repair work.

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion
of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 °C. The
flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which
can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of
high alloy steels. A similar process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut
metals.

4.5.5 Resistance
Main article: Resistance welding

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Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the
resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of
molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000–100,000 A) is passed
through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little
pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be
high.

Spot welder

Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal
sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal
sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method
include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy
automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than
with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It
is used extensively in the automotive industry—ordinary cars can have several thousand
spot welds made by industrial robots. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be
used to spot weld stainless steel. Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two
electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed
electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it
possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the
manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited. Other resistance
welding methods include butt welding, flash welding, projection welding, and upset
welding.

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4.5.6 Energy beam

Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron beam welding,
are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production
applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of
power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam
welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy
density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld area.
Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly
productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these
are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area
include laser-hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and
arc welding for even better weld properties, laser cladding, and x-ray welding.

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4.5.7Solid-state

Solid-state welding processes classification chart

Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do not
involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, ultrasonic
welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by
vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure. [40] The equipment and methods
involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration
provides energy input. Welding metals with this process does not involve melting the
materials; instead, the weld is formed by introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally
under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should have similar melting
temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is
commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is
also a very common polymer welding process.

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Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by
pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact
plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is
generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the
welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or compound plates. Other solid-state
welding processes include friction welding (including friction stir welding), magnetic
pulse welding, co-extrusion welding, cold welding, diffusion bonding, exothermic
welding, high frequency welding, hot pressure welding, induction welding, and roll
welding.

4.5.8 Geometry
Main article: Welding joint

Common welding joint types – (1) Square butt joint, (2) V butt joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-
joint Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types
of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint (a variant of
this last is the cruciform joint). Other variations exist as well—for example, double-V
preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of material each tapering to a single
center point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also
fairly common—instead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V
preparation joints, they are curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are also

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commonly more than two pieces thick—depending on the process used and the thickness
of the material, many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry.

Many welding processes require the use of a particular joint design; for example,
resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most
frequently performed on lap joints. Other welding methods, like shielded metal arc
welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint. Some processes
can also be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then
another weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the welding of thick sections
arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.

The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or
fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base
material.

After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld
itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid
during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the
filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the
heat-affected zone, the area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld.
These properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat. The
metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is
also where residual stresses are found.

4.5.9Quality
Main article: Weld quality assurance

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The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 °F (316 °C).
This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ width.
The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base metal.

Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material around them,
including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input, the
weldability of the base material, filler material, and flux material, the design of the joint,
and the interactions between all these factors. To test the quality of a weld, either
destructive or nondestructive testing methods are commonly used to verify that welds are
free of defects, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have
acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Types of welding defects include cracks,
distortion, gas inclusions (porosity), non-metallic inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete
penetration, lamellar tearing, and undercutting.

The metalworking industry has instituted specifications and codes to guide welders, weld
inspectors, engineers, managers, and property owners in proper welding technique,
design of welds, how to judge the quality of Welding Procedure Specification, how to

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judge the skill of the person performing the weld, and how to ensure the quality of a
welding job. Methods such as visual inspection, radiography, ultrasonic testing, phased-
array ultrasonics, dye penetrant inspection, magnetic particle inspection, or industrial
computed tomography can help with detection and analysis of certain defects.

4.5.10 Safety issues

Arc welding with a welding helmet, gloves, and other protective clothing Welding
can be dangerous and unhealthy if the proper precautions are not taken. However, using
new technology and proper protection greatly reduces risks of injury and death associated
with welding. Since many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or
flame, the risk of burns and fire is significant; this is why it is classified as a hot work
process. To prevent injury, welders wear personal protective equipment in the form of
heavy leather gloves and protective long-sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat
and flames. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc
eye or flash burns in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can
burn the retinas of the eyes. Goggles and welding helmets with dark UV-filtering face
plates are worn to prevent this exposure. Since the 2000s, some helmets have included a
face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the intense UV light. To protect
bystanders, the welding area is often surrounded with translucent welding curtains. These
curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield people outside the welding area
from the UV light of the electric arc, but can not replace the filter glass used in helmets.

CHAPTER-5

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

5.1 ADVANTAGES:

 Small in size.
 Cost is less compared to other welding machine.
 Due to portable ability it is easily handled.

5.2 DISADVANTAGES:

 Not so effective for very hard materials.

 Feed should be given intermittently.
 Overload should be avoided.

5.3APPLICATIONS:

There are many different uses of welding machines. Some of the areas where it finds
application are:

 Automobile industry
 Automotive manufacturing
 Metal working
 Shipbuilding
 Fabrication
 Casting

CHAPTER-6

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6.CONCLUSION:

Automatic double axis welding machine is in general a low-cost intelligent robot

which is portable in size and easily transportable. Since the project is based on the
mechanical cum electronics, it is compact and swift and response. No external devices
are used here to control it. The medium is air; the operation of the arm movement is fast
which makes it a better option in industrial bodies for fast and reliable work output.

CHAPTER-7

7.REFERENCES:

[1] K. Abbasi, S. Alam, and Dr. M.I. Khan, 2012, “An Experimental Study on the Effect
of MIG Welding parameters on the Weld-Bead Shape Characteristics”.

[2] Jukka Martikainen Lic. and Raimo Suoranta , 2007, “Welding of sheet metal using
modified short arc MIG/MAG welding process”.

[3] S. R. Patil and C. A. Waghmare, 2013, “Optimization of MIG welding parameters for
improving strength of welded joints”.

[4] P. Kumari, K. Archna and R.S. Parmar, 2011,“Effect of Welding Parameters on Weld
Bead Geometry in MIG Welding of Low Carbon Steel”, International Journal of Applied
Engineering Research .

[5] Satoshi Nakamura, Y. F., Y. Ikuno, Shinji Kodama and T. Maeda, 2005, “Automatic
Control Technology of Welding Machine MAG-II for Onshore Pipelines”.

[6] Xu, Y. Li, J. Sun, and S. Wang, 2012, "Research and development of open CNC
system based on PC and motion controller”.

[7] V.K. Pabolu and K.N.H. Srinivas, 2010, "Design and implementation of a three
dimensional CNC machine".

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[8] B. Jayachandraiah, O. V., P. Abdullah Khan and R. A. Reddy, 2014, “Fabrication of
Low Cost 3-Axis CNC Router”.

[9] J. Norrish, 2009, “Process control and automation developments in welding”.

[10] V. B. Bhandari, Design of Machine Elements, New Delhi: McGraw Hill, 2014.

[11] PSG Design Data book, Coimbatore: Kalaikathir Achchangan, 2015.

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