11/22/2010

COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
Water Treatment Course
AAiT, Zerihun Alemayehu

SETTLING VELOCITIES OF VARIOUS SIZE

PARTICLES

Particle size, mm Type Settling velocity

10 Pebble 0.73 m/s
1 Course sand 0.23 m/s
0.1 Fine sand 0.6 m/min
0.01 Silt 8.3 m/day
0.0001 Large colloids 0.3 m/year
0.000001 Small colloids 3 m/million years

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COAGULATION
 Coagulation is a chemical process in which charged
particles (colloids) are destabilized.

The addition and rapid mixing of coagulants

The destabilization of colloidal and fine particles

The initial aggregation of destabilized particles

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COLLOID STABILITY
 Colloids - Particle size between 0.001 to 1.0 micron
 Stable - Colloidal suspensions that do not agglomerate
naturally.
 Most colloids are stable  possess a negative charge

 Excessively large surface-to-volume ratio

 Surface phenomena predominate over mass

phenomena

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COLLOID STABILITY…
 Accumulation of electrical charges at the particle
surface
 Can be hydrophilic- readily dispersed in water (organic
colloids) or hydrophobic- no affinity for water; “stable in
water because of electric charge (inorganic colloids)

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COLLOID STABILITY…

 When two colloids come in close

proximity there are two forces
acting on them.
 Electrostatic potential (Zeta
potential) – a repelling force and,
 Van der Waals force – an attraction
force—inversely proportional to
the sixth power of the distance
between the particles and also
decays exponentially with distance
more rapidly than the electrostatic
force.

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COLLOID DESTABILIZATION
A means of overcoming the energy barrier to create
agglomeration of particles could be:
 Brownian movement- random movement of smaller colloids
may produce enough momentum to overcome the energy
barrier and thus collide.
 Mechanical agitation of the water- may impart enough
momentum to larger particles to move them across the energy
barrier.
 These two processes are too slow and cannot be efficient
means to remove particles.
 Therefore, in order to destabilize the particles we must
neutralize the charges on the particles.

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COLLOID DESTABILIZATION…
 Neutralization can take place by addition of an ion of
opposite charge to the colloid.
 Most colloids found in water are negatively charged
the addition of positively charged ions (Na+, Mg2+, Al3+,
Fe3+ etc.) can neutralize the colloidal negative charges.
 Coagulant salts dissociate when added to water and
produce positively charged hydroxo-metallic ion
complexes (Meq(OH)pz+)

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COLLOID DESTABILIZATION…
 When complexes adsorb to the surface of the colloid,
the zeta potential is reduced and particle is destabilized
 Destabilized particles aggregate by attraction due to
van der Waals forces or chemical interactions between
reactive groups available on the surface of the colloid

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MECHANISMS OF DESTABILIZATION
 Ionic layer compression. A high ionic concentration
compresses the layers composed predominantly of
counter ions toward the surface of the colloid. then the
van der Waals force will be predominant so that the net
force will be attractive and no energy layer will exist.
 Adsorption and charge neutralization. surface charges
are decreased when charged species (particularly
trivalent) attach to the surface of the colloid

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MECHANISMS OF DESTABILIZATION…
 Sweep coagulation. The Al(OH)3 forms in amorphous,
gelatinous flocs that are heavier than water and settle
by gravity. Colloids become entrapped or enmeshed by
its “sticky” surface as the flocs settle.
 Interparticle bridge. Synthetic polymers linear or
branched and are highly surface reactive. Thus, several
colloids may become attached to one polymer and
several of the polymer-colloid groups may become
enmeshed, resulting in a settleable mass.

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IMPURITIES REMOVED BY COAGULATION

 Miscellaneous fragments of animals and vegetables
 Plankton, mainly phtoplankton

 Colloids including clay

 Organic colouring matter

 A complex mixture of colloidal and dissolved organic

compounds from wastewater
 Bacteria and viruses

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FACTOR AFFECTING COAGULATION

 Types of coagulant
 Quantity or dose of coagulant

 Characteristics of water such as

 Type and quantity of suspended matter
 Temperature of water
 pH of water
 Time, violence and method of mixing

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COAGULANTS
A coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is added to
the water to accomplish coagulation.
 Three key properties of a coagulant:
 Trivalent cation. most efficient cation
 Nontoxic. For production of safe water
 Insoluble in neutral pH range can precipitate without leaving
high concentration of ions in water.

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COAGULANTS…
 Commonly used coagulants are:
 Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
 Ferric chloride: FeCl3
 Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
 Polyelectrolytes (Polymers)
 Aluminum salts are cheaper but iron salts are more
effective over wider pH range

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ALUMINUM
 eitherdry or liquid alum
 Alum have variable amount of water of crystallization 
(Al2(SO4)3.nH2O ( n is14 to 18)
 To produce the hydroxide floc, enough alkalinity should
present in the water
Al 2 (SO4 )3 .14H 2O  3Ca( HCO3 ) 2  2 Al (OH )3  3CaSO4  14H 2O  CO2

 If
alkalinity is not enough, then it should be added.
Usually hydrated lime is used for that purpose
Al 2 (SO4 )3 .14H 2O  3Ca(OH ) 2  2 Al (OH )3  3CaSO4  14H 2O
 Optimum pH is 5.5-6.5 and operating pH is 5 – 8

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EXAMPLE: ALKALINITY CALCULATION

 If 200 mg/L of alum to be added to achieve complete coagulation.

How much alkalinity is consumed in mg/L as CaCO3?
 Solution:
594 mg 366 mg
Al2(SO4)3.14 H2O + 6HCO3-  2Al(OH)3+ 6CO2 + 14H2O + 3SO4-2

 594 mg alum consumes 366 mg HCO3-

 200 mg alum will consume (366/594) x 200 mg HCO3-
= 123 mg HCO3-
Equivalent weight of CaCO 3
Alkas CaCO 3  123  
Equivalent weight of HCO3

= 123 x (50/61)
= 101 mg/L as CaCO3
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JAR TEST
 Is used to determine:
 Proper coagulant
 Proper coagulant aid

 Proper coagulant dose

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JAR TEST
 Procedure
 Add reagents (4 to 6 beakers )
 Rapid mix (100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute)
Optimum pH: 6.3 Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5 mg/L
 Slow mix (25 to 30 rpm for15 to 20 mins )

 Allow Settling (30 to 45 mins)

 Turbidity and color removal (%)

 pH of supernatant

 Plot the values and determine the optimum

Coagulant Dose mg/L

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PH ADJUSTMENT
 Isused if pH of water to be treated is not within
the optimum pH of the coagulant
 pH is increased using lime
 pH is reduced using sulfuric acid

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ALKALINITY ADDITION
 Isused when natural alkalinity is not enough to
produce good floc
 Hydrated or slaked lime is used
 Soda ash (Na2CO3) is also used (expensive)

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TURBIDITY ADDITION
 Is used to provide sufficient particulate
concentration to achieve rapid coagulation
through sufficient interparticle collision
 Is done by recycling chemically precipitated
sludge
 Clays are also used for that purpose

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COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION PROCESS
OVERVIEW

 coagulation/flocculation process is a two step process -

the water first flows into the Flash mix (Rapid mix)
chamber, and then enters the flocculation basin.

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RAPID MIXING AND FLOCCULATION

 Rapid mixing is used to:
 Disperse chemicals uniformly throughout the

mixing basin
Allow adequate contact between the coagulant and

particles
Microflocs are produced

Lasts only for about 45 secs

 Flocculation is used to:

Agglomerate microflocs to larger ones

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RAPID MIXING AND FLOCCULATION

Rapid mix Chemical mixing

Coagulation Destabilization

Flocculation Floc formation

Sedimentation Flocs settle out

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RAPID MIXING
 Design parameters for rapid-mix units are mixing time t
and velocity gradient G.
 The velocity gradient is a measure of the relative
velocity of two particles of fluid and the distance
between.
G = velocity gradient, sec-1
W = power imparted per unit
volume of basin, N-m/s-m3
W P
G  P = power imparted, N-m/s
 V V = basin volume, m3
 = absolute viscosity of water (
=0.00131 N-s/m2)

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RAPID MIXING DEVICES

A tank utilizing a vertical shaft mixer
 A pipe using an in-line blender

 A pipe using a static mixer.

 Hydraulic jump

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RAPID MIXING

G and t Values for Rapid Mixing

Contact time t (s) Velocity gradient, G (s-1)
0.5 – 1.0 (in-line blenders) 4,000
10-20 1,000
21-30 900
31-40 800
41-60 700

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ROTARY MIXING
 Rotary mixing devices can be
 Turbines

 Paddle impellers

 propellers

 Basins are either circular or square in plan

 Depth of basin is 1 to 1.25 of the basin diameter or
width
 Impeller diameter should be 0.3 to 0.5 of the tank width
 Baffled tanks are recommended since they minimize
vortexing and rotational flow

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EXAMPLE – RAPID MIXING

A square rapid-mixing basin, with a depth of water equal to
1.25 times the width, is to be designed for a flow of 7570
m3/d. The velocity gradient is to be 790 s-1, the detention
time is 40 seconds, the operating temperature is 10 C, and
the turbine shaft speed is 100 rpm. Determine:

• The basin dimensions

• The power required
• µ=0.0013 N-s/m2 at 10oC

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SOLUTION
 Find the volume of the basin,
7570m3 min
V    40 sec  3.5m3
1440 min 60 sec
 The dimensions are
(W)(W)(1.25W) = 3.50 m3
W = 1.41 m
The depth of the basin, H = (1.25)(1.41 m) = 1.76 m
Use W = 1.41 m; H = 1.76
Using the velocity gradient equation
P  G 2V  (0.0013N  s / m 2 )(790 / sec)(1.411.411.76m3 )
P  2863N  m / s
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FLOCCULATION
 Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to
agglomerate destabilized particles into compact, fast
settleable particles (or flocs).
 The objective is to bring the particles into contact so
that they will collide, stick together, and grow to a size
that will readily settle.
 The flocculation process relies on turbulence to
promote collisions.
 Fragile flocs require low G values (<5/sec)

 High-strength flocs require high G values (10/sec)

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FLOCCULATION…
Gt values for flocculation
Type G (s-1) Gt (unitless)
Low-turbidity, color 20-70 60,000 to 200,000
removal coagulation
High-turbidity, solids 30-80 36,000 to 96,000
removal coagulation
Softening, 10% solids 130-200 200,000 to 250,000
Softening, 39% solids 150-300 390,000 to 400,000
•Values of Gt from 104 to 105 are commonly used, with t
ranging from 10 to 30 min.
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FLOCCULATION BASINS
 Flocculation is normally accomplished with
 an axial-flow impeller,
 a paddle flocculator, or
 a baffled chamber
 Flocculation
basins are composed of minimum 3
compartments to:
 Minimize short circuiting
 Facilitate tapered flocculation
 For cross-flow, tapered flocculation can be provided by:
 Varying the paddle size
 Varying the number of paddles
 Varying the diameter of the paddle wheels
 Varying the rotational speed of the various shafts

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FLOCCULATION TANK DESIGN DATA

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EXAMPLE ON FLOCCULATION
A cross-flow, horizontal shaft, paddle wheel flocculation basin is to be
designed for a flow of 25,000m3/d, a mean velocity gradient of 26.7/sec
(at 10 C), and a detention time of 45 minutes. The GT value should be
from 50,000 to 100,000. Tapered flocculation is to be provided, and the
three compartments of equal depth in series are to be used. The G values
determined from laboratory tests for the three compartments are G1 =
50/sec, G2 = 20/sec, and G3 = 10/sec. These give an average G value of
26.7/sec. The compartments are to be separated by slotted, redwood
baffle fences, and the floor of the basin is level. The basin should be 15 m
in width to adjoin the settling tank. Determine:
1. The GT value
2. The basin dimensions
3. The power to be imparted to the water in each compartment

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SOLUTION
The GT value = (26.7/sec)(45 min)(60 sec/min) = 72,100
Since GT value is between 50,000 and 100,000, the detention time is satisfactory.
Basin volume, V = (flow)  (detention time) = (25,000 m3/d)(45 min)(hr/60 min) = 781
m3
Profile area = (volume / width) = (781 m3 / 15 m) = 52.1 m2
Assume compartments are square in profile, and x is the compartment width and depth.
Thus, (3x)(x) = 52.1 m2 = 17.37  x = 4.17 m and 3x = 3(4.17) = 12.51m
Then, width = depth = 4.17 m and length = 12.51 m
volume = (4.17)(12.51)(15.0) = 783 m3
The Power, P = G2V (at 10 C,  = 0.00131 N-s/m2)
P (for 1 compartment) = (0.00131 N-s/m2)(502/s2)(783 m3/3) = 855 N-m/s = 855 J/s =
st
855 W
P (for 2nd compartment) = (0.00131)(202)(783/3) = 137 W
P (for 3rd compartment) = (0.00131)(102)(783/3) = 34.2 W

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EXAMPLE
A water treatment plant is being designed to process
50,000 m3/d of water. Jar testing and pilot-plant analysis
indicate that an alum dosage of 40 mg/L with
flocculation at a Gt value of 4.0 x 104 produces optimal
results at the expected water temperatures of 15oC.
Determine:
 The monthly alum requirement.
 The flocculation basin dimensions if three cross-flow horizontal
paddles are to used. The flocculator should be a maximum of
12 m wide and 5 m deep in order to connect appropriately with
the settling basin.
 The power requirement.

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SOLUTION
 Monthly alum requirement:
40 mg/L = 0.04 kg/m3
And
0.04 kg m3
x 50,000 x 30 d / mo  60,000 kg / mo
m3 d
 Basin dimension:
a. Assume an average G value of 30 s-1
Gt = 4.0 x 104
t = 4.0 x 104 / (30 x 60) min
t = 22.22 min
b. Volume of the tank is

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SOLUTION…
 The tank will contain three cross-flow paddles, so its
length will be divided into three compartments. For
equal distribution of velocity gradients, the end are of
each compartment should be square, i.e., depth
equals 1/3 length. Assuming maximum depth of 5 m,
length is

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SOLUTION…
 Power requirements
 Assume G value tapered as follows
First compartment, G = 40 s-1
Second compartment, G = 30 s-1
Third compartment, G = 20 s-1
The Power, P = G2V (at 15 C,  = 0.001139 N-s/m2)
P (for 1st compartment) = (0.001139 N-s/m2)(402/s2)(771.5
m3/3) = 470 W
P (for 2nd compartment) = (0.001139)(302)(771.5/3) = 260 W
P (for 3rd compartment) = (0.00139)(202)(771.5/3) = 120 W
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Any Questions?

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