MODULE I: ENERGY, APPLICATION AND USES

Skills to develop
At the end of this module, a form four student is expected to do the following:
 Identify the effects of heat to the surrounding
 Define heat and temperature.
 Measure temperature and give its units
 Calibrate a thermometer
 Determine the amount of heat in a solid or liquid
 Explain a change of state during heating

1.0 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

1.1 TEMPERATURE
We commonly state it as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. This definition is
misleading at times because it is limited to the sense of touch. For example, a kitchen knife
maybe felt colder than a wooden spoon though they all are at the same temperature.
Therefore, this definition gives only a qualitative description of temperature.
Definition: temperature of an object is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of the object.
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). Other units of temperature are the degree
Celsius (0C) and degree Fahrenheit (0F)
When an object is caused to melt, the energy supplied to it is known as thermal energy.
Thermal energy is the total energy of the atoms (or molecules) in an object.
The word total here includes both kinetic and potential energy. The kinetic energy is
because of translational and vibrational movement of atoms (or molecules). The grater the
mass of an object, the more its energy content.
Thermal energy is sometimes referred to as internal energy.
NB: the thermal energy of an object depends on the total energy of its atoms or molecules.
The kinetic energy of the object itself has no effect on its thermal (internal) energy.
Notwithstanding, if it slows down and comes to rest due to frictional force, its kinetic

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 1

energy is transformed into internal energy contained in the object and the surface or fluid
on which or through which it is moving.
When two or more objects that are at different temperatures come in contact with each
other, energy flows from the object with the higher temperature to the object with the lower
temperature.
1.2 HEAT
Definition: heat is the thermal (or internal) energy that flows from a higher-temperature
object to a lower-temperature object due to temperature difference between them.
The SI unit of heat is the Joule (J)
An object might be at a very high temperature but having very little amount of thermal
energy; meaning very little amount of heat can flow from it. For example, a spark from a
filling machine is at a higher temperature (about 800 0C) than a cup of boiling water (100
0
C) but has less thermal energy. The spark will not hurt much if it falls on your hand
compared to the bucket of boiling water. Again, a glass of boiling water at 100 0C cools
faster than a bucket of water at 100 0C. Though both are at the same temperature, the glass
of water has less internal energy (since it has less mass).

THERMOMEMTERS
Definition: a thermometer is an instrument used in measuring temperature.
There exists a variety of thermometers. Some are more accurate and some less accurate.
They make use of some thermometric property of certain substances.
 A thermometric property is the property of a material that varies linearly with
changes in temperature. Example, change in the length of mercury column,
change in volume of a liquid, change in emf, change in volume of a gas at constant
pressure, change in the pressure of a gas at constant volume, change in the
electrical resistance of a conductor and change in the colours of a very hot object
etc.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 2

  A thermometric substance is a substance used in a thermometer that varies with
temperature. For example, mercury, all gases, platinum, alcohol, thermocouple,
radiant energy.
Differences between heat and temperature
 Temperature determines direction of heat flow for two bodies in thermal contact
whereas heat is energy transferred between a system and its environment due to
temperature difference between them.
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin while that of heat is the Joule.
 Temperature is an intrinsic property of a substance while heat is an extrinsic
property.
 Temperature is constant during a change in state while heat changes.

Fixed points of a thermometer

There are two fixed points in a thermometer, lower (ice) and upper fixed points.
 Ice point
It is the temperature of pure melting ice, at standard atmospheric pressure. The ice
must be pure because impurities alter melting point. This temperature is always 0
0
C.
Determining the ice point of a thermometer
Requirements: thermometer, pure ice, clamp and stand, funnel, water, beaker.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 3

Procedure:
 Freeze some pure water into ice, crush the ice into pieces and fill a funnel with it.
 When the ice begins to melt, insert the bulb of an ungraduated thermometer so that
it is completely covered with ice.
 The ice cools the mercury thread inside the thermometer and it contracts.
 When the mercury stops shrinking, its level is marked on the stem of the
thermometer.
 Repeat this twice and average value calculated to eliminate random errors. The
average value is the lower fixed point of the thermometer (0 0C).
Precautions:
 Ice must be pure since impurities alters the freezing point of ice.
 The bulb of the thermometer must be totally covered with ice to read 0 0C.
 Pressure is kept at standard atmospheric pressure since a change in pressure will
affect the melting point of ice.
b) Steam point
It is the temperature of dry steam from water at 1atm.
Reasons why the boiling point of water itself is not used
 Local overheating may occur, accompanied by “bumping” as water boils.
 Impurities present alter the boiling point of water.
 Boiling point of water varies with external pressure.
Determining the steam point of a thermometer
Requirements: thermometer, manometer, mercury, tripod stand, Bunsen burner,
hypsometer.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 4

Procedure:
 Arrange an ungraduated thermometer inside a hypsometer so that its bulb is just
above the surface of the boiling water.
 After adjusting the liquid (mercury) in both limbs of the manometer to be at the
same level, a steady level reached by the mercury in the thermometer, is marked on
its stem.
 Repeat the steps above and average. This average is the steam point and equals 100
0
C.
Precautions:
 The thermometer bulb should not be dropped in the boiling water because local
overheating or impurities may make the temperature above or below 100 0C.
 The mercury level in the manometer limbs should be at the same level to maintain
1 standard atmospheric pressure.
Fundamental interval
This is the distance between the lower and upper fixed points of a thermometer. It is
calculated as fundamental interval = L100 – L0

L100  L0  100 0C
L  L0  
  x (L100  L0 ) = 100 0C x (L  L0 )
L  L0
  x 100 0C
L100  L0

Examples

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 5

1) In an unmarked mercury thermometer the length of the upper fixed point from its bulb
is 4 cm and that of the steam point 24 cm. what is the temperature when the length of the
mercury in the bore from the bulb is
a) 16 cm b) 28 cm c) 2 cm?
Solution
L100  L0
L100 =24 cm, L0 = 4 cm   x 100 0C
L  L0

16 cm  4 cm 12 cm
a)   x 100 0C   60 0C
24 cm  4 cm 20 cm

28 cm  4 cm
b)   x 100 0C  12 0C
24 cm  4 cm

2 cm  4 cm
c)   x 100 0C  10 0C
24 cm  4 cm

X  X 0
Generally,   x 100 0C . This relationship holds for all thermometers.
X 100  X 0
TEMPERATURE SCALE
The temperature scales in common use are:
a) Celsius scale: it is also known as the centigrade scale. Its lower fixed point is at 0 0C
and upper fixed point at 100 0C. Its fundamental interval is 100 – 0 division (i.e. 100)
b) Fahrenheit scale: its temperature is measured in 0F. The lower fixed point is 32 0F and
upper fixed point 212 0F. The fundamental interval is 180 (212 – 32) divisions.
Converting from Fahrenheit to degree Celsius
Let F = temperature in Fahrenheit scale and θ = temperature in Celsius scale.
( F  32)  180(212 - 32)
(  0)  100(100 - 0)
180
180 = 100(F -32)  (F -32) =
100
9 5
 F=(  + 32) 0 F and  = ( F  32) 0 C
5 9

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 6

Example
Convert a) 80 0C to 0F b) – 40 0F to 0C
9 9 5 5
a) F=(   32) =( x 80)  32 =144 + 32 =176 0F (b)  = ( 4) - 32 = (72) = - 40 0C
5 5 9 9
Kelvin (thermodynamic scale): it is measured in kelvin (K). The lower fixed point is 273
K and the upper fixed point is 373 K. fundamental interval is 100 (373 – 273) divisions.
If the thermodynamic temperature is T and θ temperature in degree Celsius,
(T  273)  100(373 - 273)
( - 0)  100(100 - 0)
100 = 100(T  273)  = (T  273) 0 C and T = ( + 273) K

Example
Convert a) 37 0C to thermodynamic scale b) 200 K to 0C.
Solution
a) T = (θ + 273) K = (37 + 273) K = 310 K. b) θ = (T – 273) 0C = (200 -273) 0C = -73 0C.
Types of thermometers
There are many types of thermometers.
1. liquid-in-glass thermometer: it is consist of a length of transparent glass filled with
mercury or alcohol. It is preferred to other thermometers because it is convenient; easy to
read and portable. Its limitations are fragile and limited range.
Properties of a good thermometer
A good thermometer must be
 Sensitive, accurate, easily come to thermal equilibrium with other system.
Advantages of mercury in liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Does not wet glass
 Coloured making it easy to be seen through glass
 Good conductor of heat therefore response quickly to temperature change
 Has a high boiling point and so does not evaporate easily
 Expands uniformly with temperature change
 Has a low specific heat capacity.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 7

Disadvantages of mercury in liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Has a low freezing point (- 39 0C)
 Has a low expansibility.
 Expensive to buy
 Poisonous
Advantages of alcohol in liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Very low freezing point (- 115 0C) so good for arctic explorers
 Fairly large expansibility
 Cheap to buy
 Uniform expansion with temperature
 Not poisonous
Disadvantages of alcohol in liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Wets glass
 Low boiling point (78 0C) so can easily evaporate
 High specific heat capacity so does not easily reflect temperature change
 Colourless making it not easily visible
Reasons why water is not a good thermometric liquid
 Wets glass
 Low temperature range; ice at 0 0C and steam at 100 0C
 Colourless
 Expands irregularly within the range 0 0C to 4 0C
 Poor conductor of heat
 High specific heat capacity
Features of a liquid-in-glass thermometer

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 8

  Thin glass bulb: to ease heat transfer by conduction through the glass into the
liquid. This increases sensitivity of the thermometer. It is small containing small
amount of liquid to easily warm up for small amount of heat supplied. It has a
cylindrical shape for good thermal contact.
 Bore uniform to give even change in liquid thread with temperature change. Thin
to increase sensitivity.
 Stem: made up of thick glass wall to minimize heat loss to the surrounding. Serves
as magnifying glass for better visibility.
NB modern thermometer have evacuated space filled with an inert gas (N2) to increase
pressure which prevents thermometric liquid from boiling or evaporating at temperatures
near its normal boiling point.
Clinical thermometer
It a specific liquid-in-glass thermometer serving to measure human/animal temperature.
Its range is very small making it to have a very short stem.

In addition to the features of a normal liquid-in-glass, the clinical thermometer has the
following extra features:
 Kink (constriction): to keep mercury at its maximum level to read the body’s
temperature out of the body.
 Range: it has a limited range of temperature from 35 0C or 43 0C. It is not sterilized
by boiling since its upper fixed point is 42 0C which is lower than 100 0C.
2) Resistance thermometer
It make use of the fact that the electrical resistance of metals increases with temperature.
R - R 0
 x 100 0 C
R100 - R 0

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 9

Advantages of resistance thermometer
 Has a wide range
 Best for small temperature changes
 Accurate
 Can measure temperature at a distance if it has a long lead.
Disadvantages of resistance thermometer
 Responds slowly to temperature change
 Only used over a certain temperature range.
3) Thermocouple thermometer
Make use of the fact that an electric current produced is proportional to the temperature of
the junction of two dissimilar metals joined together in a circuit. Its thermometric property
is the electromotive force, which changes with temperature.
E - E 0
 x 100 0 C
E100 - E 0

It is advantageous because it responds fast to temperature change, has a wide range and
readings can be fed into a computer. Used in industries for measuring temperature of very
small substances.
4) constant-volume-gas thermometer
It uses pressure of a fixed mass of gas as its thermometric substance
P - P0
 x 100 0 C
P100 - P0

It is advantageous in that it has a wide range of temperature, accurate and used to read ideal
gas temperature directly.
Its disadvantage is that: it is bulky, slow to respond to temperature change.
5) Pyrometer
Uses colours of thermal radiation from hot objects as thermometric substance.
It is advantageous because it has no contact with the object and is portable. Its disadvantage
is that it is not accurate and cannot measure low temperatures.
6) Bimetallic strip thermometer

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 10

Uses the fact that metals expand and contract at different rates.
7) Thermistor thermometer
Uses the fact that electrical resistance of a thermistor decreases with increase in
temperature.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE CHANGE

HEAT CAPACITY
Definition: The quantity of heat energy required to cause a unit rise in temperature.
Quantity of heat gained or lost
Heat capacity =
Temperature change
Q Q
C= = Also written as: Q = C or Q = C( 2 - 1 )
  2 - 1
2  final temperature and 1 = initial temperature

Units: Joules per Kelvin (J K-1) or Joules per degree Celsius (J 0C-1)
Example
Calculate the heat capacity of a substance if 4200 J of heat energy is needed to raise the
temperature of the substance from 25 0C to 35 0C.
Solution
Q = 4200 J, θ1 = 25 0C, θ2 = 35 0C, C =?
Q  C ( 2 - 1 )
Q 4200 4200
C   =  420 J 0C 1
 2 - 1 (35 - 25) 10

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Definition: it is the quantity of heat energy (Q) required giving a unit mass of a substance
a unit temperature change.
Q  mc  mc( 2 - 1 )
From the equation, Q  C  . Substituting the equation for heat capacity yields:
C
c=
m
The SI unit of c is J/kg K

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 11

Therefore, the energy needed to raise the temperature of a body depends on
 The mass of the body: the greater the mass, the higher the amount of heat required
to raise its temperature.
 Type of body: some bodies have higher specific heat capacity than others. Those
with higher specific heat capacity require much heat than others.
 Temperature rise: the greater the temperature rise, the greater the heat energy
required.

Example
A piece of copper of copper of mass 2 kg gains 16 kJ of heat energy and its temperature
rises from 20 0C to 40 0C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of copper.
Solution
Q 16000 J
c= = = 400 J kg 1K 1
m( 2 - 1 ) 0
(2 kg)(40 - 20) C

Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal block (solid)

Setup

Procedure:
 Drill two holes in the metal block; one to hold the heater and the other the
thermometer.
 Using a balance, find the mass m of the metal block.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 12

 Surround the metal block with cotton for proper insulation. Insert the heater and
thermometer. Add a small amount of oil in the thermometer hole for good thermal
contact with the block.
 Note the initial temperature θ1. Start the stopwatch at the same instant of switching
on the heater. After a reasonable time, t, stop the stopwatch simultaneously with the
heater and record the temperature rise as θ2.
 Record the current I on the ammeter and the voltage V on the voltmeter.
Calculation
From the law of conservation of energy, energy input by heater = heat energy absorbed by
metal block. i.e.
VIt
VIt  mc( 2 - 1 )  c =
m( 2 - 1 )

Precaution
 Oil is put in the thermometer hole to ensure a good thermal contact with the metal
block.
 Metal block is lagged to prevent heat lost by radiation to the surrounding.
Examples
1) A metal of mass 1.5 kg was heated from 27 0C to 47 0C in 4 minutes by a heater of 7.5
V, 10 A. rating. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. State any assumption
made in your calculation.
Solution
m = 1.5 kg, 1 = 27 0C ,  2 = 47 0C , t = 4 min = 240 s, V = 7.5 V, I = 10 A, c =?
Heat loss by heater = heat gain by the metal block
IVt = mc( 2 - 1 )
IVt (10 A)(7.5 V)(240 s)
 c= = = 600 J kg 1 K 1
m( 2 - 1 ) 0
(1.5 kg)(47 - 27) C

I assumed that no heat was lost to the surroundings.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 13

2) How long does it take a 750 W heater operating at full power to raise the temperature of
1 kg of water from 40 0C to 70 0C ( take the specific heat capacity of water as 4200 J kg-
1
K-1).
Solution
P = 750 W, m = 1 kg, 1 = 40 0C ,  2 = 70 0C , c = 4200 J kg 1 K 1 , t =?
Pt = mc( 2 - 1 ), since P = IV
mc( 2 - 1 ) (1 kg) (4200 J kg 1 K 1 )(70 - 40)0C
t= =
P 750 W
 t = 168 s
Measuring specific heat capacity of a liquid by electrical method

Procedure
 Using a balance determine the mass m1 of the copper calorimeter and stirrer.
 Pour a good quantity of liquid in the calorimeter and determine the combined mass
m2 of the calorimeter and liquid. The difference of the two masses is calculated to
have the mass of liquid m
 Place the calorimeter in a container and surround it with cotton to prevent heat loss
by conduction.
 Insert the thermometer and heater into the liquid. Fit a cork lid to prevent heat loss
by evaporation and convection.
After taking the initial temperature θ1 of the liquid, switch on the current at the same
time with the stopwatch started. Note the voltmeter reading V and maintain a steady

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 14

 current I for a reasonable length of time t. meanwhile, continuously stir the liquid for
uniform distribution of heat. After this time, switch off the current at the same time as
you stop the stopwatch. Note the highest temperature θ2 reached.
Calculation
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer = m1
Mass calorimeter + stirrer + liquid = m2
Mass of liquid m = m 2 - m1
Initial temperature = θ1
Final temperature = θ2
Temperature rise = Δθ = θ2 - θ1
Ammeter reading =I
Voltmeter reading =V
Time for heating =t
Energy supplied by heater = IVt
Specific heat capacity of calorimeter + stirrer = ccal
Specific heat capacity of liquid =c
From the law of conservation of energy, energy supplied by heater equals energy received
by calorimeter + stirrer + liquid. i.e.
VIt = ml ccal  + mc
mc = VIt - ml ccal 
VIt - ml ccal 
c=
m
Precaution
 Constantly stir the liquid to ensure a uniform temperature.
 Lag the calorimeter to minimize heat loss by conduction.
Example
A lump of metal of mass 0.2 kg and temperature 100 0C is placed in water of mass 0.4 kg
and temperature 16 0C. If the final temperature of the metal and water is 20 0C, what is the

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 15

specific heat capacity of the metal? Assume the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J
kg-1 0C-1.
Solution
m m = 0.2 kg, 1 = 100 0C , m w = 0.4 kg  2 = 16 0C , c w = 4200 J kg 1 0 C 1 , cm = ?,  f = 20 0C
Heat lost by the hot solid = Heat gained by the colder liquid
m m cm (1 -  f ) = m wc w ( f -  2 )
mw cw ( f -  2 ) (0.4 kg) (4200 J kg 1 K 1 )(20 - 16) 0C
cm = = = 420 J kg 1 0 C 1
m m (1 -  f ) (0.2 kg)(100 - 20) C 0

Daily applications of high/low heat capacity

 Water is used as a coolant in car engines due to its high specific heat capacity
 Water is used in hot bags due to it high specific heat capacity
 Water is used to prevent freezing of wine and juice for example, due to its high
specific heat capacity
 Formation of land and sea breeze
 Cooking utensils e.g. aluminum used in making cooking pots due to its low specific
heat capacity.
CHANGE OF STATE
Matter exists in three different states namely solid, liquid and gas. When matter is heated,
at a certain temperature it changes from one state to another.
Latent heat
It is the heat energy absorbed or given out by a body when it undergoes a change in state
at a particular temperature.
Latent heat of substance = quantity of heat to change its state. I.e. L = Q
The SI unit is the Joule (J)
Based on the change observed, we may have:
Latent heat of fusion (Lf): quantity of heat energy required to change solid to liquid at its
melting point without a corresponding change in temperature.
Latent heat of vapourization (Lv): the quantity of heat required to change the state of a
substance from liquid to gas at its boiling point, without a change in temperature.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 16

NB: when the change of state is reversed, the same amount of heat energy is given off.
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT (ℓ): it is the latent heat per unit mass of a substance.
latent heat L Q
Specific latent heat = i.e = , but L = Q  =
mass m m

Units: Joules per kilogram (J kg-1) or Joules per gram (J g-1).

Hence if a substance of mass m changes state, then the quantity of heat energy (Q) gained
or lost is given by: Q = m
Based on the state, we have:
Specific latent heat of fusion (ℓf): the quantity of heat energy needed to change the state
of unit mass of a solid to liquid at its melting point without a temperature change.
Specific latent heat of vapourization (ℓv): is the quantity of heat required to change state
unit mass of a substance from liquid state to gaseous state at its boiling point without a
corresponding change in temperature.
NB: the specific latent heat of a substance is always much greater than its specific heat
capacity because during a change of state, much heat is needed to break (weaken) the bonds
between the molecules and to do work in pushing back the atmosphere as the substance
expands. Whereas during a change in temperature (specific heat capacity) only a small
amount of heat is needed to change the kinetic energy of the molecules.
Example
How much heat is needed to melt 3 kg of ice at its melting point given that the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.3 x 106 J kg-1.
Solution
m = 3 kg, v = 3.3 x 106 J kg 1 , Q =?
Q=m v  (3 kg)(3.3 x 106 J kg 1 ) = 9.9 x 106 J

A phase is different from a state. Phase is used for two states of the same substance present.
For instance, when ice starts melting, there is ice (solid state) and water (liquid state)
present. To study phase changes, a graph of temperature against time is drawn.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 17

When a gas cools, it returns to the liquid state or condenses. Therefore, the specific latent
heat of condensation equals specific latent heat of vapourization and specific latent heat of
solidification is the same as specific latent heat of fusion for the same substance undergoing
a change of state.
Cooling curve for naphthalene (camphor)
It is a graph of temperature plotted against time, for naphthalene decreasing temperature.
This is brought about by first placing it in a boiling tube and lowering the tube into boiling
water until it completely melts. Insert a thermometer into the molten naphthalene, remove
the tube from the water when the temperature reaches 90 0C. Start a stopwatch, and record
the temperature at regular time intervals. This is annotated on the graph below.

The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid phase and the liquid
phase of the substance are in equilibrium at standard atmospheric pressure.

Heating curve for water (ice)

Summary of this process is given on the curve below.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 18

CHANGE OF STATE
Melting: it is the change of state from solid to liquid. E.g., ice (solid) changes to water
(liquid). The temperature at which this takes place is called melting point. That of ice is 0
0
C.
Freezing or solidification: it is the change of state from liquid to solid. E.g. water into ice
at freezing temperature which is 0 0C.
Vapourization: a change of state from liquid gas at boiling point. E.g. water to water
vapour. There are two types of vapourisation namely boiling and evaporation.
1) Evaporation: change of state from liquid to gas at all temperatures below boiling point
of substance. E.g. your washed uniform dries by evaporation, drop of spirit on the back of
your hand. Your hand feels cool because latent heat is drawn rapidly from your hand.
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation
 Temperature: rate of evaporation increases with temperature because at higher
temperature the liquid molecules have more energy to escape from the surface.
 Exposed surface area: evaporation increases with surface area of liquid exposed.
Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 19
  Air movement or wind: evaporation rate is higher in a windy weather than in a still
weather. The blowing wind carries away the escaping molecules, thus preventing
them from returning to the liquid and making it easier for more molecules to break
free and escape.
 High humidity lowers the rate of evaporation. Evaporation will be very fast in a
vacuum.
2) Boiling: it is the change of state from liquid to gas at a particular temperature called
boiling point of the substance. The boiling point of pure water under standard
atmospheric pressure is 100 0C.
To change the boiling point of a liquid,
 Adding impurities to it. e.g. adding salt to water increase the boiling point of
water
 Pressure. Reduced pressure lowers the boiling point of water. This is why food
takes a longer time to cook on mountaintops. This fact is used in the production
of evaporated milk. The milk is boiled under reduced pressure, the water boils
off below 100 0C, and the food value of the milk is not reduced.
Differences between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Takes place at a particular temperature Takes place at all temperature
Occurs throughout the whole liquid Occurs at liquid surface
Bubbles are formed No bubbles formed
Does not cause cooling. Temperature Causes cooling since it is the most
remains the same energetic molecules that leave.

c) Condensation or liquefaction: change of state from gas to liquid. E.g. at night, water
vapour condenses on plant leaves and roofs of houses to form dew. It takes place when
water vapour meets a cold surface and gives out its latent heat of vapourisation to change
into liquid.
d) Sublimation: change of state from solid directly to gas. e.g camphor (naphthalene).
Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 20
e) Deposition: change of state from gas directly to solid.

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is transferred in three main ways seen below
Conduction: is when heat flows through a heated solid through a heat current moving
through the material. You can observe conduction when heating a stove burner element or
a bar of metal, which goes from red hot to white hot.
Convection: is when heated particles transfer heat to another substance, such as cooking
something in boiling water.
Natural phenomena due to convection
There are many natural phenomena due convection
1) Land and sea breezes
During the day, the sun shines equally on land and sea. The land warms up quickly than
the sea because it has a low specific heat capacity. The air above the land warms up,
expands and becomes less dense. The warm air rises and the colder more dense air from
the sea moves in to replace it (sea breeze). During the night, the land cools faster than the
sea and its temperature soon becomes below that of the sea. Thus, the air over the sea is
warmer (hence less dense) than that over the land. This air rises and colder air from above
the land moves in to replace it (land breeze). See diagrams below.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 21

2) Winds
Winds are convection currents. for example, the trade winds are due to hot air near the
equator rising and colder air from the north and south moving in to take its place.
3) Room heating
4) Refrigerator

Radiation: is when heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves, such as from the
sun. Radiation can transfer heat through empty space, while the other two methods require
some form of matter-on-matter contact for the transfer.
Black or rough surfaces absorb heat better than white or silvery surfaces. They equally
good emitters than white or silvery surfaces. In addition, the shape of a body affects how
much heat it radiates or absorbs. Spherical and cylindrical bodies tend to absorb less heat
than other shapes. This is because they present a smaller surface area. These two factors
explain why petrol tankers are often painted white and have cylindrical shape.
The diagram below is an illustration of the three ways of heat transfer.

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 22

Form four physics notes by Nnoko Maxwell 23