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Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of the basic concepts of limit and continuity of a function .
Performance Standards

The learner shall be able to formulate and solve accurately real-life problems involving continuity of
functions.
Most Essential Learning Competencies

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Illustrate different types of discontinuity (hole/removable, jump/essential,

asymptotic/infinite);
2. Illustrate the Intermediate Value and Extreme Value Theorems; and
3. Solve problems involving the continuity of a function.

Lesson Presentation
Terminologies

✓ Discontinuity - is the point at which a mathematical object is discontinuous. The left figure above
illustrates a discontinuity in a one-variable function while the right figure illustrates a discontinuity of a
two-variable function plotted as a surface.
✓ Extreme Value Theorem - The Extreme value theorem states that if a function is continuous on a
closed interval [a, b], then the function must have a maximum and a minimum on the interval.
✓ Intermediate Value Theorem - (often abbreviated as IVT) says that if a continuous function takes on
two values y1 and y2 at points a and b, it also takes on every value between y1 and y2 at some point
between a and b.

Discussion

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In Lesson (1.2), it was emphasized that the value of 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) may be distinct from the value of the function
𝒙→𝒄

itself at 𝑥 = 𝑐. Recall that a limit may be evaluated at values which are not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).

In Topics (3.1) - (3.2), we learned that when 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) land 𝑓(𝑐) is equal, 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at c.
𝐱→𝐜

Otherwise, it is said to be discontinuous at c. We will revisit the instances when 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)and 𝑓(𝑐) have
𝐱→𝐜

unequal or different values. These instances of inequality and, therefore, discontinuity is very interesting to
study. This section focuses on these instances.

Different Types of Discontinuities

Consider the functions 𝑔(𝑥), ℎ(𝑥) and 𝑗(𝑥) where,

3𝑥 2 4𝑥 + 1
𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1,
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1.

𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 4,
ℎ(𝑥) = { and
(𝑥 − 4)2 + 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 4.

1
𝑖(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0.
𝑥

We examine these for continuity at the respective values 1, 4, and 0.

1. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2but 𝑔(1) = 1.

𝑥→1

2. lim ℎ(𝑥)DNE but ℎ(4) = 3.

𝑥→4

3. lim(𝑥)DNE and 𝑓(0)DNE

𝑥→0

All the functions are discontinuous at the given values. A closer study shows that they exhibit different types
of discontinuity.

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Removable Discontinuity

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if:

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and

𝑥→𝑐

b. either 𝑓(𝑐) does not exist 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑐)6 ≠

lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑐

It is said to be removable because the discontinuity may be

removed by redefining 𝑓(𝑐) so that it will equal lim 𝑓(𝑥). In
𝑥→𝑐

other words, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, a removable discontinuity is

𝑥→𝑐

remedied by the redefinition:

let 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝑳

Recall 𝑔(𝑥) above and how it is discontinuous at 1. In this

case, 𝑔(1) exists. Its graph is as follows:

The discontinuity of g at the point 𝑥 = 1 is manifested by

the hole in the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) at the point (1, 2). This is
since 𝑓(1) is equal to 1 and not 2, while lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2. We now demonstrate how this kind of a discontinuity
𝑥→1

may be removed:

Let 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝟐

This is called a redefinition of g at x = 1. The redefinition results in a “transfer” of the point (1, 1) to the hole at
(1, 2). In effect, the hole is filled, and the discontinuity is removed.

This is why the discontinuity is called a removable one. This is also why, sometimes, it is called a hole
discontinuity.

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Essential Discontinuity

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have an essential discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)if DNE.

𝑥→𝑐

Case 1. If for a function 𝑓(𝑥), 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)DNEbecause the limits from the left and right of 𝑥 = 𝑐 both exist but
𝒙→𝒄

are not equal, that is,

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝑴, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑳 ≠ 𝑴

𝒙→𝒄− 𝒙→𝒄

then f is said to have a jump essential discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Recall the function ℎ(𝑥) where,

𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 4,
ℎ(𝑥) = {
(𝑥 − 4)2 + 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 4.

Its graph is as follows:

From Lesson 2, we know that lim ℎ(𝑥)DNE because,

𝑥→4−

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟓 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟑

𝒙→𝟒− 𝒙→𝟒+

The graph confirms that the discontinuity of ℎ(𝑥)at 𝑥 = 4

is certainly not removable.
See, the discontinuity is not just a matter of having one
point missing from the graph and putting it in; if ever, it is
a matter of having a part of the graph entirely out of
place.

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If we force to remove this kind of discontinuity, we need to connect the two parts by a vertical line
from (4,5) to (4,3).
However, the resulting graph will fail the Vertical Line Test and will no longer be a graph of a function.
Hence, this case has no remedy.
From the graph, it is clear why this essential discontinuity is also called a jump discontinuity.

Case 2. If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)DNE because either

𝒙→𝒄

1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = + ∞, 𝒐𝒓
𝒙→𝒄−

2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = − ∞, 𝒐𝒓
𝒙→𝒄−

3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = + ∞, 𝒐𝒓
𝒙→𝒄+

4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = − ∞, 𝒐𝒓
𝒙→𝒄+

then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have an infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

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We have seenfromLesson1.4that

𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞
𝒙→𝟎− 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎+ 𝒙

Because the limits are infinite, the limits from both

the left and the right of x=0 do not exist, and the
discontinuity cannot be removed.

Also, the absence of a left-hand (or right -hand)

limit from which to “jump”to the other part of the
graph means the discontinuity is permanent.
1
Recall 𝑗(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0, as mentioned earlier. Its graph is as follows:
𝑥

Flowchart. Here is a flowchart which can help evaluate whether a function is continuous or not at a point c.
Before using this, make sure that the function is defined on an open interval containing c, except possibly at c.

As the graph indicates, the two ends of the function that approach x = 0 continuously move away from
each other: one end goes upward without bound, the other end goes downward without bound. This
translates to an asymptotic behavior as x-values approach 0; in fact, we say that x = 0 is a vertical
asymptote of f(x).
Thus, this discontinuity is called an infinite essential discontinuity.

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The Intermediate Value and The Extreme Value Theorems

The Intermediate Value Theorem

The first theorem we will illustrate says that a function 𝑓(𝑥) which is found to be continuous over a closed
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] will take any value between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏).

Theorem 4 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over a closed interval, [𝑎, 𝑏],

then for every value m between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), there is a value 𝑐 𝜖 [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑚.

Look at the graph as we consider values of m between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏). Imagine moving the dotted line for m
up and down between the dotted lines for 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏). Correspondingly, the dot P will move along the
thickened curve between the two points, (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)).

We make the following observations:

• As the dark dot moves, so will the vertical dotted line over 𝑥 = 𝑐 move.

• In particular, the said line moves between the vertical dotted lines over 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑏.
• More, for any value that we assign m in between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏)., the consequent position of the dark
dot assigns a corresponding value of c between a and b. This illustrates what the IVT says.

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Example 1: Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5. Choose 𝑚 = 1 2. By IVT, there is a 𝑐 𝜖 [1, 5] such that 𝑓(𝑐) =

Since it is a linear function, we know it is continuous

everywhere. Therefore, we can be sure that it will be
continuous over any closed interval of our choice.

Take the interval [1, 5]. The IVT says that for any m
intermediate to, or in between, 𝑓 (1) and 𝑓(5), we can
find a value intermediate to, or in between, 1 and 5.

Start with the fact that 𝑓(1) = 3 and 𝑓(5) = 5. Then,

choose an 𝑚 𝜖 [3, 5], to exhibit a corresponding 𝑐 𝜖 [1, 5]
such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑚

1 1
1 Choose𝑚 = 2. By IVT, there is a 𝑐 𝜖 [1, 5] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 2

1 11
Therefore, 2 = 𝑓(𝑐) = 2𝑐 − 5 → 2𝑐 = .
2

11
Indeed, 𝜖 (1,5).
4

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We can try another m-value in (3, 5). Choose 𝑚 = 3. By IVT, there is 𝑎 𝑐 𝜖 [1, 5] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 3.
Therefore,

3 = 𝑓(𝑐) = 2𝑐 − 5 → 2𝑐 = 8 → 𝑐 = 4.

Again, the answer, 4, is in [1, 5]. The claim of IVT is clearly seen in the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑥– 5.

Example 2: Consider the simplest quadratic function

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

Being a polynomial function, it is continuous

everywhere. Thus, it is also continuous over any
closed interval we may specify.

We choose the interval [4, 2]. For any m in between

𝑓(4) = 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(2) = 4, there is a value c inside
the interval [4, 2] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑚.

Suppose we choose 𝑚 = 9 𝜖 [4, 16]. By IVT, there

exists a number 𝑐 𝜖 [4, 2] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 9.

Hence, 9 = 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑐2 → 𝑐 = ±3.

However, we only choose 𝑐 = 3 because the other

solution 𝑐 = 3 is not in the specified interval [4, 2].

Note: In the previous example, if the interval that

was specified was [0,4], then the final answer would
instead be 𝑐 = +3

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Over the interval [1.5, 4] Note that

𝑓(1.5) = 6.875 and 𝑓(4) = 11.

We choose 𝑚 = 1. By IVT, there exists 𝑐 𝜖 [1.5, 4]

such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 1. Thus, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 3 4𝑐 2 + 𝑐 + 7 =
1.

→ 𝑐 3 4𝑐 2 + 𝑐 + 6 = 0

→ (𝑐 + 1)(𝑐 − 2)(𝑐 − 3) = 0

→ 𝑐 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 3.

We see that there are three values of c 2 [1.5, 4]

which satisfy the conclusion of the Intermediate

Example 3: Consider the polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3Value

4𝑥 2 +Theorem.
𝑥+7

The Extreme Value Theorem

The second theorem we will illustrate says that a function 𝑓(𝑥) which is found to be continuous over a closed
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is guaranteed to have extreme values in that interval.

An extreme value of f, or extremum, is either a minimum or a maximum value of the function.

• A minimum value of f occurs at some 𝑥 = 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in the interval.
• A maximum value of f occurs at some 𝑥 = 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ (𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in the interval.

Theorem 5 (Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)).

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If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over a closed interval, [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓(𝑥) is guaranteed to reach a maximum and
a minimum on [𝑎, 𝑏].

From the graph, it is clear that on the interval, f has

• The maximum value of 2, occurring at 𝑥 = ±1; and

• The minimum value of 0, occurring at 𝑥 = 0.

Example 4: Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 over [1,1].

Example 5: Consider Example 1. Observe that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥– 5 on [1, 5] exhibits the extrema at the endpoints:

• The minimum occurs at 𝑥 = 1, giving the minimum value 𝑓(1) = −3; and
• The maximum occurs at 𝑥 = 5, giving the maximum value 𝑓(5) = 5.

Example 6: Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2

• On the interval[−2, −√2],theextremaoccurattheendpoints.

Endpoint𝑥 = −2yieldsthemaximumvalue𝑓(−2) = 0.

Endpoint𝑥 = −√2yieldstheminimumvalue 𝑓(−√2) = −8.

• On the interval [−2, −1],one extremum occurs at an endpoint,

another at an interior point.
Endpoint 𝑥 = −2 yields the maximum value 𝑓(−2) = 0.
Interior point 𝑥 = −√2 yields the minimum value 𝑓( −√2) = −8.

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• On the interval [−1.5, 1], the extrema occur at interior points.

Interior point 𝑥 = −√2 yields the minimum value 𝑓( −√2) = −8.
Interior point 𝑥 = 0 yields the maximum value 𝑓(0) = 0.

• On the interval [2, 2], the extrema occur at both the endpoints and several interior points.
Endpoints 𝑥 = ±2 and interior point 𝑥 = 0 yield the maximum value 0.
Interior points 𝑥 = ± 𝑝2 yield the minimum value 8.

Conclusion/ Summary

✓ A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and either 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

does not exist or 𝑓(𝑐) 6 ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑐

✓ A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have an essential discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑖𝑓 𝐷𝑁𝐸.

𝒙→𝒄

✓ If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then for every value m between 𝑓(𝑎) and
𝑓(𝑏), there is a value 𝑐 𝜖 [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑚.
✓ A minimum value of f occurs at some 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in the interval.
✓ A maximum value of f occurs at some 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ (𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in the interval.

Reference Link

✓ Math 53 Module Committee, Math 53 Elementary Analysis I Course Module, Institute of Mathematics,
UP Diliman, 2012.
✓ R. Barnett, M. Ziegler, K. Byleen Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences and Social Sciences,
Pearson Education (Asia) Pre Ltd, 9th Edition, 2003.
✓ H. Anton, I. Bivens, S. Davis, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, John Wiley and Sons, 7th Edition, 2002.

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