Radiation Heat Transfer

1. The view factor

Radiation heat transfer between surfaces

depends on the orientation of the surfaces
relative to each other as well as their radiation
properties and temperatures, as illustrated in
Figure (1).

To account for the effects of orientation on

radiation heat transfer between two surfaces,
we define a new parameter called the view
factor, which is a purely geometric quantity
and is independent of the surface properties
and temperature. It is also called the shape Figure (1) Radiation heat exchange
factor, configuration factor, and angle between surfaces depends on the orientation
of surfaces relative to each other; and this
factor. The view factor based on the dependence on orientation is accounted for
assumption that the surfaces are diffuse by the view factor.
emitters and diffuse reflectors is called the diffuse view factor. we will
consider radiation exchange between diffuse surfaces only, and thus the
term view factor will simply mean diffuse view factor.

The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is denoted by Fi j or just Fij,

and is defined as:

Fij = the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes surface j
directly

Therefore, the view factor F12 represents the fraction of radiation leaving
surface 1 that strikes surface 2 directly, and F21 represents the fraction of
the radiation leaving surface 2 that strikes surface 1 directly. Note that the
radiation that strikes a surface does not need to be absorbed by that
surface. Also, radiation that strikes a surface after being reflected by other
surfaces is not considered in the evaluation of view factors. Accordingly,
the view factor F12 can be defined as:

A A
Q
F12=F A A = 1 2

(1)
1 2 A
Q 1

A
Q A1
where 1 is the total rate of radiation leaves the entire (via
FA
emission and reflection) in all directions. And the view factor 2 A1
is
defined as:

1
 A A
Q
F21=F A A = 2 1

(2)
2 1
Q A2

F12 F21
The relation between view factors and can be written as:

A 1 F 12= A2 F21 (3)

The foregoing relation, equation (3), is known as the reciprocity relation

for view factor. It allows the calculation of a view factor from a knowledge
of the other.
Noting that in the absence of strong electromagnetic
fields radiation beams travel in straight paths, the view
factor from a surface to itself will be zero unless the
surface sees itself. Therefore, Fii = 0 for plane or
convex surfaces and F 0 for concave surfaces, as
i i

illustrated in Figure (2).

The value of the view factor ranges between zero and

one. The limiting case Fi j = 0 indicates that the two
surfaces do not have a direct view of each other, and
thus radiation leaving surface i cannot strike surface j
directly. The other limiting case Fij = 1 indicates that
surface j completely surrounds surface i, so that the
entire radiation leaving surface i is intercepted by
Figure (2) The view factor from a
surface j. For example, in a geometry consisting of two surface to itself is zero for plane
concentric spheres, the entire radiation leaving the or
surface of the smaller sphere (surface 1) will strike the convex surfaces and nonzero for
larger sphere (surface 2), and thus F1 2 = 1,
as illustrated in Figure (3).

The view factor has proven to be very useful

in radiation analysis because it allows us to
express the fraction of radiation leaving a
surface that strikes another surface in terms
of the orientation of these two surfaces
relative to each other. The underlying
assumption in this process is that the
radiation a surface receives from a source is
directly proportional to the angle the surface Figure (3) In a geometry that
subtends when viewed from the source. This consists of two concentric
would be the case only if the radiation spheres, the view factor F1 2 = 1
since the entire radiation leaving
coming off the source is uniform in all the surface of the smaller sphere
directions throughout its will be intercepted by the larger
surface and the medium between the
surfaces does not absorb, emit, or scatter radiation. That is, it will be the
case when the surfaces are isothermal and diffuse emitters and reflectors

2
and the surfaces are separated by a nonparticipating medium such as a
vacuum or air.

View factors for hundreds of common geometries are evaluated and the
results are given in analytical, graphical, and tabular form in several
publications. View factors for selected geometries are given in Tables (1)
and (2) in analytical form and in Figures (4 to 7) in graphical form. The
view factors in Table (1) are for three-dimensional geometries. The view
factors in Table (2), on the other hand, are for geometries that are
infinitely long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper and
are therefore two-dimensional.

TABLE (1)

3
TABLE (2)

4
Figure (4) View factor between two aligned parallel rectangles of
equal size.

Figure (5) View factor between two perpendicular rectangles with a

common edge.
Figure (6) View factor between two coaxial parallel disks.

Figure (7) View factors for two concentric cylinders of finite length: (a)
outer cylinder to inner cylinder; (b) outer cylinder to itself.
2. View factor relations

Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N surfaces requires the

evaluation of N 2 view factors, and this evaluation process is probably the
most time-consuming part of a radiation analysis. However, it is neither
practical nor necessary to evaluate all of the view factors directly. Once a
sufficient number of view factors are available, the rest of them can be
determined by utilizing some fundamental relations for view factors, as
discussed next.

2.1 The reciprocity relation

We have shown earlier the pair of view factors Fi j and Fj i are related to
each other by:

A i F i j= A j F j i (4)

This relation is referred to as the reciprocity relation or the reciprocity

rule, and it enables us to determine the counterpart of a view factor from
a knowledge of the view factor itself and the areas of the two surfaces.
When determining the pair of view factors Fij and
Fji, it makes sense to evaluate first the easier one
directly and then the more difficult one by applying
the reciprocity relation.

2.2 The summation rule

The conservation of energy principle requires that

the entire radiation leaving any surface i of an
enclosure be intercepted by the surfaces of the
enclosure. Therefore, the sum of the view factors
from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the
Figure (8) Radiation leaving any
7 surface i of
an enclosure must be intercepted
completely by the surfaces of the
enclosure. Therefore, the sum of the
view factors from surface i to
enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity. This is known as the
summation rule for an enclosure and is expressed as, [Fig. (8)]:
N

F i j=1 (5)
j=1

where N is the number of surfaces of the enclosure. For example, applying

the summation rule to surface 1 of a three-surface enclosure yields:
3

F 1 j =F1 1+ F 1 2 + F 1 3=1
j=1

The summation rule can be applied to each surface of an enclosure by

varying i from 1 to N. Therefore, the summation rule applied to each of the
N surfaces of an enclosure gives N relations for the determination of the
view factors. Also, the reciprocity rule gives (1/2) N(N - 1) additional
relations. Then the total number of view factors that need to be evaluated
directly for an N-surface enclosure becomes:

1 1
2
N - [N + 2 N(N - 1)] = 2 N(N - 1)

1
For example, for a six-surface enclosure, we need to determine only 2

6(6 - 1) = 15 of the 6 2 = 36 view factors directly. The remaining 21 view

factors can be determined from the 21 equations that are obtained by
applying the reciprocity and the summation rules.

2.3 The superposition rule

Sometimes the view factor associated

with a given geometry is not available
in standard tables and charts. In such
cases, it is desirable to express the
given geometry as the sum or
difference of some geometries with
known view factors, and then to apply
the superposition rule, which can
be expressed as the view factor from
a surface i to a surface j is equal to Figure (9) The view factor from a surface
the sum of the view factors from to a
composite surface is equal to the sum of
surface i to the parts of surface j. the view factors from the surface to the
Note that the reverse of this is not
true. That is, the view factor from a surface j to a surface i is not equal to
the sum of the view factors from the parts of surface j to surface i.

8
Consider the geometry in Figure (9), which is infinitely long in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The radiation that leaves surface
1 and strikes the combined surfaces 2 and 3 is equal to the sum of the
radiation that strikes surfaces 2 and 3. Therefore, the view factor from
surface 1 to the combined surfaces of 2 and 3 is:

F1 (2, 3) = F1 2 + F1 3 (6)

With the aids of Table (2), one can obtain F1 (2, 3) and F1 2 and hence from
equation (6), one can obtain F1 3 as:

F1 3 = F1 (2, 3) - F1 2 (7)

Also, one can obtain F (2, 3) 1 by applying both reciprocity and superposition
rules. The result is:

A 2 F 2 1+ A 3 F 3 1
F(2,3) 1= (8)
A 2+ A 3

2.4 The symmetry rule

The symmetry rule can be expressed as two

(or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about
a third surface will have identical view factors
from that surface [Fig. (10)]. The symmetry rule
can also be expressed as if the surfaces j and k
are symmetric about the surface i then Fi j = Fi
k. Using the reciprocity rule, we can show that
the relation Fj i = Fk i is also true in this case.
Figure (10) Two surfaces that are
symmetric about
a third surface will have the same view
View Factors between Infinitely Long
Surfaces
The Crossed-Strings Method

Many problems encountered in practice involve geometries of constant

cross section such as channels and ducts that are very long in one
direction relative to the other directions. Such geometries can
conveniently be considered to be two-dimensional, since any radiation
interaction through their end surfaces will be negligible. These geometries
can subsequently be modeled as being infinitely long, and the view factor
between their surfaces can be determined by the simple crossed-strings
method developed by H. C. Hottel in the 1950s. The surfaces of the

9
geometry do not need to be flat; they can be
convex, concave, or any irregular shape.

To demonstrate this method, consider the

geometry shown in Figure (11), and let us try to
find the view factor F1 2 between surfaces 1 and
2. The first thing we do is identify the endpoints
of the surfaces (the points A, B, C, and D) and
connect them to each other with tightly
stretched strings, which are indicated by dashed
lines. Hottel has shown that the view factor F1 2
can be expressed in terms of the lengths of these
stretched strings, which are straight lines, as:

L Figure (11) Determination of the view

( 5+ L6 )( L3 + L 4) factor
(7) F1 2 by the application of the crossed-
2 L1 strings method.
F1 2 =

Note that L5 + L6 is the sum of the lengths of the crossed strings, and L3 +
L4 is the sum of the lengths of the uncrossed strings attached to the
endpoints. Therefore, Hottels crossed-strings method can be expressed
verbally as:

Fi j =
( Crossed strings ) (Uncrossed strings)
2 (String on surface i) (8)

The crossed-strings method is applicable even when the two surfaces

considered share a common edge, as in a triangle. In such cases, the
common edge can be treated as an imaginary string of zero length. The
method can also be applied to surfaces that are partially blocked by other
surfaces by allowing the strings to bend around the blocking surfaces.

Example (1)
Determine the view factors associated with
an enclosure formed by two spheres,
shown in Figure (12).

Solution: The view factors associated with

two concentric spheres are to be
determined.

Assumptions The surfaces are diffuse

emitters and reflectors.

Figure (12) The geometry

10 considered
in Example (1).
Analysis The outer surface of the smaller sphere (surface 1) and inner
surface of the larger sphere (surface 2) form a two-surface enclosure.
Therefore, N = 2 and this enclosure involves N 2 = 22 = 4 view factors,
which are F11, F12, F21, and F22. In this two-surface enclosure, we need to
determine only:

1 1
N ( N 1 )= 2 ( 21 ) =1
2 2

view factor directly. The remaining three view factors can be determined
by the application of the summation and reciprocity rules. But it turns out
that we can determine not only one but two view factors directly in this
case by a simple inspection:
F11 = 0, since no radiation leaving surface 1 strikes itself

F12 = 1, since all radiation leaving surface 1 strikes surface 2

Actually it would be sufficient to determine only one of these view factors

by inspection, since we could always determine the other one from the
summation rule applied to surface 1 as:
F11 + F12 = 1.

The view factor F21 is determined by applying the reciprocity relation to

surfaces 1 and 2:

A1 F12 = A2 F21
which yields:

4 r 21 2
A1 r
F21=
A2
F 12=
4 r2 2 ()
1= 1
r2

Finally, the view factor F22 is determined by applying the summation rule
to surface 2:
F21 + F22 = 1
and thus:
2
r1
F22=1F21=1
()
r2

Discussion Note that when the outer sphere is much larger than the
inner sphere (r2 r1), F22 approaches one. This is expected, since the
fraction of radiation leaving the outer sphere that is intercepted by the
inner sphere will be negligible in that case. Also note that the two spheres
considered above do not need to be concentric. However, the radiation

11
analysis will be most accurate for the case of concentric spheres, since
the radiation is most likely to be uniform on the surfaces in that case.

Example (2)
Determine the fraction of the radiation leaving
the base of the cylindrical enclosure shown in
Figure (13) that escapes through a coaxial ring
opening at its top surface. The radius and the
length of the enclosure are r1 = 10 cm and L = 10
cm, while the inner and outer radii of the ring are
r2 = 5 cm and r3 = 8 cm, respectively.

Solution: The fraction of radiation leaving the

base of a cylindrical enclosure through a coaxial
ring opening at its top surface is to be
determined.

Assumptions The base surface is a diffuse

emitter and reflector.

Analysis We are asked to determine the fraction

Figure (13) The cylindrical
of the radiation leaving the base of the enclosure enclosure
that escapes through an opening at the top considered in Example (2).
surface. Actually, what we are asked to determine is simply the view
factor F1 ring from the base of the enclosure to the ring-shaped surface at
the top.

We do not have an analytical expression or chart for view factors between

a circular area and a coaxial ring, and so we cannot determine F1 ring
directly. However, we do have a chart for view factors between two
coaxial parallel disks, and we can always express a ring in terms of disks.

Let the base surface of radius r1 = 10 cm be surface 1, the circular area of

r2 = 5 cm at the top be surface 2, and the circular area of r3 = 8 cm be
surface 3. Using the superposition rule, the view factor from surface 1 to
surface 3 can be expressed as:

F1 3 = F1 2 + F1 ring

since surface 3 is the sum of surface 2 and the ring area. The view factors
F12 and F1 3 are determined from the chart in Figure (6).

L 10 1r 2 5
For : = = = =0.5 F 1 2=0.11
r 1 10 L 10

12
 L 10 1r 3 8
And for: = = = =0.8 F 1 3=0.28
r 1 10 L 10

Therefore,

F1 ring=F 1 3F 1 2=0.280.11=0.17

which is the desired result. Note that F12 and F1 3 represent the fractions
of radiation leaving the base that strike the circular surfaces 2 and 3,
respectively, and their difference gives the fraction that strikes the ring
area.

Example (3)
Determine the view factors from the base of the
pyramid shown in Figure (14) to each of its four
side surfaces. The base of the pyramid is a
square, and its side surfaces are isosceles
triangles.

Solution The view factors from the base of a

pyramid to each of its four side
surfaces for the case of a square base are to be
determined.

Assumptions The surfaces are diffuse emitters

and reflectors.

Analysis The base of the pyramid (surface 1)

and its four side surfaces (surfaces 2, 3, 4, and
5) form a five-surface enclosure. The first thing Figure (14) The pyramid considered
we notice about this enclosure is its symmetry. in Example (3).
The four side surfaces are symmetric about the
base surface. Then, from the symmetry rule, we have:

F12 = F13 = F14 = F15

Also, the summation rule applied to surface 1 yields:

F1 j= F11 + F 12+ F 13 + F14 + F 15=1

5

j=1

However, F11 = 0, since the base is a flat surface. Then the two relations
above yield:

F12 = F13 = F14 = F15 = 0.25

13
Discussion Note that each of the four side surfaces of the pyramid
receive one-fourth of the entire radiation leaving the base surface, as
expected. Also note that the presence of symmetry greatly simplified the
determination of the view factors.

Example (4)
Determine the view factor from any one side to
any other side of the infinitely long triangular
duct whose cross section is given in Figure
(15).

Solution The view factors associated with an

infinitely long triangular duct are to be
determined.

Assumptions The surfaces are diffuse

emitters and reflectors.

Analysis The widths of the sides of the

triangular cross section of the duct are L1, L2,
and L3, and the surface areas corresponding to
them are A1, A2, and A3, respectively. Since the
duct is infinitely long, the fraction of radiation
Figure (15) The infinitely long triangular duct
leaving any surface that escapes through the considered in Example (4).
ends of the duct is negligible. Therefore, the
infinitely long duct can be considered to be a three-surface enclosure, N =
3.
2
This enclosure involves N = 32 = 9 view factors, and we need to
determine:

1 1
N ( N 1 )= 3 ( 31 )=3
2 2

of these view factors directly. Fortunately, we can determine all three of

them by inspection to be:

F11 = F22 = F33 = 0

since all three surfaces are flat. The remaining six view factors can be
determined by the application of the summation and reciprocity rules.

Applying the summation rule to each of the three surfaces gives:

F11 + F 12+ F 13 =1

F21 + F 22 +F 23=1

14
 F31 + F32 +F 33=1

Noting that F11 = F22 = F33 = 0 and multiplying the first equation by A1, the
second by A2, and the third by A3 gives:

A 1 F 12+ A 1 F 13 =A 1

A 2 F 2 1+ A 2 F 23= A2

A 3 F 31+ A 3 F 32 = A3

Finally, applying the three reciprocity relations A1F12 = A2F21, A1F13 = A3F31,
and A2F23 = A3F32 gives:

A 1 F 12+ A 1 F 13 =A 1

A 1 F 12+ A 2 F 23 = A2

A 1 F 13+ A 2 F 23= A3

This is a set of three algebraic equations with three unknowns, which can
be solved to obtain:

A1 + A2 A 3 L1 + L2L3
F12= =
2 A1 2 L1

A1 + A3 A 2 L1 + L3L2
F13= =
2 A1 2 L1

A2 + A3 A 1 L2 + L3L1
F23= =
2 A2 2 L2

Discussion Note that we have replaced the areas of the side surfaces by
their corresponding widths for simplicity, since A = Ls and the length s can
be factored out and canceled. We can generalize this result as the view
factor from a surface of a very long triangular duct to another surface is
equal to the sum of the widths of these two surfaces minus the width of
the third surface, divided by twice the width of the first surface.

15
Example (5)
Two infinitely long parallel plates of widths a = 12 cm and b = 5 cm are
located a distance c = 6 cm apart, as shown in Figure (16). Determine the
view factor F1 2 from surface 1 to surface 2 by using the crossed-strings
method.

Solution The view factors

between two infinitely long parallel
plates are to be determined
using the crossed- strings
method, and the formula for the
view factor is to be derived.

Assumptions The surfaces are

diffuse emitters and reflectors.

Analysis First we label the endpoints

of both surfaces and draw straight
dashed lines between Figure (16) The two infinitely long the endpoints,
as shown in Figure (16). parallel Then we
identify the crossed and plates considered in Example (5). uncrossed
strings and apply the crossed-strings method to determine the view factor
F1 2:

Fi j=
( Crossed strings ) (Uncrossed strings) = ( L5 + L6 ) ( L3 + L4 )
2 (String on surface i) 2 L1

where

L1 = a = 12 cm L4 = 72 +62= 9.22 cm

L2 = b = 5 cm L5 = 52+ 62= 7.81 cm

L3 = c = 6 cm L6 = 122+6 2= 13.42 cm

Substituting,

(7.81+13.42 )(6+ 9.22)

F 1 2= =0.25
2 12

16