COMPARISON OF BOROBUDUR AND PRAMBANAN

Dr Uday Dokras

Two giant hindu-Buddhist structures adorn the Kedu plains of Indonesia- the Prambanan
temple and the Borobudur. The Borobudur Temple Compounds is one of the greatest
Buddhist monuments in the world, and was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the
reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The monument is located in the Kedu Valley, in the
southern part of Central Java, at the centre of the island of Java, Indonesia. Prambanan
Temple on the other hand itself is a complex consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned
temples form the Prambanan Archaeological Park and were built during the heyday of
Sailendra's powerful dynasty in Java in the 8th century AD-specifically if one is to
understand in 850 AD. While Borobudur is a Buddhist temple, Prambanan is a Hindu temple.
Furthermore, the temple of Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the World and the
largest temple in Indonesia, while the temple of Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple in
Indonesia. There is no direct connection from Borobudur to Prambanan Terminal. However,
you can take the taxi to Tugu then take the bus to Prambanan Terminal. Alternatively, you
can take the taxi to Prambanan Terminal. Angkor Wat is much larger in size and scope by
land area than the Borobudur shrine. But the Borobudur Temple is a much larger structure
with many more caverns to explore. In terms of history, the Borobudur Temple is much older
than Angkor Wat, but both temples are essential Buddhist attractions. Angkor Wat-
"City/Capital of Temples" is located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m 2; 402
acres). The Guinness World Records considers it as the largest religious structure in the
world.

Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE

Stupas began to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts
at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of
the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125-
60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the toranas (1st century BCE/CE) and

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then Amaravati (1st-2nd century CE).[16] The decorative embellishment of stupas also had a
considerable development in the northwest in the area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas
such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the
2nd century BCE) or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE).
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:
1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa
almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE).
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).[
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
6. The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu
Shastra. The temple layout, especially in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple
plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was
designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model
of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.

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. The CAD drawing of the foundation of Borobudur Temple is based on the UNESCO boring
survey. From A to D in the photo: (A) andesite, (B) foam with andesite, (C) soft volcanic tuff,
and (D) andesite with stone chips.

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Structure elements

PRAMBANAN BOROBUDUR

The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during
ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka), body reconstruction suggests that adherents of Hinduism or a
pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure
(Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka). on Borobudur's hill before the site was appropriated by
Indonesia’s largest holy site is the Prambanan temple Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or
complex in Central Java. ‘Prambanan’ means Para Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the initial
Brahman (“Temple of God Almighty”) and is a Shiva structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than
temple dedicated to the Trimūrti. Hindu or Buddhist
Its original name was Shiva-grha (the House of Shiva). It
borders the Opak river, that was cut along a North to South Design
axis along the outer wall of the Shivagrha Temple
compound. This exquisite architecture was constructed many
centuries before both Angkor Wat and the great cathedrals of
Europe.
Since 2012 there are plans to protect the area around
Prambanan to treat it as a sanctuary area. The proposed
area measures 30 sq. kms and includes all major temples in
the area such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and
Plaosan temples.
The sanctuary area is planned similarly to the Angkor
temple complex in Cambodia, which means a moratorium
on permits to construct any new buildings, to protect the
sacred area from the damages of urbanisation and mass
tourism infrastructures.
The Temple Complex
The architecture of the Prambanan temple complex
follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the model of Mount
Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a
model of the Universe according to Hindu cosmology. Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala
The urban center and the court of Mataram were located
nearby, in what would later become Yogyakarta. Hundreds Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when
of brahmins lived with their disciples within the outer wall viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric
of the temple compound. Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the
Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The original
Prambanan. The temple complex consist of: foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft)
• 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Mahadeva are square and the upper three are circular.[74] The upper
• 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti platform contains seventy-two small stupas surrounding
temples dedicated to the vahana of each gods; Garuda, one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and
Nandi and Hamsa pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of
• 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.
Trimurti and Vahana temples on north and south side The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid.
• 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal Previously, the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture
directions right beyond the 4 main gates of inner zone in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds and
• 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as
of inner zone discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolokand in Cipari
• 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 near Kuningan.[76] The construction of stone pyramids is
concentric square rows; numbers of temples from inner row based on native beliefs that mountains and high places are
to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68. Today, only 2 out of the the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs.[77] The punden
original 224 perwara temples are renovated. berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur,
[78]
believed to be the continuation of older megalithic
tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and

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 symbolism.[79]

The Tri Mandala principle

The Prambanan temple consists of 3 zones, according to the Aerial view of Borobudur, it took the form of a step
Indonesian Hindu tri mandala principle: pyramid and mandala plan
• Nista Mandala (outer zone) — a large space marked by a
walled perimeter, which originally measured about 390 m The monument's three divisions symbolize the three
per side, and contained a sacred garden, an ashram for "realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the
monks and accommodation for the priests. world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and
• Madya Mandala (middle zone) that contains hundreds of finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient
small temples beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of
• Utama Mandala (holiest inner sanctum) that contains 8 desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued
main temples and 8 small shrines. existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan is structured in three the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to
mandalas, from the less holy to the holiest realms. Both them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and
the compound site plan (horizontally) and the temple experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the
structure (vertically) represents 3 layers of the Universe: formless ocean of nirvana.[80] The liberation from the cycle
• Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer
common mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept
humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the nonexistence of
of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the
temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka. base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body),
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the
of holy people, occupied by rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. large topmost stupa. The architectural features between
People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle the three stages have metaphorical differences. For
courtyard and the body of each temple symbolizes the realm instance, square and detailed decorations in
of bhuvarloka. the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—
holiest realm, reserved for the gods. Also known as where men are still attached with forms and names—
svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple changes into the world of the formless.[81]
symbolizes the realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a
temples are adorned and crowned with ratna (sanskrit: walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of
jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform.
of vajra that represent diamonds. In ancient Java temple Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The
architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist path that guides pilgrims was designed to
stupa, and served as the temple’s pinnacle. symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
The Shiva temple
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of accidentally discovered.[42] The "hidden footing" contains
the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the
The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with
recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for
or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved. [83] The
of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose
three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the
(center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous
according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist subsidence of the monument into the hill. [83] There is
concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is another theory that the encasement base was added
identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or because the original hidden footing was incorrectly
the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones: designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient
book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of

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 why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built
 Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and
of common mortals; humans, animals also demons. religious consideration.
Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and
unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot
Building structure
(base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.
 Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle
realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and
People here began to see the light of truth. The middle head, respectively
courtyard and the body of each temples is symbolized
the realm of bhuvarloka. Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd)
 Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone
holiest realm of gods, also known as svargaloka. The quarries to build the monument.[84] The stone was cut to
inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs,
symbolized the realm of svarloka. The roof of Hindu indentations and dovetails were used to form joints
structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube gateways were constructed
structure. While stupa or dagoba cylindrical structure in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the
served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones. building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system
to cater to the area's high stormwater run-off. To prevent
flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with
a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of
a giant or makara.

Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala/A narrow corridor with

reliefs on the wall
Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of

6
 other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built
on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill.
However, construction technique is similar to other temples
in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples,
and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as
a stupa, instead of a temple.[84] A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only
as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous
complexity of the monument's design suggests that
Borobudur is in fact a temple.
Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the
complex.[85] His name is recounted from Javanese folk
tales rather than from written inscriptions.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction
was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from
the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance
from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger
when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the
next, but the monument has exact measurements. A
survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a
ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had
used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of
the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's
design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon
and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have
conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have
calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The main structure can be divided into three components:
base, body, and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft
× 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.[84] The body is
composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing
height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from
the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back
2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of three circular platforms, with each
stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged
in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center,
the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35
metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center
of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a
number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The
gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each
and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara
motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese
temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the
location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the
slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying
plain.

The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur

wall
Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals
various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture

7
 that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to
being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces.[88] The first four
terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures.
These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant
and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[89]
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of
daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly
palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in
the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various
flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture.
People depicted here are the images of king, queen,
princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners,
priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical
spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras,
gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras.
The images depicted on bas-relief often served as
reference for historians to research for certain subjects,
such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy,
fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-
century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous
renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double
outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.[90] Today, the actual-size
replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to
Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum,
located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.[91]
The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian
aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that contain
certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of
noblemen, noble women, kings, or divine beings such
as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed
in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and
knee, with one leg resting and one upholding the body
weight. This position is considered as the most graceful
pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.[92]
During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered
colour pigments of blue, red, green, black, as well as bits
of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see
today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in
colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white
plaster and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps
as a beacon of Buddhist teaching. [93] The
same vajralepa plaster can also be found
in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-
reliefs of Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before
centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour
pigments.
orobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas
reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels),
which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief
surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are
distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five
square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and
Manohara,[95] are grouped into 11 series that encircle the
monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).
The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative
panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed

8
 throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting
from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative
panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the
balustrade read from left to right. This conforms
with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed
by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while
keeping the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The
walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of
reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts
the biography of Lord Buddha, while the lower part of the
wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second
galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The
remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further
wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment
of the Perfect Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)[edit]

The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur's hidden foot, on

the right depicting sinful act of killing and cooking turtles
and fishes, on the left those who make living by killing
animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive,
being cut, or being thrown into a burning house.
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but
each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and
effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from
gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments.
There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their
subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of
heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life,
complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless
cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of the
Borobudur temple was disassembled to reveal the hidden
foot, and the reliefs were photographed by Casijan Chepas
in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed
in Borobudur Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum),
located just several hundred meters north of the temple.
During the restoration, the foot encasement was
reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today,
only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed
and visible for visitors.

The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha

(Lalitavistara)

9
 Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to
give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama
The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from
the Tushita heaven and ends with his first sermon in the
Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the birth of the
Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of
King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in
Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various
preparations, in the heavens and on the earth, to welcome
the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[96] Before
descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva
entrusted his crown to his successor, the future
Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape
of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen
Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this
event, which was interpreted that his son would become
either a sovereign or a Buddha.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit.

While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth,
she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city.
She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her
right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha.
The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes
the Buddha.

The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other

legendary people (Avadana)[edit]

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 A relief of Jataka story of giant turtle that saving drowned
sailors.
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born
as Prince Siddhartha.[97] They are the stories that tell about
the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and
animal form. The future Buddha may appear in them as a
king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever
form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby
inculcates.[98] Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main
figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons.
Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same
series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall
depict the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds
of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery
on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of
the Jatakamala.[99] The remaining 237 panels depict stories
from other sources, as do the lower series and panels in
the second gallery. Some jatakas are depicted twice, for
example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).

Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)[edit]

A relief of the Gandavyuha story from Borobudur 2nd level

north wall.
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of

11
 the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering
in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two
galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second
gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels.[100] The principal
figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely
rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding
15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles
during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk
Megasri, his first spiritual friend. As his journey continues,
Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such as Supratisthita, the
physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker
Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of
Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,
the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk
Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika
Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the
god Siva Mahadeva, Queen
Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri.
Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings,
knowledge, and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the
third gallery.
After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the
residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the
fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is
devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative
panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the
Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.

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