Equivalence at Word Level

Equivalence at Word Level
(Mona Baker: Chapter 2)

Mona Baker states that:
Translation is doomed to failure because
(a) languages are never sufficiently similar to express the same realities, and
(b) even worse, ‘reality’ cannot be assumed to exist independently of language
In spite of these difficulties, translation remains an

inescapable part of our lives – more so today, perhaps, than at
any time in the past.
Mona baker states that :
• Translation has brought and continues to bring people of different cultural
and linguistic backgrounds closer together, has enabled many to share a more
harmonious view of the world, and has built bridges of understanding and
appreciation among different societies.
• Translation and interpreting can be used to sow conflict, support racist
agendas, dispossess indigenous populations and manipulate weak groups and
individuals.
Equivalence at word level
• Each language articulates or organizes the world

differently. Languages do not simply name existing
categories, they articulate their own.
Lexical Meaning
v 1. Propositional meaning/dictionary/denotation
v e.g. You
v 2. Expressive meaning/connotation
v e.g. Complain and whine, plum and fat, crusade, Jihad, boyfriend, dogs, etc.
v 3. Collocational restriction
v e.g. Break the law
v 4. Register and style
v Children, offspring, brats
v cardiac arrest and heart attack,
v child and minor.
Common problems of non-equivalence
vA. Culture-specific items:

vThe SL word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture.
vE.g.
vParliament
vCongress
v‫ﻋﺒﺎﯾﺔ‬
Problems of non-equivalence at word level:
• (b) The source-language concept is not lexicalized

in the target language. The source-language word
may express a concept which is known in the target
culture but simply not lexicalized.
e.g. standard, already,
Problem of non-equivalence
• (c) The source-language word is semantically complex:
The source-language word may be semantically complex. This is a fairly
common problem in translation. Words do not have to be morphologically
complex to be semantically complex
Prayers
Pilgrimage
Ablution/‫وﺿﻮء‬
d) The source and target languages make different distinctions in
meaning. The target language may make more or fewer distinctions in
meaning than the source language
• (. What one language regards as an important distinction in meaning another

language may not perceive as relevant. E.g.
• Snow (flurries, sleet, squalls, a blizzard, black ice, etc )
• ‫ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﺐ (اﻷﺣﻜﺎم ﻓﻲ اﻹﺳﻼم‬،‫ ﺳﻨﺔ‬، ‫)واﺟﺐ‬
e. The target language may have specific words
(hyponyms) but no general word (superordinate) to head
the semantic field.
• Russian has no ready equivalent for facilities, meaning ‘any equipment,
building, services, etc. that are provided for a particular activity or purpose’.
It does, however, have several specific words and expressions which can be
thought of as types of facilities.
(f)The target language lack a specific term
(hyponym)
qEnglish again has a variety of hyponyms which have no equivalents in many

languages, for example bungalow, cottage, croft, chalet, lodge, hut,
mansion, manor, villa and hall. What about Arabic?
Other examples:
Hound, Manx, Sushi,
(g) Differences in physical or interpersonal
perspective
• Physical perspective may be of more importance in one language than it is in

another. Physical perspective has to do with where things or people are in
relation to one another or to a place, as expressed in pairs of words such as
come/go, take/ bring, arrive/depart and so on.
Japanese has six equivalents to ‘give’ depending on who gives to whom.
Problems of non-equivalence at word level
(h) Differences in expressive meaning:
• Bar, dog, wine, girlfriend,
• Jihad, Crusade,
• transgender, homosexual, etc.
(i) Differences in form
• There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular form in

the source text. Certain suffixes and prefixes which convey propositional and
other types of meaning in English often have no direct equivalents in other
languages
e.g. translationese
Retrievable, drinkable, corpus, greenish, nearish, 7:3o ish, etc.
j. Differences in frequency and purpose of
using specific items:
Even when a particular form does have a ready equivalent in the target
language, there may be a difference in the frequency with which it is used or
the purpose for which it is used. Thus, English uses the continuous -ing
form for binding clauses much more frequently than other languages which
have equivalents for it.
(k)The use of loan words in the source text
poses a special problem in translation
• Quite apart from their respective propositional meaning, loan words such as: au fait
(I have told him nothing but he seems to au fait to the business),
• chic (Paris clothes have such chic),
• Auf Wiedershen, and
• alfresco (an alfresco café)
• In English, they are often used for their prestige value, because they can add an air
of sophistication to the text or its subject matter.
Strategies used by professional translators
• (a) Translation by a more general word (superordinate)
• E.g.
• Shampoo the hair with a mild WELLA-SHAMPOO and lightly towel dry.
• ‫ﯾﻐﺴﻞ اﻟﺸﻌﺮ ﺑﺸﺎﻣﺒﻮ ﻣﻦ وﯾﻠﻼ ﻋﻠﻰ ان ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺸﺎﻣﺒﻮ اﻟﻤﻠﻄﻒ‬
Strategies to solve the problem of non-
equivalence
q (b) Translation by a more neutral/less expressive word
q“Home” in English and its translation in Chinese
q(
qc) Translation by cultural substitution
qCongress/ ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻨﻮاب‬
q(d) Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation
e.g. For maximum effect, cover the hair with a plastic cap or towel
• ‫ ﯾﻐﻄﻰ اﻟﺸﻌﺮ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﻛﺎب أي ﻗﺒﻌﺔ ﺑﻼﺳﺘﯿﻜﯿﺔ ﺗﻐﻄﻲ اﻟﺸﻌﺮ أو‬،‫ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻄﻠﻘﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻨﺸﻔﺔ‬
(e) Translation by paraphrase using a related
word
• This strategy tends to be used when the concept expressed by the source
item is lexicalized in the target language but in a different form, and when
the frequency with which a certain form is used in the source text is
significantly higher than would be natural in the target language
• E.g. The rich and creamy KOLESTRAL-SUPER is easy to apply and has a
pleasant fragrance.
‫ﻛﻮﻟﯿﺴﺘﺮال ﺳﻮﺑﺮﻏﻨﻲ وﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺒﺘﮫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﻨﺢ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻀﺮا ﯾﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻜﺮﯾﻤﺎ‬.
(f) Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words:
• If the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the target language,
the paraphrase strategy can still be used in some contexts. Instead of a related word, the
paraphrase may be based on modifying a superordinate or simply on unpacking the meaning
of the source item, particularly if the item in question is semantically complex.
• Example:
• They have a totally integrated operation from the preparation of the yarn through to the
weaving process.
• ‫ھﺬا وﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ ﺧﻄﻮات اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺎﻧﻌﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻋﺪاد اﻟﺨﻄﻮط اﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺠﮭﺎ‬
•
Translation by omission:
• This strategy may sound rather drastic, but in fact it does no harm to omit
translating a word or expression in some contexts.23 If the meaning
conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the
development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy
explanations, translators can and often do simply omit translating the word
or expression in question.
(h) Translation by illustration:
• This is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target
language refers to a physical entity which can be illustrated, particularly if
there are restrictions on space and if the text has to remain short, concise
and to the point.
Homework
‫ﺿﺮة‬ ‫أخ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺿﺎﻋﺔ‬
Foster brother •
Co-wife • Foster milk suckling brother •
Polygamy • Milk brother •
Milk sibling •
Plural marriage •
milk kingship •
Multiple wives • Cross-nursing •
‫• ﻣ ﺤ ﺮم‬
An unmarriageable kin •
Anyone whom a Muslim woman is not allowed to marry •
An escort •
Forbidden for marriage •

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Equivalence at Word Level

(Mona Baker: Chapter 2)

In spite of these difﬁculties, translation remains an

• Each language articulates or organizes the world

vA. Culture-specific items:

• (b) The source-language concept is not lexicalized

• (. What one language regards as an important distinction in meaning another

qEnglish again has a variety of hyponyms which have no equivalents in many

• Physical perspective may be of more importance in one language than it is in

• There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular form in

‫ﺿﺮة‬ ‫أخ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺿﺎﻋﺔ‬

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