TARGETED

SELECTION
®

A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO IMPROVED HIRING

DECISIONS (BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY)

A MONOGRAPH BY
WILLIAM C. BYHAM, PH.D.
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
TARGETED
SELECTION
®

A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO IMPROVED HIRING DECISIONS

(BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY)

FOREWARD > Organize selection elements into a

comprehensive system.
Accurate employee selection decisions have
never been more vital to organizational success. > Apply effective interviewing skills
Advances in technology and changes in organiza- and techniques.
tional structure and responsibilities have increased > Use data integration to make the best
the demand for high-quality job applicants who, hiring decision.
if hired, will grow into productive contributors > Make a positive impression on applicants;
to organizational success. This demand, when sell them on the job and the organization.
combined with a competitive job market and
On the following pages are 21 common
significant legal compliance requirements, means
selection problems that DDI consultants
that hiring processes and decisions are increas-
have collected from observing more than 1,000
ingly complex and challenging.
selection interviews. These observations,
Development Dimensions International, Inc. supported by published research studies (see
(DDI), offers a proven selection system called References, page 19), have led to a better
Targeted Selection® that, when properly applied, understanding of how interviews work and
can produce positive results in a wide range of how different aspects of the interview affect
areas of concern to organizations, from turnover decision making. In addition to reviewing these
to on-the-job success and return on investment. problems, this monograph will discuss how
applying Targeted Selection® can address common
Targeted Selection® incorporates the following
selection problems and improve the quality of
concepts with the training necessary to apply
selection decisions.
them:
> Focus on job-related behavior.
> Use past behavior to predict future behavior.
> Assess both job fit and organization fit
motivation.

1
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 COMMON
the same job-related competencies. These mandates
cannot be met if various interviewers are seeking

SELECTION information from applicants on different competencies.

PROBLEMS
Even when competencies are clearly defined and
documented, research has shown that experienced
interviewers become complacent, asking the same
questions or focusing on a few competencies that
are easy to evaluate. The resulting lack of complete
coverage of skills and abilities in the interview
process limits an interviewer’s understanding of an
applicant’s potential for success in the job.

1. Interviewers fail to seek complete and

consistent information from applicants
on the specific competencies* needed
for success in the job.

When asked to identify the skills and requirements

of successful job performance, managers who were
(IN)COMPLETE COVERAGE
selecting individuals for the same position in an
OF SKILLS AND ABILITIES IN
THE INTERVIEW PROCESS organization provided conflicting and inconsistent 2. There is excessive overlap in
LIMITS AN INTERVIEWER’S competency coverage.
responses. Although some discrepancy in responses
UNDERSTANDING OF AN
can be attributed to semantics, even when common Several interviewers asking similar questions of
APPLICANT’S POTENTIAL
FOR SUCCESS IN THE JOB. definitions are established, the lists of their target an applicant leads to redundant competency
competencies varied,both in what is sought and the coverage. Such overlap means that the interviewers
competencies’ perceived importance. share the same limited information when evaluating
an applicant. Although some overlap of competency
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
coverage is desirable as a check on the reliability of
Commission (EEOC) mandates that selection
the information and to ensure full coverage of the
processes be based on specific, accurately defined,
most critical competencies, excessive overlap
and well-documented essential job requirements
means that data is not being obtained for all com-
(competencies). EEOC mandates stipulate that
petencies. Failure to consider all data results in a
these competencies are to be communicated so
selection process that is neither fair nor effective.
that everyone involved in the selection process
shares a common understanding of their definition * COMPETENCY OR DIMENSION?
The use of the terms “dimension” and “competency” when referring
and intent. The EEOC also states that the selection
to clusters or groupings of job-relevant behaviors, motivation, or
process must be applied consistently and that all knowledge has reflected changing preferences over time. The
introduction of DDI’s Targeted Selection® program coincided with
applicants for the same job be evaluated against
the popularization of the term “dimension.” For that reason, you
will find “dimension” used throughout Targeted Selection®. In recent
years, however, “competency” has gained more general acceptance.
That preference is reflected in this monograph, which consistently
uses the terms “competency” instead of “dimension.”

2
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 by making assumptions based on personal per-
spective. In addition, interviewers who project
their own attitudes, motives, and feelings often
fail to follow up on the details of the applicant’s
behavior, assuming information that is not given.
For example, an interviewer might assume that
an applicant who reports receiving excellent
grades in college is highly motivated. This inter-
viewer is not inclined to ask additional questions;
if he or she had, the applicant’s responses might
reveal that the good marks resulted from an easy
3. Interviewers misinterpret applicant course of study.
information.

Several practices can cause an interviewer to

misinterpret applicant information.

> Playing amateur psychiatrist.

An interviewer who tries to determine an
applicant’s underlying personality traits or innate
talents to establish job motivation is playing
amateur psychiatrist. So too is an interviewer
who asks applicants to describe themselves in
a sentence or to name three strengths or weak-
nesses. Because most hiring managers are not
trained in this approach, they can easily misinter- 4. Interviewers ignore job fit motivation.
pret applicants’ responses.
Many interviewers focus only on an applicant’s
> Asking theoretical questions. skills, asking whether the applicant can do the job
The best predictor of future performance is past but not asking about the applicant’s motivation to
performance. However, many interviewers ask want to do the job. A capable person might not
what the applicant would or should do instead be motivated to do a job if that job does not result
of asking what the applicant actually did. in personal satisfaction.
Relying on theoretical information leaves appli-
Job fit motivation is important in all jobs, whether
cants’ responses open to interpretation, which
in basic skill-level jobs or in highly skilled profes-
can create a false impression of their abilities.
sional jobs. For example, consider a person with
This approach also puts the interviewer in the
an engineering degree who has applied for an
position of being persuaded by an applicant’s
engineering job. It is possible that the person’s job
ability to sell himself or herself.
motivation has changed since earning the degree
> Projecting personal attitudes, motives, or that the degree was an intermediate step toward
and feelings onto an applicant. another employment goal. Although the person
Consider an interviewer who is highly motivated has the credentials and ability to be an engineer, he
and achievement oriented. If this interviewer or she might not be satisfied (motivated) in the job.
looks for similar characteristics in an applicant,
he or she may misinterpret applicant responses

3
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 Or consider the promotion of an excellent sales-
person to sales manager. Different aspects of
selling might have excited and motivated the
person to excel in sales (e.g., meeting new people,
persuading difficult customers, making successful
closes). However, there may be aspects of the sales
INTERVIEWERS OFTEN
manager job that the salesperson does not find
ARE UNAWARE OF THEIR motivating (e.g., limited direct customer contact,
PREJUDICES AND HOW the need to coach and develop others), so perform-
THEY AFFECT PERSONNEL
DECISIONS, BUT BIASES ance in that job lags.
OR STEREOTYPES DO NOT
REPRESENT JOB-RELATED
Failure to gauge job fit (matches between what 6. Interviewers’ judgments are affected
FACTORS. is available in the job and what the applicant likes by biases and stereotypes.
and dislikes) is closely related to poor job perform- An interviewer’s biases can reflect negatively or
ance and turnover. People who are not motivated positively on applicants for reasons that have no
to do a job most likely will not be productive relationship to the job responsibilities. For example,
employees. an interviewer might be biased against an applicant
whose shoes are not polished or who has an
unusual hairstyle. An interviewer might be biased
for an applicant who belongs to certain college
groups or who shares common interests with the
interviewer. In addition, classifying an applicant
into a stereotype such as “typical engineer” or
“college dropout” might bias an interviewer’s
evaluation of the person. Interviewers often are
unaware of their prejudices and how they affect
personnel decisions, but biases or stereotypes do
not represent job-related factors.
5. Interviewers ignore organization
fit motivation.

Organization fit is defined as an individual’s com-

patibility with an organization’s values and mode
of operation. It’s important to uncover matches
and discrepancies between what the organization
offers and what the applicant likes and dislikes to
make the most informed prediction of how well an
applicant will “fit in” with the organization. As with
job fit, failure to gauge applicants’ organization fit is
closely related to poor job performance and
7. Interviewers permit one competency to influ-
turnover. People who do not find personal satisfac- ence their evaluation of other competencies.
tion with the organization’s values and mode of
The “halo effect” means one outstanding accom-
operation probably will not be productive or even-
plishment creates an impression of success that, in
tually will seek employment with a more compatible
the interviewer’s eyes, can obscure less successful
organization.

4
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
behavioral examples in other equally important com-
petencies. The halo effect also can have the oppo-
site impact, making an applicant’s weakness in one
competency obscure important strengths in others.

The competency Oral Communication is prone to

the halo effect. Interviewers often mistake skill in
speaking for effectiveness in other areas. On the
other hand, an interviewer might form a negative
overall opinion about an applicant who has
strengths in other job-related areas but whose oral
communication skills are mediocre or poor. 9. Interviewers make quick decisions
about applicants.

Many interviewers make a quick decision about an

applicant based on initial impressions or informa-
tion (e.g., information in the person’s application or
resume, the person’s attire, or even a handshake).
Whatever the basis for such decisions, the interview’s
accuracy is diminished because the interviewer’s
objectivity is clouded by this first-impression reaction.

Studies have shown that after making a decision,

individuals tend to seek more information to
confirm the decision and to reject information
8. Interviewers allow applicants to control that contradicts the decision. In many cases an
the interview.
interviewer will stop gathering information after
Poorly managed interviews—for example, making a quick decision about an applicant.
interviewers who let applicants talk at length Interviewers who make decisions before gathering
about information unrelated to the job—do a all the facts will not have the information they
disservice to the interviewer and the applicant. need to evaluate an applicant fairly and accurately.
Similarly, interviewers who ask applicants,“Tell
me about yourself,” will not get much behavioral
information that is related to the job’s target
competencies. Interviewers who fail to keep the
discussion focused and to manage the amount
of detail an applicant provides leave it to chance
that the interview will yield critical job-related
information.

5
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 cies, hiring managers find that interviewing alone
does not provide them with the depth of informa-
tion they need to make accurate hiring decisions.

10. Interviewers focus on negative information

about applicants.

Many interviewers focus on obtaining negative

WITHOUT A CONSISTENT
examples of behavior and fail to seek positive
PROCESS WITH WELL-
DEFINED DECISION behavioral examples because they believe that they 12. Selection elements are not organized
POINTS, THERE IS NO have more to lose by hiring an unqualified applicant into a system.
WAY TO ENSURE THAT ALL
than by rejecting one who is qualified. This approach
APPLICANTS REACHING A selection system that is not well organized might
A PARTICULAR STAGE IN does not result in a balanced picture of the appli-
not be applied uniformly to all applicants within a
THE SYSTEM ARE TREATED cant’s past behavior and diminishes the interviewer’s
THE SAME WAY. job category. Without a consistent process with
ability to differentiate between an average applicant
well-defined decision points, there is no way to
and a potentially outstanding one.
ensure that all applicants reaching a particular stage
in the system are treated the same way, thus expos-
ing the organization to possible legal challenges. In
addition, valuable resources are wasted in an unor-
ganized system. For example, if important screen-
ing elements such as résumé and phone screenings
and on-campus interviews are not well-defined and
implemented at the right stage, time, money, and
effort are wasted conducting in-depth interviews
with applicants who could have been screened out
earlier in the process.

11. Hiring managers rely too heavily

on interviews.

Interviewers have difficulty obtaining sufficient

examples of past behavior from recent college gradu-
ates who have little or no work experience or from
people who are changing careers and have little
experience in the specific work area for which they
are being interviewed. Because these applicants do
not have enough experience in the job’s competen-

6
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 qualified applicants. Hiring managers who make
decisions based on the relative quality of an appli-
cant instead of the actual criteria required to do
the job run the risk of taking the best of a bad lot
rather than continuing the search for a truly quali-
fied applicant.

13. Judgment is affected by pressure to

fill the position.

The pressure to fill an open position can come

from a variety of sources: how long the position
has been open, the degree to which business or
resources are affected by the open position, or the
level of attention paid to the vacancy by senior
management. Research indicates that hiring 15. Interviewers take insufficient notes
during the interview.
managers lower their selection standards when
they are under pressure to fill positions. They may Many interviewers rely on their memory, taking
rationalize negative information about applicants few or no notes during an interview. Some inter-
and overemphasize the impact that training might viewers don’t even try to recap after an interview.
have without taking into consideration that some Without thorough notes to refer to, an interviewer
competencies are less easy to learn than others or is left with only his or her impression of or feeling
that training may not have been available. about an applicant. Studies indicate that, without
notes, one can recall little more than one-fourth of
the facts discussed immediately after an interview
concludes. Such limited retention can lead to deci-
sions that are based on feelings, not facts.

Interviewers who lack good notes do not have the

facts and information they need to justify compe-
tency evaluations and make accurate hiring deci-
sions. In such situations the interviewer is apt to
cluster ratings around the middle of the rating
scale, indicating that an applicant is “OK, not very
good or very bad.” Also, failure to take notes gives
an advantage to the first and last applicants
14. Decisions are affected by the relative
quality of other applicants. because they are better remembered.

After an entire day of interviewing unacceptable

applicants, an average applicant makes a much
more favorable impression on an interviewer than
he or she might if compared to a field of more

7
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 are not fairly evaluated, gaps in information and
relationships between pieces of information are not
uncovered, and biases and stereotypes are allowed
to influence decisions.

16. Interviewers use different rating and

evaluation standards.

Some interviewers give high ratings only to appli-

cants whom they consider to be perfect. Some
interviewers never give low ratings. Inconsistent 18. Interviewers don’t put their best effort
INTERVIEWERS’ standards lead to inaccurate assessments of appli- into interviews.
DISCUSSIONS ABOUT
cants and poor hiring decisions. Interviewers Over time, even well-trained and motivated
APPLICANT DATA OFTEN
ARE HAPHAZARD OR, should be trained to use a consistently applied interviewers might slip into easier, less-demanding
WORSE, SUBJECTIVE. standard. Skill practicing with feedback is a key interview styles—simply going through the
element to making this training successful. motions rather than conducting an effective,
in-depth interview. Quality hiring decisions
depend on interviewers’ maintaining the standards
of effective interviewing—taking the time to pre-
pare for the interview and asking enough planned
behavioral questions to discover the maximum
job-related information from each applicant.

17. Applicant information is not

discussed systematically.

Interviewers’ discussions about applicant data often

are haphazard or, worse, subjective (e.g., the appli-
cant “looked like a nice person,”“didn’t seem very
motivated,”“is not our kind of person”). When com-
petency evaluations are not discussed systematically
and justified with solid behavioral examples,applicants

8
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 negative reaction to the interview process and the
organization, such as:
> Applicants’ waiting for long periods before
or between interviews.
> Poorly structured or redundant interviews.
> Interviewers who take phone calls or allow other
interruptions during the interview.
> Interview questions or treatment that leaves
applicants angry or let down or feeling that
they were not treated fairly.

19. Interviewers’ skills diminish over time. > Interviewers who don’t give applicants a
chance to respond completely.
An interviewer who receives feedback on his or her
This kind of treatment can suggest to the job
effectiveness is better able to maintain or improve
applicant that the organization has a negative,
his or her interviewing skills. Because opportunities
inconsiderate atmosphere. Under these circum-
for feedback are rare in most organizations, it can
stances, if a job offer is made, an applicant might
be difficult for interviewers to know whether they
very well reject it.
are conducting effective interviews and pursuing
important facts. Many organizations overlook the
benefits of refresher training as a way to ensure
that interviewers are doing the best possible job
and improving or maintaining their skills.

21. Applicants aren’t sold on the advantages

of the job, organization, or job location.

An interview is an information-gathering process

for the interviewer. It also gives applicants an
20. Applicants react negatively to the opportunity to obtain information about the posi-
interviewing process. tion and the organization. Interviewers should be
A high percentage of applicants withdrawing from able to share stories or experiences that will sell
the selection process or rejecting job offers might specific features of the job, organization, or location
signal that the interviewing process is creating a to applicants. Applicants are not impressed with
negative impression. vague statements such as,“The organization
encourages creativity” or “The organization takes
A thorough interview process takes into considera- care of its people.” Applicants also will react nega-
tion how applicants are treated before, during, and tively if several interviewers repeat the same facts
after the interviews. If that element is missing from about the job, organization, or location but do not
the process, situations can arise that will foster a answer their questions.

9
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 HOW TARGETED
Targeted Selection® incorporates the following
seven components (or concepts) with the training

SELECTION
®
necessary to apply them.
1. Focus on job-related behavior.

OVERCOMES 2. Use past behavior to predict future behavior.

COMMON
3. Assess both job fit and organization fit
motivation.

SELECTION 4. Organize selection elements into a

comprehensive system.

PROBLEMS 5. Apply effective interviewing skills and

techniques.

Development Dimensions International’s Targeted 6. Use data integration to make the best
hiring decision.
JOB-RELATEDNESS Selection® program helps organizations overcome
IS KEY TO FAIR AND or minimize the common selection problems out- 7. Make a positive impression on applicants;
ACCURATE SELECTION sell them on the job and the organization.
lined on the previous pages. In addition, it can be
DECISIONS AND TO
COMPLYING WITH tailored to meet the needs of various jobs, organiza- COMPONENT 1:
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT tion levels, and types of applicants. When properly FOCUS ON JOB-RELATED BEHAVIOR.
REGULATIONS
WORLDWIDE.
applied, Targeted Selection® can produce positive Focusing on job-related behavior in an interview
bottom-line results including a decrease in is a core tenet of Targeted Selection®. Common
turnover, a greater probability of job success for selection problems (including failing to seek com-
people hired using the program, and an increase petency-related information and excessive overlap
in return on investment. (See discussion of validity in competency coverage) are addressed if inter-
research below.) viewers focus every selection system element,
including the interviews, on job-related behavior
Research into the use and validity of the Targeted as defined in the target competencies. Managers
Selection® program has yielded the following findings:
using the Targeted Selection® system know what
> Targeted Selection® results in an average 50 percent competencies to target for a position and how to
increase in job/offer acceptance ratios.
obtain information on each competency. Because
> Targeted Selection® clients consistently have reduced each interviewer covers a subset of job-related com-
turnover by up to 48 percent. petencies, all competencies are covered at least once
> More than 75 percent of hires selected through DDI’s and the most important competencies several times.
systems are considered to be above-average
Job-relatedness is key to fair and accurate selection
performers.
decisions and to complying with equal employment
> Targeted Selection® ’s average return-on-investment
regulations worldwide.
is $316,000. Some clients have reported an ROI of
more than $2 million. The Targeted Selection® system:
> Managers have reported that using Targeted Selection® > Uses a process called “work analysis.” This
more than doubles their confidence in finding the systematic analysis of how a job is performed
right hires.
identifies the competencies required for success
> Clients who use Targeted Selection® to fill customer in a job. These critical job requirements are the
representative positions consistently report a 22 percent focus of every selection system element, including
increase in customer satisfaction scores.
interviews. Targeted Selection® administrators
are trained in how to conduct work analyses.

10
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
> Teaches interviewers about competencies, the COMPONENT 3:
importance of the competency information for ASSESS BOTH JOB FIT AND
which they are interviewing, and how that infor- ORGANIZATION FIT MOTIVATION.
mation can reflect on-the-job performance. Targeted Selection® interviewers learn how to
> Provides learning and practice of interviewing skills focus on specific competencies that indicate
and techniques to identify and assess competencies. whether an applicant can do the job. They also
> Uses structured interview guides with planned learn how to assess an applicant’s motivational fit
behavioral questions that elicit behavioral exam- for the job and the organization. This knowledge
ples for each target competency. A guide’s note- allows interviewers to identify key indicators of
taking spaces help interviewers seek, obtain, and turnover and predict, with a great degree of certain-
record job-related behaviors.
ty, whether a person will (1) be satisfied in the job
> Generally uses multiple interviews so that all and (2) stay with the organization over time.
competencies are covered at least once and the
most important competencies are covered several In Targeted Selection®, motivation is not evaluated
times. (Although multiple interviewers represent in the abstract. A work analysis identifies characteris-
the best approach for many jobs, one or two tics (i.e., facets) of the job and organization that are
interviews will suffice for some jobs, such as both most present and most absent. Targeted
entry-level service representative positions.) Selection® job fit/organization fit interview questions
> Uses a sound process for effective decision making are designed to explore an applicant’s likes and
during data integration, the step in which all the dislikes related to these facets. For example, if the
interviewers discuss and integrate the data about target job requires great attention to detail, an
all applicants before making a hiring decision.
applicant might be asked,“Tell me about a job you
COMPONENT 2: had that required high attention to detail. How
USE PAST BEHAVIOR TO satisfied/dissatisfied were you with that, and why?”
PREDICT FUTURE BEHAVIOR.
After an interviewer understands an applicant’s
When combined with a focus on critical job
stated likes and dislikes, the interviewer can use
requirements, Targeted Selection®’s use of past
mismatches to predict job fit. When the applicant
behavior to predict future behavior solves many
is someone the organization wants to hire, the
of the problems commonly associated with other
interviewer can use the matches to better sell the
selection techniques, such as the failure to seek
job, organization, or location to the applicant.
specific job-related data and misinterpreting applicant
Doing so addresses the problem of losing a top
data. Targeted Selection® interviewers learn to
applicant because he or she hasn’t been sold on
gather complete examples of past behavior that are
the advantages of the job, organization, or location.
directly related to the job’s target competencies.
DDI’s Motivational Fit Questionnaire can be used
If a job requires someone who can solve problems, it
to analyze an applicant’s likes and dislikes as they
is important that interviewers look for a person with
relate to the job or organization. A computerized
a history of success in troubleshooting. Research
analysis of the questionnaire responses highlights
has shown that behavior-based interviewing is a
matches and discrepancies between the person’s
strong and accurate predictor of success on the job.
likes and dislikes and what the job and organization
offer. The analysis also provides relevant questions
that can be used in follow-up interviews.

11
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 COMPONENT 4: > Tests and simulations are used to screen
ORGANIZE SELECTION ELEMENTS applicants and supplement information obtained
INTO A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM. from the interviews.
In a comprehensive selection system:
A well-organized selection system provides an
> The selection elements are ordered sequentially. efficient process that saves time and money and
conforms to EEOC requirements. Targeted
> The system is applied uniformly to all applicants
Selection® administrators learn how to design a
within a job category.
thorough, organized selection system for any job
> Decision points are established, ensuring that all or job level.
applicants reaching a particular stage in the system
are treated the same.

FIGURE 1: Selection System for Sales Representative

Advertising, Employment Agency

• Resume Screen and Qualification Check

Reject Letter 1
• Tests and Simulations

Hiring Interviews Reject Letter 2

Competencies Interviewer 1* Interviewer 2 Interviewer 3
Hiring DSM Personnel Mgr. RSM
(expert)
Continuous Learning X X
Work Standards X X
A WELL-ORGANIZED
Communication X X
SELECTION SYSTEM
PROVIDES AN
Building Strategic * Expert also asks ques-
Working Relationships X X
EFFICIENT PROCESS
tions about technical and
Sales Ability X X
THAT SAVES TIME Building Customer
professional knowledge.
Loyalty X X
AND MONEY AND
Decision Making X X
CONFORMS TO EEOC
Planning and
REQUIREMENTS. Organizing X X
Tech/Prof
Knowledge X X
Motivational Fit X X

Three Managers Who Conducted Interviews Meet Reject Letter 3

Decision to Hire Pending Reference and Medical Check

Reference Check Reject Letter 4

Job Offer Contingent on Medical Exam

Medical Exam Reject Letter 5

On-boarding
12
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
The appropriate sequence for some selection ele- > Because applicants don’t always provide
ments, such as screening interviews, is relatively complete behavioral examples, no matter how
straightforward, while the position of others, such well a question is worded, Targeted Selection®
as reference checks, is debatable. Figure 1 on page interviewers learn how to ask follow-up questions
12 illustrates a typical selection system for a sales to generate more specific information. Follow-up
position that incorporates screening interviews and questioning helps to eliminate the problem of
reference checks as well as a behavior-based interviewers’ making decisions about an applicant
simulation that is administered by one interviewer. too quickly. Interviewers also use follow-up ques-
(See pages 15–17 for more information on behav- tions to obtain additional examples of behavior.
ior-based simulations and tests.)
> It’s not uncommon for applicants to dislike
COMPONENT 5: some aspects of a job, organization, or location.
APPLY EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING However, if there are real opportunities for
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES. satisfaction and fulfillment to counterbalance
The goal of Targeted Selection® training is to give what the applicant doesn’t like, then that person,
interviewers the skills they need to ensure that once hired, likely will be productive and satisfied.
they gather complete and specific data from Targeted Selection® interviewers learn how to
applicants, thus addressing many of the problems determine the reasons behind a person’s likes
commonly found in selection systems. and dislikes (that is, what motivates him or her
to perform effectively). This information helps
> Targeted Selection® interviews use behavioral,
interviewers understand the degree of an appli-
nontheoretical questions. When applicants are
cant’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with key
asked theoretical questions (“What would you
aspects of the job, organization, or location that
do...,”“What should be done...,”“What are you
might affect the person’s determination to stay
going to do about...”), their answers can be
with the organization over time.
easily misinterpreted. Behavioral questions, on
the other hand, prompt answers that describe > Each Targeted Selection® interview guide includes
specifically what the applicant did, has done, or structured, multipart note-taking space. The various
has said. The examples below illustrate how a segments allow the interviewer to note the key
theoretical question can be rephrased to make elements of a behavioral example: the Situation
it a behavioral question. or Task the applicant faced, the Action he or she
FIGURE 2: A Comparison of Theoretical and
took, and the Results of that action. These “STARs”
Behavioral Interview Questions provide the interviewer with a fact-based record
THEORETICAL BEHAVIORAL
of job-related data that aids the interviewer in
making accurate hiring decisions.
> When might you feel it > When have you felt it
necessary to introduce necessary to introduce
change in your job? change in your job? Tell
me about the change.
> How would you approach > What was your most
a particularly difficult difficult sale, and how
customer? did you approach it?
> How would you change > What changes in your job
your job? have you recommended?

13
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 > Targeted Selection® teaches the skills and tech- > Building rapport with the applicant by maintaining
niques that help interviewers manage time so that his or her self-esteem during the interview fosters
they can cover all the assigned competencies a positive impression of the interview and the
during the interview. In addition, interviewers organization. Meeting applicants’ personal needs
learn techniques to direct the discussion into and by building rapport does more than make them
through areas that are most important to cover. feel good about the interview; it also creates an
These techniques help interviewers maintain con- atmosphere that encourages the applicants to
trol of both the time and the flow of information. give open and complete responses, even when
discussing sensitive and negative topics.

Targeted Selection® interviewing skills and tech-

Targeted Selection®’s comprehensive response to the 21 most niques are an effective tool in ridding interviews of
common selection problems is just one example of what sets bias, stereotypes, and the halo effect.
this program apart from others. The following differentiators
also make Targeted Selection® unique in the marketplace:
COMPONENT 6:
USE DATA INTEGRATION TO MAKE
> DDI measures the results of its Targeted Selection® implemen- THE BEST HIRING DECISION.
tations. (See page 10 for relevant research results.) Each participant in the Targeted Selection® process
> Targeted Selection® is available in a variety of blended is responsible for covering specific competencies.
delivery options that ensure maximum training flexibility. To do that, people are trained to focus on gathering
> Targeted Selection® training videos have won many
enough complete examples of behavior to evaluate
prestigious honors, including: an applicant in their assigned competencies.
THE SYSTEMATIC DATA
INTEGRATION PROCESS
- A Gold Medal from The New York Festivals. Targeted Selection® interviewers use a standard rat-
RESULTS IN A CONSENSUS
PROFILE OF EACH APPLI- ing scale to evaluate applicant data, then they meet
- Two Golden Eagle awards from the Council on
CANT’S STRENGTHS AND to share and discuss all the applicant data and their
WEAKNESSES IN THE JOB’S NonTheatrical Events (CINE).
ratings in a data integration session. Because only
COMPETENCIES BEFORE AN
OVERALL HIRING DECISION
- Gold, silver, and bronze awards given at the 1994 behavioral examples can be used to support com-
IS MADE. Charleston International Film and Video Festival. petency ratings, the discussion focuses on facts,
- A 1995 Shooting Star Award from the American thus eliminating the possibility of misinterpreting
Corporate Video Awards. applicant responses. The systematic data integra-
- A gold CINDY award, a John Cleese Comedy Award,
tion process results in a consensus profile of each
and a bronze CINDY award given at the 1995 applicant’s strengths and weaknesses in the job’s
International CINDY Competition sponsored by the competencies before an overall hiring decision is
International Association of Audio Visual made. Doing so overcomes the problems encoun-
Communicators. tered when applicant evaluation is haphazard and
subjective.
> Targeted Selection® implementations are supported by DDI’s
client realization process for maximum organizational impact.

14
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
The structured data evaluation and data exchange > The Targeted Selection® system keeps applicants
processes overcome, or at least minimize, many informed about what happens throughout the
common selection problems: process so that they aren’t wondering if and
when a decision will be made.
> Because interviewers must substantiate their
competency ratings with specific behavioral Creating a positive image cannot be overempha-
examples, the potential for biases, subjectivity, sized. It plays an increasingly critical role in the
and stereotypes to affect decision making is competition for the best people, and it can increase
reduced. the percentage of job offers accepted. In addition,
even people who are not offered a job—people
> Interviewers are less likely to let their skills slip
who might be future clients or suppliers—can
over time because they know they have to pro-
influence public opinion of the organization in a
vide specific information from the interview.
positive way if the interviewing process leaves a
> Because hiring decisions are delayed until all data positive impression.
has been discussed, interviewers can no longer
make decisions too early in the selection process. SUPPLEMENTARY HIRING TOOLS
The Targeted Selection® system offers training and
Problems are further minimized because several
materials for the following additional aspects of a
interviewers hear the facts presented and reach a
selection system.
conscious decision on competency ratings.

COMPONENT 7: Behavioral Simulations

MAKE A POSITIVE IMPRESSION ON Behavioral simulations are structured exercises that
APPLICANTS; SELL THEM ON THE recreate relevant job/role situations and require
JOB AND THE ORGANIZATION.
participants to overtly demonstrate job-related
Research consistently shows that individuals are behavior. They permit reliable, high-quality meas-
more prone to accept job offers when interviewers urement of individual performance in specific com-
are enthusiastic about the job and organization and petencies and are particularly useful for obtaining
are genuinely interested in helping the applicant information that can be difficult to get in an inter-
make the best job choice. Targeted Selection® view. Behavioral simulations provide valuable infor-
supports that finding. mation when applicants have had little opportunity
> Targeted Selection®’s structured interview guides to demonstrate certain behaviors (e.g., people
are designed to avoid excessive overlap in com- applying for a sales position who have never had a
petency coverage and to facilitate an organized sales job, recent college graduates, or people with
and efficient interview process that applicants little work experience).
appreciate. Simulations range in complexity from brief mini-
> Interviewers are assigned specific information to simulations conducted with interviews to lengthy
provide to applicants about the job, organization, and involved analyses used for executive assess-
and location. These assignments avoid repetition ments. Simulations can be administrative, involving
and ensure that all of the important information individual problem solving, or interactive, with role-
is given. In addition, Targeted Selection® inter- players or other participants.
viewers are trained to highlight aspects of the
job, organization, or location that are a good
match with the applicant’s likes and dislikes.

15
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 FIGURE 3: How Targeted Selection® Overcomes Common Interviewing Problems

TS INTERVIEW COMPONENTS
Focus on Use past behavior Assess job, Organize the Apply effective Use data integration Make positive
job-related to predict future organization selection interviewing skills, to make the best impression, sell
Common Selection Problems behavior behavior fit motivation system techniques hiring decision the job, organization

1. Interviewers fail to seek application information on the X X X

specific competencies needed for success in the job.
2. There is excessive overlap in competency coverage. X
3. Interviewers misinterpret applicant information. X X X
4. Interviewers ignore job fit motivation. X X X X
5. Interviewers ignore organization fit motivation. X X X X
6. Interviewers’ judgments are affected by biases X X X
and stereotypes.
7. Interviewers permit one competency to influence X X
their evaluation of other competencies.
8. Interviewers allow applicants to control the interview. X
9. Interviewers make quick decisions about applicants. X X
10. Interviewers focus on negative information about applicants. X X
11. Hiring managers rely too heavily on interviews. X
12. Selection elements are not organized into a system. X
13. Judgment is affected by pressure to fill the position. X
14. Decisions are affected by the relative quality of other applicants. X
15. Interviewers take insufficient notes during the interview. X X
16. Interviewers use different rating/evaluation standards. X
17. Applicant information is not discussed systematically. X
18. Interviewers don’t put their best effort into interviews. X
19. Interviewers’ skills diminish over time. X
20. Applicants react negatively to the interviewing process. X
21. Applicants aren’t sold on the advantages of the job,
X
organization, or location.

To ensure accurate competency coverage, the Behavioral simulations used in selection must:
situations used in a behavioral simulation should be
> Be job related and accurately represent a
similar to the job and environment without being significant component of the target job.
identical. Exactly mirroring the job might create
> Reliably simulate and elicit behavior related
an unfair advantage for individuals who have
to the desired competencies.
performed particular tasks in the past. It could
also favor internal applicants with specific job or > Meet professional standards for accuracy,
organizational knowledge. objectivity, and fairness, containing no elements
that might discriminate unfairly against protect-
Not all selection situations require behavioral simu- ed classes (e.g., a simulation that uses language
lations. Their use depends on how well interviews that is more sophisticated or technical than
bring out past behavior and how much time is what is required in the target job might be
allocated for the selection process. ruled discriminatory).
> Be administered in the same way for all
applicants who have reached the same stage
in the selection process.

16
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
> Be delivered by people who have been bility of the system, reduce costs, and preserve
specifically trained as roleplayers and the system’s ability to select the best applicants for
evaluators for simulations. the job.

Targeted Selection® training offers supplemental Reference and Background Checks

training (half day to one day) in how to administer, Reference and background checks can verify the
observe, and evaluate behavior obtained from facts in an applicant’s application, résumé, or
behavioral simulations. interview data. Targeted Selection® interview
Tests and Inventories techniques are used to obtain reference and
background information from people outside the
DDI tests and inventories help streamline the
organization (e.g., former supervisors or associates)
hiring process and increase the accuracy of hiring
who can provide additional behavioral information
decisions. Tests can be used to identify relative
about an applicant.
strengths and development areas in applicants in
areas such as: TOOLS TO SUPPORT A TARGETED
SELECTION® IMPLEMENTATION
> Analytical skills, problem solving, ability to handle
interpersonal situations in work settings. In response to client needs, DDI developed several
computer-based products that aid in administering
> Customer service-related judgment; adapting
and implementing of the Targeted Selection® system.
to work challenges; taking accountability for
one’s work. > Identifying Criteria for Success® (ICS®) is a
competency modeling software tool that generates
> Ability to learn; interpersonal skills; initiative;
a comprehensive survey on the frequency and
work standards.
importance of particular job activities and
> Motivational competencies and work style. behaviors. People identified as “work content
experts” rate each competency’s importance.
> Background in core competency areas.
ICS® analyzes the survey answers and compiles
> Ability to read, understand, make inferences and a rank-ordered competency list for the job to
apply on-the-job information. create interview guides with questions tailored
> Specific technical skills. for the job.

While tests are a useful addition to the selection > Targeted Selection®: AccessSM (TS: AccessSM) is
process, hiring decisions should not be made based an easy-to-use online companion to Targeted
solely on test scores. Tests should be integrated Selection®. TS: AccessSM offers interviewers online
into a complete hiring process. access to the tools, information, decision-making
support, and expert guidance needed for effective
Tests used in selection must be properly validated.
and efficient hiring. TS® administrators can use
When properly designed, validated, and administered,
TS: AccessSM to create and distribute interview
selection tests can increase the efficiency and quality
guides and applicant collateral. It supports the
of your selection process. DDI recommends testing
integration of applicants’ interview data and pro-
as one of the initial phases in a behavior-based
vides expert guidance and tools to sort and com-
selection system where it is necessary to reduce
pare applicants online. TS: AccessSM also includes
the size of the applicant pool before subsequent
the Dimension Confirmation Wizard, a web-based
Targeted Selection® interviews. By using relatively
application whose online questionnaires provide
less expensive testing as an initial phase of a selec-
a streamlined process for confirming dimensions
tion system, the client can maintain the legal credi-
related to job success.

17
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
 > The Motivational Fit Questionnaire contains > Avoids areas of illegal questioning. Through
the job and organization facets cited by applicants background reading, examples, and self-tests,
as common sources of satisfaction and dissatisfac- Targeted Selection® interviewers learn the areas
tion. Using the questionnaire, an applicant evalu- of potential risk in interview questioning. They also
ates the importance of the traits via computer or learn to phrase questions clearly and carefully
on paper (later optically read into a computer). and ask only legal, job-related questions.
The computer analyzes the applicant’s preferences > Provides for consistency in handling
against what is available (or not available) in the applicants. The Targeted Selection® system is
job or organization. Matches and discrepancies organized and designed to be applied uniformly
are determined, and suggested questions are to all applicants within a job category.
provided for follow-up in the interview.
> Minimizes biases and stereotypes. In the
TARGETED SELECTION PROGRAM AND ®
Targeted Selection® data integration process,
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY each interviewer describes the information he
United States law demands fair and equal employ- or she gathered from the applicant and uses that
ment opportunity for all citizens. Federal and state information to justify competency ratings. Then
laws require consistent and job-related selection the group evaluates competencies based on all
processes. Penalties for ignoring or violating federal the available data, not just each individual’s own
hiring laws are severe, often amounting to large set- data. The process is designed to control biases
tlements in the millions of dollars. European coun- and stereotypes, maintain hiring standards, and
tries have equal concerns under European Union ensure fair and accurate selection decisions.
regulations. > Trains interviewers to use structured
The Targeted Selection system has several features
® interview guides to ask planned behavioral
that make it particularly appealing to organizations questions and follow-up questions designed
concerned with equal opportunity in hiring. to elicit behavior in the target competencies.
> Trains interviewers in effective note
The Targeted Selection® system:
taking. Interviewers are taught how to take
> Uses job-related competencies. Targeted
notes during an interview so they can record
Selection® focuses on competencies that have
behavioral data that will be used to document
been identified through work analysis to be
selection and promotion decisions.
important to job success. All interview questions
are aimed at these competencies, and the discus- SUMMARY
sion of the applicant’s behavioral data is structured DDI’s Targeted Selection® system provides practical
around them. The selection system’s content solutions to many of the complex problems faced
matches the job’s content. by managers responsible for hiring decisions. The
> Trains interviewers to base hiring key elements—competencies; structured, behavior-
decisions on applicants’ past behavior. based interviewing; a systematic and consistent
Targeted Selection® interviewers learn to gather interviewing system; and the systematic integration
complete behavioral information from applicants of data—are combined in a program that assures
about past behavior that is directly related to the accurate, carefully considered, and high-quality
job’s target competencies. Also, interviewers use hiring decisions supported by technologically
common rating standards to evaluate the data advanced administrative tools.
so they can directly connect past behavior to
future behavior.

18
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES FOR THE COMMON PROBLEMS IN INTERVIEWING Huffcutt, A.I. (2003). Moderators of situational
Arvey, R.D., & Campion, J.E. (1982). The employment and behavioral description interview validity.
interview: A summary and review of recent Manuscript under review.
research. Personnel Psychology, 35, 281–322. Huffcutt, A.I., & Roth, P.L. (1998). Racial group
Conway, J.M., Jako, R.A., & Goodman, D.F. (1995). differences in employment interview
A meta-analysis of interrater and internal consis- evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology,
tency reliability of selection interviews. Journal 83(2), 179–189.
of Applied Psychology, 80(5), 565–579. Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity
Dipboye, R.L. (1997). Structured selection interviews: and utility of selection methods in personnel
Why do they work? Why are they underutilized? psychology: Practical and theoretical implications
In N. Anderson & P. Herriot (Eds.), International of 85 years of research findings. Psychological
Handbook of Selection and Assessment Bulletin, 124(2), 262–274.
(455–473). Chichester, West Sussex: John Taylor, P.J., & Small, B. (2002). Asking applicants
Wiley & Sons. what they would do versus what they did do:
Gilliland, S.W., & Steiner, D.D. (1999). Applicant A meta-analytic comparison of situational and
reactions. In R.W. Eder & M.M. Harris (Eds.), past behavior employment interview questions.
The Employment Interview Handbook (69–82). Journal of Occupational & Organizational
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Psychology, 75(3), 277–294.
Hakel, M.D. (1971). Similarity of post-interview trait Williamson, L.G., Campion, J.E., Malos, S.B., Roehling,
rating intercorrelations as a contributor to interrater M.V., & Campion, M.A. (1997). Employment
agreement in a structure employment interview. interview on trial: Linking interview structure with
Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 443–448. litigation outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology,
82(6), 900–912.
Huffcutt, A.I., & Woehr, D.J. (1999). Further analysis
of employment interview validity: A quantitative
evaluation of interview-related structuring methods.
Visit DDIWorld to read how Targeted Selection® has resulted
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(4), 549–558.
in cuts in employee turnover and improvements in sales and
Jelf, G.S. (1999, Fall). A narrative review of post-1989
customer service. More than 75 validity studies have been
employment interview research. Journal of
Business and Psychology,14(1), 25–58. done on Targeted Selection®. These studies have included
all kinds of industries in locations worldwide. To read about
Posthuma, R.A., Morgeson F.P., & Campion, M.A.
(2002). Beyond employment interview validity: A these studies and learn more about Targeted Selection®,
comprehensive narrative review of recent research please go to http://www.ddiworld.com/research/
and trends over time. Personnel Psychology, reports_summaries.asp, then from the Select Business Need
55(1), 1–81.
list select Hiring & Assessment. You will find various reports
Webster, E.C. (1969). The selection interview: and studies on Targeted Selection® under both “General
Hopeless or hopeful? Studies in Personnel
Studies” and “Client Research Results.”
Psychology, 1(20), 6–8.
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL BEHAVIORAL INTERVIEWING
Jelf, G.S. (1999, Fall). A narrative review of post-1989
employment interview research. Journal of
Business and Psychology, 14(1), 25–58.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

William C. Byham, Ph.D., is CEO and Chairman of DDI. In 1970 he developed the first behavior-
based interviewing system, Targeted Selection®. It is used by more than 3,000 organizations and is
available in 10 languages. Dr. Byham is an internationally recognized thought leader, speaker, and
author. His most recent book is Grow Your Own Leaders.
For additional information about Development Dimensions International and our systems for
building high-involvement organizations, call 1-800-933-4463.

19
© Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.
THE AMERICAS

WORLD HEADQUARTERS
PITTSBURGH
ABOUT DDI. Since 1970 Development
412.257.0600
Dimensions International has worked with some
MEXICO CITY
52.55.1253.9000 of the world’s most successful organizations to
TORONTO achieve superior business results by building
416.601.5500
engaged, high-performing workforces.
Other major offices in
Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas,
We excel in two major areas. Designing and
Detroit, Los Angeles,
Monterrey, Montreal, implementing selection systems that enable
New York, St. Louis,
San Francisco, Santiago, you to hire better people faster. And identifying
and São Paulo
and developing exceptional leadership talent
EUROPE/AFRICA crucial to creating a workforce that drives

DÜSSELDORF sustained success.

49.2159.91680
What sets DDI apart is realization. We focus on
LONDON
44.1.753.616.000 the needs of our clients and have a passion for
PARIS their success.
33.1.41.9686.86
The outcome? You bring the best people
Other major offices in
Johannesburg, Utrecht, on board, who get up to speed faster, contribute
and Warsaw
more, and stay longer—giving you the ultimate
ASIA-PACIFIC competitive advantage.

HONG KONG
852.2526.1188

SINGAPORE
65.6226.5335

SYDNEY
61.2.9466.0300

Other major offices in

Auckland, Bangkok,
Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur,
Manila, Melbourne, Seoul,
Shanghai, Taipei, and Tokyo
POWERING DEVELOPING UNLEASHING
SELECTION EXTRAORDINARY EXECUTIVE
E-MAIL: [email protected] SUCCESS LEADERS TALENT
WWW.DDIWORLD.COM

*LR4H*
LR4H
MKTTSMIS07-0704 © Development Dimensions International, Inc., MMIV. All rights reserved.