General Chemistry 2

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General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

(STEM) Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 3 – Week 1A: The Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of the
Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office wherein
the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit. Such agency
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Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks, etc.)
included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has
been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the respective copyright
owners. The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets
Writer Emely M. Tragua
Editors:
Regional Team Relyn D. Raza
Engr. Raul Galleros
Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Lilibeth S. Apat
Division Team Jane C. Basul

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Management Team Romeo O. Aprovechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent
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Author: Emely M. Tragua

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email address: [email protected]
1
WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS
General Chemistry 2 & Grade 12, Quarter 3, Week 1(Part 1)
The Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC)
Use the kinetic molecular model to explain the properties of liquids and solids.
STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-99
Learning Objectives: The learners will be able to:

1. describe the characteristic properties that differentiate liquids and solids;
2. apply the kinetic molecular theory to describe liquids and solids.
Time Allotment: 1 hour
Key Concepts
❖ Phases of Matter
Gases, liquids, and solids are made up of representative particles (atoms, molecules, and ions),
but those particles' behaviors differ within the three phases.
Slideplayer.com
Figure 1. Comparison of gases, liquids, and solids at the Molecular level
❖ Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT): The thought that particles of matter are always in
motion, which this motion has significant effects.
1. A theory developed within the late 19th century to account for the behavior of the atoms
and molecules that structure matter.
2. It supported the thought that particles of matter are always in motion, which has
consequences.
3. It is often used to describe the properties of solids, liquids, and gases in terms of particles'
energy and the forces that act between them.
❖ Three Assumptions of KMT:

1. All matter (solid, liquid, gas) is formed of particles (atoms, ions, molecules).
2. Particles are in continuous motion, which shows the movement of electrons.
•Gas particles travel in a completely random motion.
• Liquid particles appear to move around moving points.
• Solid particles appear to move around fixed points.
3.Collisions are perfectly elastic (no change within the entire Kinetic Energy of two
particles before and after their collision) ; No loss of energy!

2
❖ Kinetic energy (K.E.) is the energy of motion.
It depends on the MASS of the thing and its VELOCITY (SPEED)
❖ Temperature = measure of K.E. (how fast molecules travel)
❖ Temperature is directly proportional with K.E.
When the temperature decreases, the particle speed also decreases. (i.e., a decrease in
kinetic energy)
When the temperature increases, the particle speed rises too. (i.e., a rise in KE)
Kelvin (K) = temperature scale

used in Kinetic study
⇒ Absolute Zero
temperature in which all
molecular motion stops
= (0 K or - 273◦C)
Conversion between ◦C and K:

K = ◦C + 273 or ◦C= K-273
Figure 2. Comparison of Temperature scales

Source: https://www.sheffield.k12.oh.us
❖ Kinetic Theory Description of the Liquid State
According to the kinetic theory of gases, liquid particles' motion is often described as a kind of
matter that features a definite volume and takes the form of its container.
1.Particles in a liquid are in constant motion; however, the particles in a liquid are closer together
than those in a gas.
2. Therefore, the attractive forces between particles in a liquid are stronger than those between
particles in a gas.
3.This attraction is caused by intermolecular forces.
4.According to the kinetic-molecular theory of liquids, the particles aren't bound together in fixed
positions.
❖ Kinetic-Theory Description of the Solid State
According to the kinetic theory, solid particles' motion is often described as lower K.E., less motion,
more packed particles, and stronger intermolecular forces (IMF).
1. Intermolecular forces between particles are therefore far more effective in solids.
2. These hold particles of a solid in relatively fixed positions, with only vibrational movement.
3. Solids are more ordered than liquids and gases.

3
Table 1. Properties of Liquids and Solids: The Particle Model
Property Liquids Solids
Volume/Shape Definite volume but indefinite Definite volume and shape -solids
shape- can't expand to fill a maintain a particular shape without
container a container; Volume is constant
because of closely packed particles
Fluidity Fluid-ability to flow and take Non-fluid- solid particles can’t flow
the form of the container because they are held in relatively
fixed positions
Density Relative high density- close High density- solids are packed more
arrangement of particles closely than that of a liquid or gas.
(compared to a gas) making
mass/volume ratio higher
Compressibility Much less compressible than Incompressible - particles are packed
gases because particles are so close together there’s virtually no
closer together. space between them.
Diffusibility Slower diffusion than gases- Slow diffusion – much slower than
mix with other liquids due to liquids due to the high IMF’s between
the constant motion of particles
particles
Motion of Random motion, medium Vibration in place
Molecules speed, limited distances
Figure 3. Examples of Solids and Liquids

Source: https://sciencenotes.org/
Activity 1. Properties of Liquids and Solids!
Learning Objective: Describe the characteristic properties that differentiate liquids and
solids.
What you need: pen and paper
What to do: Complete the table below in comparing the properties of liquids and solids.
Properties of Matter Molecular Behavior

liquid solid
Volume/shape
Density
Compressibility
Motion of Molecules
Guide Questions:
1. Differentiate the distances between molecules in the liquid and solid.

__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Rank the phases in increasing distance between particles.
__________________________________________________________________________________
4
Activity 2. Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids!
Learning Objective: Apply the kinetic molecular theory to describe liquids and solids.
What to do:
Part A. Illustrate the molecular representation of solid and liquid using any shape of your choice
in the boxes below and briefly discuss each illustration. Use another sheet of paper for your
answer.
Solid Liquid
Discussion: _________________________ Discussion: _________________________________
_________________________ _________________________________
_________________________ _________________________________
_________________________ _________________________________
_________________________ _________________________________
_________________________ _________________________________
Rubrics:
3 – Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
2 - Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts but with minimal misconception.
1 – Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
0 - No discussion.
Reflection
Direction: Answer the question below in five sentences on a separate sheet of paper.
An explosion aboard a power barge off the Philippine island of Guimaras has spilled up to a quarter
million liters of fuel oil, threatening local communities, mangrove and seagrass habitats.
Explain the effects of an oil spill in bodies of water by applying the concept of Kinetic molecular
theory.
Rubrics:
5 –Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
3 –Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
2- Explanation is not consistent with the concepts.
0 - No discussion.

5
References for learners:
COHASSET PUBLIC SCHOOLS. “Kinetic Molecular Theory Worksheet”. Accessed January 12,
2021.https://www.cohassetk12.org/cms/lib010/MA01907530/Centricity/Domain/34
5/Intro%20Chem%20A/Unit%203%20-%20States%20of%20Matter/3-3%20KMT%
CRSD.ORG.“Liquids and Solids” Accessed January 11, 2021.

https://www.crsd.org/cms/lib/PA01000188/Centricity/Domain/676/Liquids and
Solids.ppt
Sheffield. “Kinetic Molecular Theory” Accessed January 12, 2021.
https://www.sheffield.k12.oh.us/Downloads/KMT%20notes%20and%20WS.pdf
Teacherph. “General Chemistry 2: Senior High School SHS Teaching Guide “Accessed January
9, 2021.https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-guide/
West Linn-Wilsonville School District.”Kinetic Molecular Theory” Accessed January 12, 2021.
https://www.wlwv.k12.or.us/cms/lib8/OR01001812/Centricity/Domain/1638/Unit%20
7%20HW%20Packet.pdf
Answer Key

6

Quarter 3 – Week 1B: Intermolecular Forces
First Edition, 2021
Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit.
Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks,
etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort
has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the respective
copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Writer Mylene B. Zaballero
Editors: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña

Relyn D. Raza
Regional Team Engr. Raul Galleros
Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Lilibeth S. Apat

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat

Author: MYLENE B. ZABALLERO

School/Station: Maningalao National High School
1
UNIFIED LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1B
Name: ___________________________________________ Grade/Sec: ____________________
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces. (GC11IMF IIIa-c100)
Learning Objectives:
1. Define intermolecular forces.

2. Identify each type of intermolecular forces.
3. Describe the different types of intermolecular forces.
Key Concepts:
• Intermolecular forces
- attractive forces that hold molecules together, and influence their melting and
boiling point.
- weaker forces because they result from smaller charges, or partial charges,
interacting over much larger distances. The stronger the intermolecular forces
between the molecules of a liquid, the greater is the energy required to separate the
molecules to turn into gas with à higher boiling point. Decreasing the temperature
decreases the kinetic energy of the particles. Increasing the pressure squeezes them closer
together.
- play large roles in determining the physical properties of liquids. Solids have
relatively stronger intermolecular forces than liquids do. The stronger the IMFs in the
sample of molecules, the stronger they interact, which means they stick together more.
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _
BOND: Between
ATOMS INTERMOLECULAR FORCE:
Between MOLECULES

2
Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction:
1. Dispersion Force (London Force)
The intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of electrons and the
creation of instantaneous dipoles are called Dispersion Force or London Force.
This intermolecular force was named after Fritz London, who first proposed its
existence in 1930. Dispersion forces act between all atoms and molecules. But they are
the only intermolecular forces acting among noble–gas atoms and nonpolar molecules.
This fact is reflected in the low boiling points of the noble gases and nonpolar molecular
compounds.
London forces are dependent on the motion of electrons, their strength increases with
the number of electrons in the interacting atoms or molecules. In other words, it increases
with increasing atomic mass or molar mass.
It is the weakest of all intermolecular forces, since the bigger the number of electrons,
the more it diffused the electron cloud in the atom or molecule, the greater its
polarisability.
Polarisability of the atom or molecule refers to the ease with which the electron
distribution can be distorted.
Figure 1. The Dispersion forces of two neighboring molecules
Source: https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com
2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (Van Der Waals Attraction)
A dipole is created by equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short
distance. This force of attraction was named after a Dutch Physicist Johannes Dedirek
Van der Waals, who in 1873 first postulated these intermolecular forces in developing a
theory to account for the properties of real gases.
The direction of a dipole is from the dipole’s positive pole to its negative pole. A dipole
is represented by an arrow with a head pointing toward the negative pole and a crossed tail
situated at the positive pole. The dipole created by a hydrogen chloride molecule, which has
its negative end at the more electronegative chlorine atom, is indicated as follows.
H Cl
Source: Image from www.en.wikipedia.org.
The negative region in one polar molecule attracts the positive region in adjacent
molecules, and so on throughout a liquid or solid. The forces of attraction between polar
molecules are known as dipole-dipole forces. In this force, the larger the dipole moment, the
stronger the attraction. A molecule of water, for example, has two hydrogen-bonded with one
oxygen in which the more electronegative oxygen atom is the negative pole of each bond. Since
the molecule is bent, the polarities of these two bonds combine to make the molecule highly
polar as shown in figure 2.

3
Figure 2. The attraction between hydrogen and oxygen of a water molecule.
Source: https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com
3. Hydrogen bonding
Some hydrogen-containing compounds, such as hydrogen fluoride (HF), water (H 2O),

and ammonia (NH3), have usually high boiling points. This is explained by the presence of
a particularly strong type of dipole-dipole force. In compounds containing H-F, H-O, or H-
N bonds, the large electronegativity differences between hydrogen and fluorine, oxygen,
and nitrogen atoms make the bonds connecting them highly polar. It is usually
represented by dotted lines connecting the hydrogen-bonded to the unshared electron pair
of the electronegative atom to which it is attracted as illustrated for hydrogen fluoride
(HF).
+ - + -
H-F --- H-F
Hydrogen bonding
Figure 3. Hydrogen bonds in HF.

Source: http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3082/3156196/blb1102.html
Types of Intermolecular Forces and Relatives Strengths:

• Dispersion (London force) Weakest
• Dipole-Dipole
• Hydrogen bonding Strongest
Activity 1. What’s the Word? That’s the word!
Learning Objective: Define intermolecular forces.

What you need: Answer sheets, and pen
What to do: Choose the letter inside the box that best describes the intermolecular forces.
A. Weak forces D. Operates between separate molecules
B. Dependent on the motion of electrons E. Attraction between two polar molecules
C. Influence the boiling and melting point F. Forces that hold solids and liquid together
of a substance
INTERMOLECULAR 1. ______ 2. _____

FORCES are
3. _______ 4. _____

4
Activity 2A. What is my Attraction?
1. Identify each type of intermolecular force.
2. Describe the different types of intermolecular forces.
What you need: Answer sheets, and pen,
What to do: Determine which types of intermolecular forces are most prevalent in the following
molecules. Write your answer in the space provided below.
1.
Cl N Cl
Cl
Answer: _________________
2.
H N H
H
Answer: ___________________
3. I I
Answer: _____________________
4. H F
Answer: _____________________
5. Ne
Answer: _______________________

5
Activity 2B. Tell Me Who Am I?
What to do: Fill in the table below by marking a (√) check whether the following characteristics
represent a Dispersion or London Force, Dipole-Dipole or Van Der Waals, and Hydrogen
bonding.
Characteristics Dispersion Dipole- Hydrogen -

(London Dipole Bonding
Force) (Van Der
Waals)
1. The attraction between two polar molecules,
specifically one molecule having an H
bonded directly to an electronegative atom.
2. The attraction between two polar molecules.
3. The only intermolecular forces acting among
noble–gas atoms and nonpolar molecules.
4. A very strong type of IMF between polar
molecules.
5. These bonds are highly polar due to the
large electronegativity difference.
Guide Question:
Which boils faster water or alcohol? Why? Explain your answer in three (3) sentences
only.
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for scoring:
Points Description
3 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent with the concept and
has no misconception.
2 Practical application is scientifically explained consistently with the concepts, but
with minimal misconception.
1 Practical application is explained consistently with the concepts, but with
misconception.
0 No discussion.
Reflection
What to do:
Why plastic grocery bag stretch when placed with heavy loads?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for scoring:
0 - No discussion.

6
7
Characteristics Dispersion Dipole- Hydrogen
(London Dipole -Bonding
Force) (Van Der
Waals)
1. The attraction between two polar molecules,
specifically one molecule having an H bonded √
directly to an electronegative atom.
2. The attraction between two polar molecules. √
3. The only intermolecular forces acting among √
noble–gas atoms and nonpolar molecules.
4. A very strong type of IMF between polar √
molecules.
5. These bonds are highly polar due to the large √
electronegativity difference.
Activity 2B. Tell Me Who Am I
Activity 2A: What is my Activity 1: What’s the
Attraction? Word? That’s the Word?
Reflection 1. Hydrogen bonging Note: the answers can be
Answer may vary 2. Dipole – Dipole interchanged
3. Dispersion or 1. A
Scores in this part is London force 2. D
based on the rubrics 4. Hydrogen bonding 3. C
given 5. Hydrogen bonding 4. F
Answer Key
affect-boiling-points/
forces- https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2010/10/01/how-intermolecular-
Unknown Author. Microsoft World, Accessed on January 12, 2021, Retrieved from;
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3082/3156196/blb1102.html
Unknown Author. Microsoft World, Accessed on January 11, 2021, Retrieved from;
Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd. pp. 491 - 495.
States. Zumdahl, S.S. & S. A. Zumdahl (2012). Chemistry an atoms first approach. United
University of Texas at Austin, TX. Pp. 189 – 193.
Raymond, D.E. Ph.D. Modern Chemistry. Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry. The
References for Learners:

Quarter 3 – Week 1C: Properties of Liquids and Intermolecular Forces
First Edition, 2021

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government
agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation
of such work for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as
a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective
copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use
these materials from the respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent
nor claim ownership over them.
Writer Rosemalyn L. Pahamtang

Relyn D. Raza
Editors: Engr. Raul Galleros
Regional Team Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Lilibeth S. Apat
Jane C. Basul
Delia P. Alcantara
Division Team Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesuza C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Management Romeo O. Aprovechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division

Team Superintendent
Love Emma B. Sudario, Assistant Schools Division
Superintendent

Author: Rosemalyn L. Pahamtang

School/Station: Carmen National High School
Email address: [email protected]
1
Science 11, Quarter 3, Week 1C
Name: __________________________ Section: ___________________________
Properties of Liquids and Intermolecular Forces
Most Essential Learning Competency
Describe the following properties of liquids and explain the effect of

intermolecular forces on these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure,
boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization. (STEM_GC11MF-IIIa-c-102)
After going through this learning activity sheet, you are expected to:
1. describe the properties of liquids: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure,

boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization; and
2. explain the effects of intermolecular forces on the given properties of liquids.
Key Concepts
Properties of Liquid:
1. Surface tension
A property of the surface of a liquid that permits it to resist an external force
because of the cohesive nature of the water molecules. It is manifested as some kind
of skin on the surface of a liquid or during a drop of liquid. It is the force that
causes the molecules on the surface of a liquid to “tighten their hold to at least
one another”, creating the effect of a skinny membrane on the surface. The
molecules occupy the smallest amount area possible, which pulls the surface into
a spherical shape when a little amount is dropped. High surface tensions are
existing to substances with strong attractive forces between the molecules.
Surface tension is temperature-dependent; it increases as temperature
decreases. Therefore, surface tension is indirectly proportional to temperature.
2. Viscosity
A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Polar molecules and molecules
with complex structures (with “branches”) tend to possess higher viscosity being
less ready to slip and slide over each other than those with simple structures and
less polarity. A liquid with high viscosity is claimed to be viscous or simply
“thick”. When the viscosity is so high that it cannot flow any more, the matter is
claimed to be glassy or vitreous. The opposite of viscosity is fluidity. Highly fluid
is said to be free-flowing, mobile, or “thin”. Viscosity is expressed in units of
centipoise.
Fluid is a gas or a liquid; a substance that will flow.

2
3. Vapor pressure of a liquid
The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid is the pressure exerted
by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed container. This may be
considered as a measure of the “escaping” tendency of molecules to go from the
liquid to the vapor state. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, the space
above the liquid becomes saturated with vapor and an equilibrium state exists
between the liquid and therefore the vapor. The equilibrium equation is:
evaporation
liquid vapor
condensation
Vapor is a gaseous substance that occurs naturally as liquid or solid at

normal temperature.
4. Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid boils wherein the vapor pressure of a
liquid is equal to the external pressure (atmospheric pressure above the liquid).
The normal boiling point of a liquid is reached when the external pressure is 1
atm.
5. Molar heat of vaporization (ΔH vap)

It is the energy (usually in kilojoules) needed to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid
at a certain temperature. The attractive forces between the liquid molecules are
overcome during vaporization. Only when all of the liquid has become a gas will
the temperature of the substance again increase as more heat is added. H is
the symbol for enthalpy, which suggests total heat at a given standard condition.
Vaporization is the change of phase of matter from liquid to vapor (gaseous
phase).

3
Activity 1. Properties of Liquids
1. Describe the properties of liquids: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure,
boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization.
2. Explain the effects of intermolecular forces on the given properties of liquids.
What you need: Pen and paper
What to do:
A. Surface Tension
Study and analyze the images below. Identify the properties of liquids being
exhibited by each image and mark check (/) the property being referred to. Number
1 is done for you as your guide.
2.
Image 1. Image 2. Image 3. Image 4. Image 5.

Apple with Boiling water Liquid in a closed Soap bubbles in Dew drops
water drops google.com/search container the air google.com/search
google.com/search? ?q=boiling+water google.com/search= google.com/search? =dew +drops
q=water+drops liquid + in + a +closed q=bubbles
Image 6. Image 7. Image 8. Image 9. Image 10.

Drops of honey Floating paper Drops of water in a Pouring of Pouring of oil
google.com/search clip on water paper water google.com/search
? q=honey drops google.com/search google.com/search?q=dr google.com/search= =pouring +oil
?q=floating+paper ops+of+water&rlz+clip pouring +of +water +from + a +flask
Images Surface Viscosity Vapor Boiling Molar Heat of

Tension Pressure Point Vaporization
Image 1
Image 2
Image 3
Image 4
Image 5
Image 6
Image 7
Image 8
Image 9
Image 10
Guide Question:
Image no. 7 shows a paper clip floating on water, what made it float?

4
B. Viscosity of a Liquid
Read the situation below and analyze the data given in table 1, then answer
the guide questions on a separate sheet of paper.
A group of students wanted to compare the viscosity of four (4) liquids. Refer
to figure 1. They used water, corn syrup, oil, and honey as liquid samples. They
measured the time it took the marble in moving from the top to the bottom of the
liquids. The results of their experiment are shown in Table 1.
Figure 1. Common liquids with different viscosities

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=viscosity+of+liquids
Table 1. The Time it Takes for the Marble to Settle Down in Different Liquids
No. Liquids Viscosity The average time it takes for the
(cps) marble to settle down (seconds)
1 water 1 1.56
2 corn syrup 2000-3000 1.74
3 oil 1000 1.62
4 honey 10,000 1.98
Guide Questions:
1. If viscosity increases, what do you think happens to the intermolecular forces

that operate among molecules?
2. What is the relationship between viscosity and the average time it takes to
settle down?

5
C. Vapor Pressure, Boiling Point and Molar Heat of Vaporization of a Liquid
Consider the vapor pressures, molar heat of vaporization, and boiling point of
the following substances shown in table 2 and answer the guide questions below in
a separate sheet of paper.
Table 2. Vapor Pressure, Molar Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point of Some
Substances
Vapor Type of (ΔH) Heat of Boiling
No. Substance Pressure Intermolecular Vaporization Point
(atm) Forces (kJ/mol) (OC)
1 Pentane 0.71 London dispersion 26.5 36.1
2 Acetone 0.28 Dipole-dipole 30.3 56.5
3 Ethyl alcohol 0.08 Hydrogen bonding 39.3 78.3
4 Water 0.03 Hydrogen bonding 40.79 100
Guide Question:
How does the strength of intermolecular forces affect vapor pressure, molar
heat of vaporization, and boiling point of liquids?
Reflection
What to do: Read and understand the question below. Write your answer in a
separate answer sheet.
When a person has fever, one of the recommendations is to use a

damped cloth wet with rubbing alcohol to lower his/her temperature. Why?
Rubrics:
Points Description
3 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent
with the concepts and has no misconception
2 Practical application is scientifically explained consistently
with the concepts, but with a minimal misconception
1 Practical application is explained consistently with the
concepts, but with misconceptions
0 No discussion
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B. et.al. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2, pp 32-56. Published by the Commission on Higher Education,
2016.
Ilao, Luciana V., Loctoc, Betty M., and Paderna-Gayon, EdEdwehna Elinore S. “
General Chemistry 2”: K to 12, STEM. 1st ed., edited by Josefina G. Belen, 10-
14. 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr. St. Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines: rex Bookstyore,
Inc., 2016.

6
Website:
https://www.google.com/search?q=water+drops
https://www.google.com/search?q=boiling+water
https://www.google.com/search=liquid + in + a +closed
https://www.google.com/search?q=bubbles
https://www.google.com/search=dew +drops
https://www.google.com/search? q=honey drops
https://www.google.com/search?q=floating+paper
https://www.google.com/search?q=drops+of+water&rlz+clip
https://www.google.com/search=pouring +of +water
https://www.google.com/search=pouring +oil +from + a +flask
https://www.google.com/search?q=viscosity+of+liquids
Answer Key:
Image 10
Image 9
Image 8
Image 7
Image 6
Image 5
Image 4
Image 3
Image 2
Image 1
Vaporization Point Pressure Tension
Molar Heat of Boiling Vapor Viscosity Surface Images

7

Quarter 3 – Week 1D: Properties of Water
First Edition, 2021
Writer Charlyn M. Campado
Editors: Relyn D. Raza

Delia P. Alcantara
Lilibeth S. Apat
Edgardo Tupas
Delia P. Alcantara
Division Team Edgardo Tupas
Jesuza C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Jane C. Basul
Management Team Romeo O. Approvechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division

Superintendent
Love Emma B. Sudarion, Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

Author: Charlyn M. Campado

email address:[email protected]
1
WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1D
Properties of Water
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces.
(GC11IMFIIIa-c-103)
1. identify the properties of water; and
2. discuss the properties of water in relation to molecular structure and intermolecular
forces.
Key Concepts
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF WATER
The water molecule ( figure 1) is composed of two (2) hydrogen (H) atoms and one (1) oxygen (O) atom.
The oxygen atom has 8 electrons, and each hydrogen atom has 1 electron. The covalent bond is formed
when atoms of hydrogen share electrons with an oxygen atom.
Water (H2O) molecule is polar with strong intermolecular forces. It forms a special dipole
bond called a hydrogen bond. Four hydrogen bonds can be formed in a water molecule (figure
2). These bonds are strong, however, it is constantly breaking, shifting and re-forming giving the
water its unusual properties.
Figure 1. Water Molecule Figure 2. Hydrogen Bonding

Source: https://healingearth.ijep.net/ Source: https://healingearth.ijep.net/
PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Surface Tension Molecules at

Water molecules attract with other water the surface
form strong
molecules forming a bond that creates an elastic film bonds
on the surface of water resulting to surface tension.
Surface tension allows the surface of the water to
support weights and pull water droplets into round
shapes. Figure 3. The surface tension of
water at a molecular level
Source: https://www.usgs.gov/

2
Paper clip is made of steel and with higher density, but it
can float on the surface of water because of high surface tension
of water.
Figure 4. Paper clip on top of the water
Water striders can walk on top of water. This is because of

the high surface tension of water, and water striders also have
distributed weight and highly adapted legs.
Figure 5. Water Strider on top of the water

When drops of water will be added to the coin and reach

the coin’s edge, dome of water will be formed on top of the coin.
This is the result of the water molecules clinging to one another
forming an optimal shape. This shows cohesion and surface
tension of water.
Figure 6. Drops of water on the coin
Soure: https://www.stevespanglerscience.com/
 Capillary Action
Intermolecular forces also cause a polar liquid like water to rise against gravity into a small-
diameter tube (a capillary), as shown in figure 7. This is also because the molecules of water are
attracted to the substance in the tube (figure 8). This phenomenon is called capillary action. When
a glass tube is placed in water, the water rises into the tube. Water rises higher in a tube with a
smaller diameter.
Figure 7. Capillary action of water Figure 8. Water molecules have strong adhesive forces toward glass
in different glass tubes molecules and form a concave meniscus.
Source: Dr. Clay Robinson, PhD, West Texas A&M University.
Source: https:/ /www.slideshare.net/
 Viscosity
Water has a viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20 oC. Polar water is more viscous
than nonpolar liquids like liquid nitrogen. But compared to long-chain molecules, water is less
viscous.
Figure 9. Water has a low viscosity because it is not a long-chain molecule.

Source: https://slideplayer.com/
 Vapor Pressure of Water

The vapor pressure of water refers to the pressure at which equilibrium occurs between the
gaseous phase and the liquid phase of water molecules, in a closed container. In this condition
vapor pressure is constant. Water has low vapor pressure because of the high surface tension.

3
In an open container, equilibrium would not be reached because the molecules in the
gaseous phase will just fly off and some gas molecules will change to the liquid phase.
a) (b)
Figure 10. Molecules of water in (a) sealed bottle and (b) opened bottle
 Molar Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point

Water at the boiling point has a molar heat of vaporization equal to 40.7
kJ/mol. This means that 40.7 kJ of heat is absorbed from the surroundings as 1 mol of water at
100°C and 1 atm pressure is converted to 1 mol of water vapor at 100°C.
 Other Properties of Water
1. Universal Solvent
Water is a universal solvent. Water has a unique ability to dissolve many chemical
substances. It can dissolve salts and other ionic compounds, polar covalent compounds like
alcohols, and gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. Nutrients needed by plants are dissolved in
water and are absorbed by plants. Water can also absorb pollutants from farming and industrial
plants resulting in water pollution.
2. Specific Heat
Water has high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to increase the
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 oC. Water has a very high specific heat with 1
calorie/g-oC (4.18 J/g-oC). This is the reason that water can absorb a greater amount of heat even
the temperature rises very slightly.
For example, at the beach on a sunny day, we observe that the sand is usually quite hot to
walk on. The water on the other hand always feels cool. This is due to the fact that the sand has
a lower specific heat capacity compared with water. The sand takes less energy to raise the
temperature by one degree while water with a high heat capacity, requires more heat energy to
increase its temperature by one degree. The sun heats sand more quickly but the water more
slowly.
3. Boiling Point
The boiling point of water is unusually high. Water boils at 100 oC. Due to intermolecular
forces, the water stays to be in a liquid state at a large range of temperatures. During summer
days, a pond does not dry quickly because the amount of energy required to evaporate the water
is so high.
4. Density
Solid water is less dense and floats on liquid water. The molecules in solid water are
different than they are in liquid water. In solid water, the hydrogen bonds have an open
structure with unoccupied spaces, resulting in a larger volume. This makes solid water or ice
becomes less dense causing ice to float on water. In temperate countries, water bodies freeze. Ice
will float, causing the aquatic organisms to still live and survive under the surface which
remains liquid.

4
Figure 11. The structure of Ice and Liquid Water
Activity 1. What Do I Have?
1. Identify the properties of water.
2. Discuss the properties of water in relation to molecular structure and intermolecular forces.
What you need: Pen and Paper
What to do: Complete the table below by writing in column 2 the property of water illustrated in
column 1 and give a brief discussion about each property in column 3. Number 1 is answered as
your guide.
ILLUSTRATION PROPERTY BRIEF DISCUSSION

(in 1 or 2 sentence/s)
Solid water (ice) has hydrogen bonds
with open structure and unoccupied
Density spaces, causing it to become less dense
and will float on water.
1. ice cube in a glass of water
Source: smithplanet.com
2. droplets of water on the leaf

Source: https://www.scienceabc.com/
3. pond slowly drying out

Source: https://i.imgur.com/4kK18rb.jpg
4. liquid and gas phase at

equilibrium in a closed container
5. water as it rises to tubes with

different diameter
Source: https://taminglittlemonsters.com/
6. water flows easily

Source: https://www.chemistryworld.com/

5
Activity 2. Float!, then Rise!
Learning Objective: Conduct simple activities showing some properties of water.
What you need:

Pen, paper, small basin, tissue paper, clear glass, water, needle, drinking straw
What to do: Perform the following activities. Take picture of your observations or illustrate your
observations and answer the guide questions in a separate sheet of paper.
A. 1. Fill the basin with water to the top.

2. Put the needle on a tissue paper (as seen in the figure at the right)
and lower it down to the top of the basin with water. Observe what
will happen.
3. If the needle sinks, repeat step 2 using a dry needle and a new
sheet of tissue paper until the needle floats on water. Source: http://www.learnplayimagine.com/
Guide Question:
Why did the needle float on water? Explain in 1 or 2 sentence/s.
B. 1. Half-fill a clear glass with water.

2. Put a drinking straw in the glass with water (as seen in the figure
at the right).
Guide Question: Source: https://www.vectorstock.com/

What happens to the water inside the drinking straw?
Explain in 1 or 2 sentence/s.
Reflection
What to do: Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper. Write 3 sentences.
Swimmers are encouraged to practice swimming in freshwater like lakes or rivers

rather than in seawater. Why?
Rubrics:

2 – Explanation is not consistent with the concepts.
0 - No discussion.
Ansell, Dave. 2007. “Floating a Needle.” Penny” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://www.thenakedscientists.com/get-naked/experiments/floating-
needle#:~:text=If%20you%20get%20it%20right,the%20surface%20it%20will%20sink.
Earth Science Teaching Guide for Senior High School, Published by the Commission on Higher
Education, 2016
Healing Earth. “The Structure of Water.” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://healingearth.ijep.net/water/structure-
water#:~:text=The%20water%20molecule%20is%20comprised,is%20called%20a%20covale
nt%20bond.
6
Markgraf, Bert. 2018. “What Intermolecular Forces are Present in Water?” Accessed January
13, 2021, from https://sciencing.com/three-ways-polarity-water-molecules-affect-
behavior-water-10036437.html
Slideshare. “Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://www.slideshare.net/clwatson12/47-intermolecularforces
Slideplayer. “Physical Properties of Liquids” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4181999/
Steve Spangler Science. “Drops on a Penny” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://www.stevespanglerscience.com/lab/experiments/penny-drops/
Water Science School. “Vapor Pressure and Water” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/vapor-pressure-and-
water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
Water Science School. “Surface Tension and Water.” Accessed January 13, 2021, from
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/surface-tension-and-
water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
Answer Key
Activity 1
Activity 2

7
General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12 (STEM)

Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 3, Week 1E: Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
First Edition, 2021
Writer Mr. Sherjune C. Cañete
Editors:
Relyn D. Raza
Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Lilibeth S. Apat

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Management Team Romeo O. Aprovechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division

Superintendent

Author: Mr. Sherjune C. Cañete

School/Station: Marcos Calo National High School
1
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1E
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

Describe the difference in the structure of crystalline and amorphous solids.
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-104)
Learning Objectives
The learners will be able to:
1. describe the structure of crystalline and amorphous solids; and
2. compare the properties of crystalline and amorphous solids.
Key Concepts
Think of a glass, a wax, and a diamond. Do you think these substances are alike? Why?
They are different in every angle and yet all are solids. They differ in the structure and
the arrangement of their particles. The structure of solids can be categorized as crystalline
solids or amorphous solids.
Solids
- characterized by a rigid structure of molecules, ions, and atoms arranged in an orderly or
non-orderly manner. These orderly or non-orderly arrangements led to the categorization of
crystalline and amorphous solids, the two general types of solids.
Figure 2 A Figure 2 B
Figure 1. Molecules of Solid Figure 2A. Molecules of Crystalline Solids
Source: http://Www.Differencebetween.Net/Science/Difference- Figure 2B. Molecules of Amorphous Solids
Between-Crystalline-And-Amorphous/ Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/the-solid-state/crystalline-and-amorphous-solids/
Crystalline Solids
Crystalline solids are the type of solids that have particles that are orderly arranged in
a 3-dimensional pattern called the crystal lattice (a regular repeating structure). When cut
anywhere, it shows a clear cleavage in the structure. For its internal structure, it has a distinct
geometric shape.
In a 3-dimensional pattern, the particles have equal intermolecular forces. This solid has
a sharp melting point and is anisotropic (property of a material which allows it to change or
assume different properties in different directions). They are called true solids. To detect the
difference between a crystalline and non-crystalline solid is not easy, especially by only
touching it. Both solids are holding a definite and fixed shape, rigid, firm, and incompressible.
Also, both generally have geometric shapes and flat faces but differ from each other in many
aspects including the chemical and the physical attributes or properties.
Examples are benzoic acid, diamond, metals, and salts (figure 3).
Amorphous Solids
The word amorphous is a Greek word that means “shapeless”. Irregular and disordered
arrangement of the constituent particles of a solid. Structures are rigid and they lack a well-
defined shape.

2
Amorphous solids do not have a geometric shape so, they are non-crystalline. Those
variations in characteristics of an amorphous solid occur due to the arrangement of its
molecules. Here, the particles of matter which is a 3-dimensional lattice structure that we see
in other solids do not form. Some amorphous solids have impurities, it prevents such a
structure forming edged-like crystals and it has a short order arrangement of molecules.
In amorphous solids, their intermolecular forces are not the same, nor are the distances
between the particles. Some can have parts of orderly arranged patterns which are
called crystallites. The molecules, ions, or atoms of the solid depend on its cooling process. As
aforementioned, quartz crystal differs from quartz glass because of the process of
crystallization. In general, many amorphous solids have a disordered pattern. They are also
usually called the super-cooled solids; the structure shares some properties with liquids. Also,
amorphous solids do not show the true properties of solids or pseudo solids.
Examples of amorphous solids are glass, plastics, waxes, some polymers, gels, and thin
films (figure 4).
Figure 3A Figure 3B Figure 4A Figure 4B
Figure 3A. Molecules of crystalline solids Figure 4A. Molecules of amorphous solids
Figure 3B. Salt, example of crystalline solid Figure 4B. Cotton candy, example of amorphous solid
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/the-solid- Source: https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-
state/crystalline-and-amorphous-solids/ science-flexbook-2.0/section/2.12/primary/lesson/solids-ms-ps
Key differences between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

A. Structure of Crystalline and Amorphous
Crystalline solid has a definite shape with orderly arranged molecules or atoms in 3-
dimensional patterns often termed as a crystal lattice. If this solid will cut, it depicts a clear
cleavage with surfaces intersecting at angles that are characteristic of the crystal. Amorphous
solids, on the other hand, have a disordered array of components not showing a definite shape.
They show irregular shapes usually with curved surfaces when cut.
B. Melting points of Crystalline and Amorphous
Having an irregular shape, amorphous solid does not have definite melting points but melt over
a wide range of temperatures. For crystalline solids, melting points are keenly observed or have
a sharp melting point.
C. Physical properties of Crystalline and Amorphous
For crystalline solids, they are called anisotropic. Because it possesses different thermal
conductivity, electrical conductivity, and refractive index within a crystal in different directions.
Amorphous are called isotropic. These solids have similar physical properties from either
direction.
Activity 1. Crystal or Amorphous?
Learning objective: Compare the properties of crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
What to do: Read and analize the statement below. Write CRYSTAL if the sentence
describes/properties of the crystalline solid, otherwise write AMORPHOUS (if the sentence is
for amorphous solid). Write your answer on separate sheet of paper.
______________ 6. do not have definite
______________ 1. particles are arranged in a melting point
3-dimentional order ______________ 7. when cut, shows irregular
______________ 2. super-cooled solids shapes
______________ 3. non-crystalline ______________ 8. plastics (example of)
______________ 4. derived from a Greek word ______________ 9. true solids
means “shapeless” ______________ 10. possess different
______________ 5. diamond (example of) electrical conductivity
3
Activity 2. Are these crystals?
Learning objective: Describe the structure of crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
What You Need: Magnifying glass
Granules of sugar, salt, and pepper
Piece of paper or bond paper
Note: If no magnifying glass, you can use a glass with water as a substitute.
Procedure:
1. Get the magnifying glass (you can examine the granules through the glass with water if
you don't have a magnifying glass). Also, have the granules of sugar, salt, and pepper
ready for each container respectively.
2. Pinch each material (granules of sugar, salt, and pepper) from each container, place
them separately in a piece of bond paper.
3. Using different powers of magnifying glass, examine the granules of each material.
4. Observe the granules and compare them to the other granules.
Guide Questions:
1. Can you see the difference between the granules of sugar and salt?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.
2. Which of the substances appears to be made crystals?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.
Reflection
What to do: Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.
Cotton candy is an example of amorphous solid and is very common during fiestas.
Kids are attracted to this because of its color and sweetness. Is it good to eat too much
cotton candy? Why or Why not?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.
Rubrics:
Score Description
Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no
5
misconception.
Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts but with minimal
4
misconception.
3 Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
2 Explanation is not consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
0 No discussion.
References:
Books:
BYJU’S The Learning App. “Difference between Crystalline and Amorphous”. Accessed
January 08, 2021.
https://byjus.com/chemistry/difference-between-crystalline-and-amorphous/
Chang, Raymond, and Cruickshank, Brandon. Chemistry, Eighth Edition. Mc Graw Hill Higher
Education. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1998, 1994, 1991, 1988, 1984, 1981 by the
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 0-07-251264-4(hc: alk. paper)

4
Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with the PNU. “Teaching guide for Senior
High School, General Chemistry 2. Specialized Subject | Academic-STEM. Feedback at
[email protected].
Online references:
Bagley, Mary. Live Science. “Properties of Matter: Solids”. Accessed January 09, 2021.
https://www.livescience.com/46946-solids.html
Dahl, Jeff. Britannica.com. “X-ray diffraction, Physics”. Accessed January 09, 2021.
https://www.britannica.com/science/X-ray-diffraction
Flexbooks. “CK-12 Physical Science for Middle School – Soilds”. Flexbooks
v2.9.4.20201228233419| © CK-!@ Foundation 2021. Accessed January 10, 2021.
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook
2.0/section/2.12/primary/lesson/solids-ms-ps
Juers, Douglas. Whitman College, Department of Physics. “X-ray Diffraction – Lab 7”.
Accessed January 07, 2021.
https://www.whitman.edu/Documents/Academics/Powder_diffraction_metals.pdf
Kochitty, Joe. Toppr.com. “The solid-state: Crystalline and Amorphous solids”. Accessed
January 07, 2021.
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/the-solid-state/crystalline-and-amorphous-
solids/
Macromoltek. “What is x-ray crystallography?”. Macromoltek. Inc. Accessed January 10,
2021.
https://medium.com/@macromoltek/what-is-x-ray-crystallography-1e186bc3d180
Madisha, Lusi. DB Difference between.net. “Difference between crystalline and amorphous”.
Accessed January 08, 2021.
http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-crystalline-and-
amorphous/
Socratic Q&A. “Chemistry- What are the properties of solids?”. Accessed January 07, 2021.
https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-the-properties-of-solids
SlideShare. “Free rubrics for essay”. Accessed January 18, 2021.
https://www.slideshare.net/pjlynch/essay-assessment-rubric
The Libre Texts. “11.7: Structure of Crystalline Solids”. Accessed January 10, 2021.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Heartland_Community_College/HCC%3A_Chem_161
/11%3A_Liquids_and_Solids/11.7%3A_Structures_of_Crystalline_Solids#:~:text=Crystallin
e%20solids%20have%20well%2Ddefined,a%20wide%20range%20of%20temperatures.
Answer Key
15. CRYSTAL
14. CRYSTAL
13. AMORPHOUS
12. AMORPHOUS crystal.
11. AMORPHOUS crystals. Pepper doesn’t look like
10. CRYSTAL ANS. Sugar and salt look like
9. CRYSTAL appears to be made crystals?
8. AMORPHOUS 2. Which of the substances
7. AMORPHOUS Both are crystals.
6. AMORPHOUS and salt are almost the same.
5. CRYSTAL ANS. No, the granules of sugar
4. CRYSTAL and salt?
3. AMORPHOUS between the granules of sugar
2. AMORPHOUS 1. Can you see the difference
1. CRYSTAL Guiding questions:
Activity 1. Crystal or Amor? Activity 2. Are these crystal?

5
General Chemistry- Grade 11
Learner Activity Sheets
Quarter 3-Week 2: Phase Diagrams of Water (H2O) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
First Edition, 2021
Borrowed materials (e.g. songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks,
etc.) included in this activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort
has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their respective
Writer Rexjhan A. Capuyan

Regional Team Tita Anunciado
Virnalisi Mindaña, Ed.D
Jesusa C. Olayan
Emely Tragua

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayan
Lilibeth S. Apat

Superintendent

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 11 Quarter 3 Week 2
Phase Diagrams of Water (H2O) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________

Interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide (STEM_GC11MFIIIa-c107)
1. describe the components/ features of a phase diagram;
2. describe how changes in temperature and pressure can change
the state of matter;
3. analyze the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide;
4. interpret phase diagrams of pure substances to determine their phase at the given
temperature and pressure; and
5. construct a phase equilibria of a substance through a phase diagram
from the data given.
Time Allotment: 2 hours
Key Concepts
Have you ever wonder how temperature and pressure can influence the identity of a sample matter,
how matter changes from one phase to the other, and what limiting conditions will solid, liquid,
and gas be considered. In this lesson, you will uncover and learn about the phase equilibria
through phase diagrams of substances, like water and carbon dioxide.
Unlocking of Terms:
❖ Phase Diagram- a graphical plot that indicates the summary of the physical state
movement between pressure and temperature in a closed system concerning phase
changes of a substance.
❖ Plateau- a graphic representation that shows a stable period.
❖ Pressure- Force per unit area; expressed in many units, such as millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg), atmosphere (atm.), pound per inches squared (lb/in 2), torr, Pascal.
❖ Heat- is the resulting flow of energy from the movement of particles, ions, atoms, or
molecules in solids, liquids, and gases.
❖ Temperature- a measure of the intensity of heat or of how hot or cold a system is.
❖ Equilibrium- a term coined to describe a dynamic state in which two or more opposing
processes are taking place simultaneously at the same rate.
❖ Triple Point- a point or location where three phases (solid, liquid, gas) of matter can coexist.
❖ Critical Point- a point or location where temperature and pressure record the highest rate
with signifying phase boundary between gas and liquid.
Author: Rexjhan A. Capuyan
School/Station: Manoligao National High School/Carmen 1
E-mail Address: [email protected]
1
What’s in the Phase Diagram?
A phase diagram consists of discrete areas that signify the different phases exhibited
by a substance (Figure 1). Each of the regions corresponds to a range of combinations of
Temperature and Pressure over which that phase is stable.
A. Features of Phase Diagram
http://chem.libretext.org
Figure1. SEQ
Figure PhaseFigure \* ARABIC
Diagrams 1. Phaseshowing
of a substance Diagrams of aLiquid,
Solid, substance
and Gas
showing Solid, Liquid, and Gas
1. Three Regions (Solid, Liquid, Gas)
▪ Solid Region –the combination of high pressure and low temperature, only a
solid is stable (( ) upper left of Fig. 1) (a liquid or gas would spontaneously
convert to a solid).
▪ Liquid Region – the combination of high temperature and high pressure,
only a liquid is stable, but when it exceeds the critical point, a supercritical
fluid exists. (( ) upper right of Fig. 1), (a solid would spontaneously melt
and gas condense).
▪ Gaseous Region – the range of combinations of high temperature and low
pressure, the only vapor is stable (( ) lower right of Fig. 1) (solids and
liquids would spontaneously convert to a gas (vapor)).
2. Three Curves
▪ Solid/Gas Two-Phase Line (a line connecting point C to A) - both solid and
gas can coexist in equilibrium at these range of Temperature & Pressure;
adding heat causes sublimation (solid gas; e.g. dry ice), removing it causes
deposition (gas solid; e.g. frosting)
▪ Solid/Liquid Two-Phase Line (line connecting point A to D) - both solid and
liquid can coexist in equilibrium at these range of Temperature & Pressure;
adding heat causes melting (solidliquid), removing it causes freezing
(liquidsolid)
▪ Liquid/Gas Two-Phase Line (line connecting point A to B) - both liquid and
gas can coexist in equilibrium at this range of Temperature & Pressure;
adding heat causes vaporization (liquidgas), removing it causes
condensation (gasliquid).

2
3. Two Important Points
http://courses.lumenlearning.com
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2. The two important
Figure 2. The two important points of Phase Diagram
points of Phase Diagram
3.1 Triple Point
● Triple Point (point A) - the pressure and temperature at which all three
phases can coexist where no energy is added or diminished. The triple
point is the exact point that can be reproduced in the laboratory. With
this, the SI unit of temperature, the Kelvin, is defined as 1/273.16, the
triple temperature of water (P= 0.0060373 atm., T=273.16 K).
● It also represents the lowest pressure at which a liquid phase can exist
in equilibrium with solid or vapor.
● At P < 0.00604 atm., ice will not melt into a liquid form as the
temperature increases; the ice will directly sublime to water vapor.
3.2 Critical Point

● Critical Point (point B) – a location where the phase boundary between
a gas and a liquid exists having the highest pressure and temperature.
Highest boiling point, nonvolatile liquids have high critical
temperature and vice versa (see. Figure 3, below)
Substances TC (0C) PC (atm)

He Helium -267.96 2.27
N2 Nitrogen (diatomic) -146.9 33.9
CH4 Methane -82.6 46.0
CH3CH2OH Ethanol 240.9 61.4
CO2 Carbon dioxide 31.0 73.8
NH3 Ammonia 132.4 113.5
H 2O Water 374 217.7
Hg Mercury* 1477 1587
Figure 3. Critical Point of some simple substances

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 3. Critical Point of some
● Mercury (Hg; liquid at simple
room substances
temp.) is considered a “thermometric
liquid” because of its high coefficient of expansion due to high
temperature that is suitable for measuring high temperatures.

3
II. Phase Diagram of Water (H20)
almost vertical
(A) (B)
Figure 4. Phase Diagram of Water
Graph A has a linear temperature and pressure, the boundary between the ice and
liquid water is almost vertical. While Graph B, with an expanded scale, signifies the decrease
in melting point, corresponds with an increase in pressure. The Triple point of water is
within the limit of 0.010C and 0.00604 atm. (4.58 torr), which indicates that ICE will melt
(solid to liquid) at P > 0.00604 atm.; and sublime (solid to gas) at P < 0.00604 atm.
The water reaches the critical point at 373.99 0C, having a pressure of 217.7 atm.
● Freeze-drying of food will excellently be accomplished by placing frozen goods in a low-

pressure chamber (below 0.00604 atm.), so that ice will sublime.
III. Phase Diagram of Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 5.Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
Figure 5.Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
This graph indicates that it has a more typical melting curve, sloping up and to the
right. The triple point of Carbon dioxide is within the limit of −56.6°C (T) and 5.11 atm.
(P), which means that CO2 in a liquid state cannot exist if P < 5.11 atm. Consequently,
solid CO2 (dry ice) does not melt but sublimes at 1 atm. Thus, it has no normal melting
point but a normal sublimation point at -78.5 °C. The critical point of CO2 is within the
range of 30.98 0C (T) and 72.79 atm.

4
Activity 1. Let’s PHASE it!
1. Describe the components/ features of a phase diagram;
2. Analyze the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide; and
3. Interpret phase diagrams of pure substances to determine their phase at the given
temperature and pressure.
What you need: Pen, ruler, marker
Part I. Phase Diagram Analysis

Direction: Use the phase diagram of water to complete the table below and answer the guide
question as follows.
Phase Diagram of Water
Phase Diagram of Water (H20)
Temperature (0C) Pressure (atm.) Phase
150 1 (1)________________
-1.5 1 (2)________________
-0.5 100 (3________________
-2 0.001 (4)________________
30 0.8 (5)________________
0.00 < T < ____ (6) 1 Liquid
200 P< ___ (7) Vapor
Guide Question:
1. What is the critical temperature of water? _________________________________________________

2. At what temperature will a triple point occur for water? _____________________________________
3. How will the pressure lesser than 0.00604 atm. at normal boiling point influence the phase
change of the water? _________________________________________________________________________
4. Will phase change happens to water at 1 atm. as the temperature rises from –15°C to
60°C?Support your answer. ___________________________________________________________________
5. Describe the phase of ice and water vapor in terms of the function of temperature and
pressure. _____________________________________________________________________________________

5
Part II. Open-response
Direction: Using the phase diagram of carbon dioxide, describe the following conditions as
stated below.
Phase Diagram of Carbon dioxide
Guide Question:
What happens when the following changes are made in a CO 2 sample, which initially records
at 1 atm. and -60°C?
(a) Pressure increases at a constant temperature to 80 atm.
________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Temperature increases from -60°C to -18°C at constant 80 atm. pressure.
________________________________________________________________________________
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Activity 2.The PHASE-craft!
1. Describe how changes in temperature and pressure can change the state of
matter; and
2. Construct a phase equilibria of a substance through a phase diagram from the
data.
What you need: Graphing paper, marker, ruler, and colored pen
What to do: Construct the phase diagram for a substance on your graphing paper based on
the following data: (It need not be scaled)
T (0K) P (atm.)
Triple point 55 K 0.50 atm.
Normal melting point 68 K 1 atm.
Normal boiling point 183 K 1 atm.
Critical point 218 K 50 atm.
*Label: S (solid), L (liquid), G (gas)
*Curves/Lines of equilibrium between solid-gas, liquid-gas, and solid-liquid.

6
Phase Diagram of a Substance
Temperature (K)
Pressure (atm.)
Guide Question:
1. What phase change will occur if this substance is slowly compressed at a constant
temperature from 0.5 atm to 45 atm.? Please refer to the phase diagram you have created.
Pressure (atm.) 0.5 atm. 45 atm. Observation on
Temperature (K) Phase Changes
ex. 30 K Solid Solid No change
a. 60 K
b. 120 K
c. 400 K
2. What are the necessary conditions for this material to sublime? How are these conditions
affect to the phase change?_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

7
Rubrics for Scoring
*(DO NOT ANSWER the boxes below; For Teacher use only)
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
The neatness All straight All straight Most straight Many lines,
of Color and lines are ruler- lines are ruler- lines are ruler- corrections of
Lines drawn, all drawn, most drawn, most errors, and/or
errors have errors have errors have features are not
been neatly been neatly been neatly neatly done.
corrected and corrected and corrected and
all features are most features most features
colored are colored are colored
completely. completely. completely.
Labels - At least 90% of 80-89% of the 79-70% of the Less than 70%
Accuracy the items are items are items are of the items are
labeled and labeled and labeled and labeled and
located located located located
correctly. correctly. correctly. correctly.
Labels & 90-100% of the 89-80% of the 79-70% of the Less than 70%
Features - labels/features labels/features labels/features of the
Neatness can be read can be read can be read labels/features
easily. easily. easily. can be read
easily.
http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php?screen=CustomizeTemplateDemoChoice&
Category Points Earned Remarks

The neatness of Color and
Lines
Labels- Accuracy
Labels & Features-

Neatness
Total
Reflection:
Direction: Answer the following questions briefly on a separate sheet of paper.
1. How an increase in surface temperature affects the environment, and how these changes
contribute to the current climate that we are facing?
2. Why carbonated drink or soda has more biting-taste when stored in the refrigerator? How
will carbon dioxide influence the taste and our health?
Rubrics:
0 - No discussion.
8
Ilao, Luciana V. et.al, (2017). General Chemistry 2. Manila, Philippines. Rex Bookstore.
Chapter 4 pp. 34-35.
De Borja, et.al (2016). General Chemistry 2. Manila, Philippines. Vibal Publishing.

Chapter 1 pp. 17-19.
Unknown Author. Open-textbook. BCCampus under Rice University. Accessed on

January 14, 2021, Retrieved from; https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/10-4-
phase-diagrams/
Bodner Research Web. PDF. Accessed on January 14, 2021, Retrieved from;
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch14/phase.php
Unknown Author. PDF. Accessed on January 14, 2021, Retrieved from;

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properti
es_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Phase_Transitions/Phase_Diagrams
Unknown Author. Microsoft Word, Accessed on January 14, 2021, Retrieved from;
https://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3311/3391416/blb1106.html
Answers Key: (b) CO2(s) CO2(l)

Triple point pressure.
will expand more at a much lower (a) CO2 (g)CO2(s);
undergoing liquid phase. Particles
turn from solid to gas, without Part II.
conditions, materials will eventually lower P.
2. P< 0.5 atm, T< 55K: With these while water vapor needs greater T at
d. GG (No change of phase) 5. Ice has less T with greater P,
c. GL (Condensation) (water)
b. GS (Deposition) 4. Yes, Solid (ice)Liquid
1. a. SS (No change of phase) expansion of water particles.
pressure will allow much
Guide Q: from liquid gas since less
water will change its phase
3. With P < 0.00604 atm, the
2. 0.010C
1. 373.99 0C
Guide Q.
7. 0.00604 atm (4.58 torr)
6. 1000C
5. Liquid
4. Vapor (Gas)
3. Liquid
Sample Phase Diagram with labels
2. Solid
I. Students answer may vary
Part I. 1. Vapor (Gas)
Activity 2: The PHASE-craft
Activity 1: Let’s PHASE it!
9

Quarter 3 – Week 2B: Expressing Concentration of Solution Quantitatively
First Edition, 2021
Writer Alfonz Lexie John C. Basul

Engr. Raul Galleros
Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Lilibeth S. Apat

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat

Author: Alfonz Lexie John C. Basul

School/Station: Nasipit National High School - Annex
1
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Expressing Concentration of Solution Quantitatively
Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: mole fraction, molarity, molality,
percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111).
After learning the topic, you are expected to:

1. identify the different ways in expressing concentration of solutions;
2. determine the percentage composition (by mass and volume) of a solution; and
3. calculate concentration of solutions in molality, molarity and mole fraction.
Key Concepts
A supply of clean drinking water is important for all communities. What constitutes clean water?
The government has set standards limiting the amount of contaminants allowed in drinking
water. These contaminants include metals, pesticides, bacteria, and even the byproducts of
water treatment. Water must be tested continuously to ensure that the concentrations of these
contaminants do not exceed established limits. Concentration is the measure of how much of a
given substance is mixed with another substance. Solutions are said to be either dilute or
concentrated.
Figure 1A Figure 1B
Illustrated by Alfonz Lexie John Basul
Figure 1A shows greater concentration than Figure 1B because there is a greater ratio of solute
(triangle) to solvent (black balls).
How is the concentration of a solute in a solvent calculated? These are the different ways to
express the amount of solute present in a solution:
 Percent by mass
Is the amount of solute in a given mass of solvent expressed as grams solute per 100 grams of
solution. Mass percentage is calculated as the mass of a component divided by the total mass of
the mixture, multiplied by 100%.
General Formula:
% by mass = mass of solute X 100
mass of solvent + mass solute
Derived formula:
mass of solute = (% by mass) (mass of solution)
100

2
Sample problem: A solution is prepared by dissolving 25.0 g of C6H12O6 (Sugar) into 100.0 g of
water. Determine the percentage by mass of the solute in the solution.
Given: mass of solute = 25.0 g sugar mass of solvent = 100.0 g water

Required: Mass of solution = ? (grams) % by mass of sugar = ?
Solution: The mass of the solution

mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= 25.0 g C6H12O6 + 100.0 g H2O
= 125.0 g solution
Hence, the percent by mass of the solute is computed as,

mass of solute (g) x 100
% by mass =
mass of solution (g)
25.0 g sugar x 100
=
125.0 g solution
= 0.2 x 100
= 20% sugar
 Percent by volume
Is the amount of solute in a given volume of solution expressed as milliliter of solute per 100
milliliter of solution. Wine has a typical alcohol content (v/v percent) of 12 percent. This means
that there is 12 mL of C2H5OH(Ethanol) in every 100 mL of wine.
General Formula:
% by volume = volume of solute x 100
volume of solution
Derived formula:
(% volume) (volume of solution)
volume of solute =
100
Example: A solution is prepared by dissolving 90 mL of H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide) in enough
water to make 3000 mL of solution. Determine the concentration of Hydrogen Peroxide solution.
Given: Volume of solute= 90 mL of H2O2

Volume of solution = 3000 mL of solution
Required: % by volume of H2O2= ?
Solution:
% by volume = volume of solute(mL) x 100

volume of solution (mL)
= 90.0 mL H2O2 x 100
3000 mL solution
= 0.03 x 100
= 3% H2O2
 Parts per Million (ppm)
This is a way of expressing very dilute concentrations of substances. The key point of ppm tells
how many units of substance you have for every million units of the whole solution. In contrast,
a percentage tells how much of something you have “per hundred,” and so it’s a very similar
measure to ppm.
General Formula:
ppm = amount of solute x 1,000,000
amount of solution

3
Derived Formula:
Amount of solute= (ppm) (amount of solution)
1,000,000
Sample problem: The solubility of NaCl (Table Salt) is 284 g/100 grams of water. What is the
concentration in ppm?
Given: mass of solute = 284 g of NaCl

mass of solvent = 100 g of water
Required: mass of solution= ? (grams) ppm= ?
Solution:
mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= 284 g NaCl + 100 g H2O
= 384 g of solution
ppm = amount of solute

x 1,000,000
amount of solution
= 284 g of NaCl x 1,000,000
384 g of Solution
= 739,583 ppm of NaCl solution
 Molarity (M)
Is one way to express the concentration of a solution in moles of solute present in one (1) liter, L,
of solution. It can be used to convert between moles of solutes and volumes of their solutions.
General Formula:
moles of solute mol solute
Molarity= or M=
liters of solution L solution
Derived Formula:
mole solute = molarity x liters of solution
In problems involving molarity, additional formulas are sometimes used to get the final answer.
One very useful formula are that for molar mass and number of moles:
molar mass = total molar mass of the components where; molar mass = g/mol
moles of solute = mass of solute
molar mass
Sample problem: A solution is made by dissolving 2.355 g of H2SO4(Sulfuric acid) in water. The
total volume of the solution is 0.05 L. What is the molarity?
Given: mass of solute = 2.355 g H2SO4

Volume of solution = 0.05 L
Required: A. Molar mass = ? (grams) B. Molarity = ? (mol/L)

A..
molar mass H2SO4 = total molar mass of the components
= 2(1.008 g/mol H) + 1 (32.06 g/mol S) + 4 (16.00 g/mol O)
= 98.08 g/mol H2SO4
Convert the mass of solute into moles of solute
mole of solute = 2.355 g H2SO4 1 mol of H2SO4 = 2.355 mol H2SO4 = 0.02401 mol H2SO4
98.08 g H2SO4 98.08

4
B.
mol solute
M=
L solution
= 0.02401 mol H2SO4
0.05 L
= 0.48 M
 Molality (m)
Is the ratio of the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. It is not the same as
molarity, even if their names are very similar.
General Formula:
moles of solute
Molality = or m = mol
kg of solvent kg
Derived formula:
mol solute = Molality x kg of solvent
In problems involving molality, additional formulas are sometimes used to get the final answer.
One very useful formula is that for density:
ρ = m/v where; ρ = density
m= mass
v= volume
Sample problem: What is the molality of a solution containing 0.75 moles of NaOH (Sodium
hydroxide) in 500 milliliters of water at 25 oC? The density of water at 25 oC is 1.0 gram per
milliliter.
Given:
ρ H2O = 1.0 g/mL
V H2O = 500 mL
Molar mass of H2O = 18 g/mol
Mole of solute = 0.75 mol NaOH
Required: Molality of NaOH = ? (mol/kg)
Solution:
Compute the mass of water in kilograms.
ρ= m
v
m H2O= ρ x v 500 g 1 kg = 0.50 kg
m H2O= 1 g/mL x 500 mL 1000 g
m H2O= 500 g
Hence, m is,
moles of solute
m= = 0.75 mol NaOH = 1.5 m or 1.5 mol/kg
kg of solvent 0.5 kg of solvent
 Mole Fraction
Is a way of describing solution composition. It is the ratio of the number of moles of one
component of a mixture to the total number of moles of all components.
General Formula:
mole component
Mole fraction of component =
moles of all component
Derived Formula:
mole component = mole fraction component x moles of all component
Sample Problem: What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by mass ethanol (C2H5OH)
solution in water?
School/Station: Nasipit National High School - Annex 5
Given: % mass of ethanol = 40%
Required: mole fraction of solute= ?

Solution:
Solve for the molar mass of ethanol and water
molar mass H2O = total molar mass of components = 2 (1.008 g/mol H) + 1 (16.00 g/mol O)
= 18 g/mol H2O
molar mass C2H5OH = total molar mass of components = 2(12 g/mol)+6(1.008 g/mol)+1(16 g/mol)
= 46 g/mol C2H6O
Change the masses of the components ethanol and water to number of moles. Assume there is
exactly 100 grams of solution. The solution is 40% ethanol (C2H5OH), it contains 40 grams of
ethanol and 60 grams of water.
Mole ethanol= 40 g = 0.87 mol C2H5OH
46 g/mol
Mole
60 g = 3.33 mol H O
water= 2
18 g/mol
Compute for the mole fraction each component
mol 0.87 mol ethanol

mole fraction of C2H5OH = ethanol = = 0.21
mol ethanol + mol water 0.87 mol ethanol + 3.33 mol water
mol water 3.33 mol water

mole fraction of H2O= = = 0.79
mol ethanol + mol water 0.87 mol ethanol + 3.33 mol water
1.00
The mole fraction of all components in a solution is always equal to 1.
Activity 1. Know me well
Learning objective: Identify the different ways in expressing concentration of solutions.
What You Need: Pen and Paper
What you do: Identify the different ways in expressing concentration of solutions. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
_______________1. It is the ratio of the number of moles of one component of a mixture to the
total number of moles of all components.
_______________2. It is calculated as the mass of a component divided by the total mass of the
mixture, multiplied by 100%.
mol solute
_______________3. It is computed using the formula M= .
L solution
_______________4. This is a way of expressing very dilute concentrations of substances.
_______________5. It is computed using the formula m= mol.
kg
Activity 2. Mass & Volume to Percentage!
Learning objective: Determine the percentage concentration (by mass and volume) of a
solution.
What You Need: Pen, Paper and calculator
What you do: Given the result of Percentage Concentration experiment below, analyze and
answer the following questions. Show your solution.
Table 1. Shows the results of the percentage by mass experiment.
Substance Mass
Sugar 2.0 g
Salt 3.0 g
Author: Alfonz Lexie John C. Basul Water 20 g
6
Guide Questions:
1. What is the total mass of the solution? _______________
2. What is the percentage by mass of sugar solute in the solution? ______________
3. What is the percentage by mass of salt solute in the solution? ________________
4. What is the ppm of salt solute in the solution? ___________________
Table 2. Shows the results of the percentage by volume experiment.
Substance Volume Volume of the solution

Isopropyl alcohol 70 mL 100 mL
Ethyl alcohol 40 mL 100 mL
Guide Questions:
1. What is the percent volume of ispropyl alcohol? _____________________
2. What is the percent volume of ethyl alcohol? ________________________
Activity 3. Solve it!

Learning objective: Calculate concentration of solutions in molality, molarity and mole fraction.
Show your solution.
What You Need: Pen, paper, periodic table of elements & calculator
What you do: Calculate the concentration of solutions in molality, molarity and mole fraction of
the problem below. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper. Show your solution.
Problem 1: How many grams of K2CO3 (Potassium Carbonate) are needed to make 200 mL of a
2.5 M solution?
Problem 2: What mass of CH3OH (Methanol) is required to be dissolved in 8.00 kg of H2O

(Water) to produce a 2.00 m solution?
Reflection
Direction: Answer the question. Explain in 3 sentence/s.
Figure 2. 70% Ethyl Alcohol Figure 3. 40% Isopropyl Alcohol

Source: google.com/search?q=ethyl+alcohol Source: google.com/search?q=Isopropyl+alcohol
Which of the two is more effective in disinfecting our hands especially this time of pandemic?
Why?_________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Rubrics:
0 - No discussion.
7
Books:
Patalinghug, Wyona C., Camacho, Vic Marie I., Sevilla, Fortunato B. III, Singson, Maria Cristina
D. General Chemistry 1 Specialized Subject | Academic Stem: Teaching Guide for Senior
High School C.P. Garcia Ave., Diliman, Quezon City: Commission on Higher Education,
2016. https://studylib.net/doc/25269748/general-chemistry-1
Wilbraham et al. - Prentice Hall – 2000, Chemistry
Online References:
https://www.varsitytutors.com/college_chemistry-help/molarity-molality-normality
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Los_Angeles_Trade_Technical_College/Chem_51/15%3A_S
olutions/15.03%3A_Solution_Concentration_-_Molality_Mass_Percent_ppm_and_ppb
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-chemistry/states-of-matter-and-intermolecular-
forces-ap/mixtures-and-solutions-ap/a/molarity
Answer Key
Activity 1. Know me well Activity 2. Mass & Volume to Percentage!
5. Molality
= 40%
4. Parts per million (ppm)
3. Molarity = 0.4 x 100
2. Percentage by Mass 100mL solution
1. Mole Fraction = 40mL ethyl x 100
Activity 1. Who AM I? volume of solution
2. % vol ethyl = volume of solute x 100
= 70%
Activity 2. Mass & Volume to Percentage! = 0.7 x 100
= 120,000 ppm 100mL solution
= 0.12 x 106 = 70mL isopropyl x 100
25g solution volume of solution
= 3.0g salt x 106 1. % vol isopropyl = volume of solute x 100
Table 2.
amount of solution
4. ppm salt = amount of solute x 106
= 12%
= 0.12 x 100
25g solution
= 3.0g salt x 100
mass of solution
3. % mass salt = mass of solute x 100
= 8%
= 0.08 x 100
25g solution
= 2.0g sugar x 100
mass of solution
2. % mass sugar = mass of solute x 100
= 25g
= 20g + 2.0g + 3.0g
1. Mass solution = mass solvent + mass solute
Table 1.

Division: Agusan del Norte 8
9
1. Answer may vary
Reflection:
Given: M = 2.5 M
L = 200 mL
Required: mol solute = ?
Mass of K2CO3 = ?
Solution: Reflection:
Given: m = 2.0 m
mass = 8.00 kg L sol= 200 mL x (1 L/1000 mL) = 0.2 L
Required: mass of CH3OH = ? (g)
Solution: M= mol solute / L sol
m= mol/kg mol solute = M x L sol
mol= m x kg = 2.5 M x 0.2L
= 2.00 m x 8.00 kg = 0.5 mol K 2CO3
= 16 mol CH3OH Molar mass = total mass of the components
= (39)2+12+(16)3
molar mass = total mass of the components
z#WZSXAa = 138 g/mol K 2CO3
= 12+(1.008)3+16+1.008
= 32.0 g/mol Mass K 2CO3= 138g/mol (0.5mol)
= 69 g K 2CO3
mass CH3OH = 16 mol x 32.0 g/mol
= 512 g CH3OH
Problem 2 Problem 1
Activity 3. Solve it!

Quarter 3 – Week 2: Stoichiometric Calculations
First Edition, 2021
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Writer Sarah Mae B. Sumanoy

Regional Team Virnalisi Mindaña, EdD
Jesusa C. Olayon
Jay N. Bernat
Emely M. Tragua
Archie Layaog

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Jesuza C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat

Superintendent

1
General Chemistry 2 & Grade 12, Quarter 3, Week 2D
Stoichiometric Calculations
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.(STEM_GC11PPIII-f-112)
1. determine the concentration of acid-base titrations in a solution;
2. perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution;
3. appreciate the importance of stoichiometric calculations for reactions in a solution.

Key Concepts
●Titration is the slow addition of one solution of unknown concentration,( called a

titrant) to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration until the
reaction reaches neutralization, which is often indicated by a color change.Titration is a
technique to determine the concentration of an unknown solution.
Colorless Light Pink Dark Pink
Figure 1. Titration with an Indicator

Source: YPCRC/PHA/UNIT II
●Standard solution is a solution containing a precisely known concentration of an

element or a substance. If the volumes of the solutions are known, then the
concentration of the unknown solution can be calculated.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Author: Sarah Mae B.Sumanoy Validators:
School/Station: Senior High School in Carmen 1.Delia P. Alcantara 3. Jesusa C. Olayon 5.Jane C. Basul
Division: Agusan del Norte 2. Edgardo B. Tupas 4.Lilibeth S. Apat
2
Example:
Suppose 25.66 mL (or 0.02566 L) of 0.1078 M HCl was used to titrate an
unknown sample of NaOH. What mass of NaOH was in the sample? We can calculate the
number of moles of HCl reacted:
# mol HCl = (0.02566 liter)(0.1078 mol/liter) = 2.766 x 10-3 mol HCl
We also have the balanced chemical reaction between HCl and NaOH:
HCl+ NaOH→ NaCl + H2O
So we can construct a conversion factor to convert to number of moles of NaOH reacted:
2.766 x 10-3 molHCl×1molNaOH/ 1molHCl=2.766 x 10-3molHCl×1molNaOH
mol NaOH=2.766 x 10-3 mol NaOH
Then we convert this amount to mass, using the molar mass of NaOH (40.00 g/mol):
2.766 x 10-3molHCl×40.00g NaOH x 1molHCl= 0.1106 g NaOH or 1.106 x 10 -1 g NaOH
●In an acid-base titration. the standard solution can be strong base, or strong acid
depending on the nature of the unknown solution.A pH indicator is used to signal the
completion of the acid-reaction. The pH indicator changes color to indicate completion of
the reaction, which is the end point of the titration. If an indicator is a weak acid, its
ionization would be very much low in acids due to common H+ ions while it is fairly
ionized in alkalies. In the same way, if the indicator is a weak base, its ionization is high
in acid, and low in base.
●In an acid-base neutralization reaction, it is important to note the relationship
between the number of moles of the acid and the base at the completion of the
reaction.This is called the equivalence point.
Neutralization Reactions:
This is the general formula for a neutralization reaction:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
A strong acid and a strong base, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) (aqeous) and sodium
hydroxide ( NaOH) (aqeous ) will react to form a neutral solution since the conjugate
partners produced are of negligible strength:
HCl (aq) +NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) +H2O (l)
● Monoprotic acids- acids that can release only one proton and have one equivalence
point.
Number of Hydrogen Name Example
atoms
1 monoprotic acid (HA) HCl- hydrochloric acid
1 Monoprotic acid (HA) HNO3- nitric acid
●Monobasic base- a base that has only one hydrogen ion to donate to a base in an acid-
base reaction.
Example:
NaOH is monobasic, it ionizes to produce one OH¯ ion
NaOH → Na+ + OH¯
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3
Let us consider the reaction between a monoprotic acid and a monobasic base, like HCl
and NaOH.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (s)→NaCl (s ) + H2O(l)
reactants products
At the equivalence point, the reaction is complete, when the moles of acid are equal to
the moles of the base. nacid = n base
We can express the number of moles, n, of the standard solution as the product of its
concentration expressed in terms of molarity, (M) and the volume, V, used in titration,
Choosing the base as the standard solution for this example,
nacid = Mstd sol Vstd sol
We can also express the number of moles of the unknown solution as the product of its
concentration and volume.
M 1V 1 = M2V2
Where: M1 = initial molarity of the unknown ( moles/liter )
V1 = initial volume of the unknown (ml)
M2 = final molarity of solution
V2 =final volume of standard solution (liters)
Then deriving the equation, we get : M2= M 1 V1
V2
Sample Problem:
In a titration, you found out that 50.00ml HCl solution requires 25.00ml of 1.00M
NaOH.What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid solution?
Given:M1 = ?mol HCl M2= 1.00M NaOH
V1 = 25.0mlNaOH V2 = 50.0ml HCl

Find: MHCl = ?
Solution:
The balanced equation for the acid-base neutralization reaction is:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Based on the balanced equation, you can see that the stoichiometric ratio between
HCl and NaOH is 1:1 Hence, the molar ratio indicates that at the equivalence point,
moles HCl = moles NaOH
MHCl VHCl = MNaOHV NaOH
VHCl
M1 = M 2V 1
V2
MHCl= 25.00 ml x 1.00M
50.00 ml
MHCl= 0.50M the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
solution
●Dilution
Often ,solutions need to be diluted to conserve samples. In the dilution process, we
take a measured volume of a solution of known high concentration and mix it with a
measured volume of the solvent to yield another solution of lower concentration that we
refer to as a dilute solution. Take note that the number of moles of the solute in the
concentrated solution equals the number of moles of the solute in the dilute solution since
only more solvent was added to the concentrated solution. This condition can be described
by the equation:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4
Moles of solute in concentrated solution= moles of solute in dilute solution
From the original formula of molarity we can derived the equation to compute for the
volume in dilution problem. Thus,
M1V1= M2 V2
V2= M1 V1
M2
● Example, we might say that a glass of iced tea becomes increasingly diluted as the ice
melts. The water from the melting ice increases the volume of the solvent (water) and the
overall volume of the solution (iced tea), thereby reducing the relative concentrations of
the solutes that give the beverage its taste (Figure 2).
Cylinder A (Tea with Ice) Cylinder B (Tea when ice has melted)
Figure 2. Dilution of Ice Tea
Source: Adobe Stock stock.adobe.com
●Dilution is also a common means of preparing solutions of a desired lesser

concentration by adding solvent to a measured portion of a more concentrated stock
solution. (A stock solution is a concentrated solution that will be diluted to some lower
concentration for actual use.)
Stock Solution Formula: M1V1= M2V2,
Sample Problem: A 0.15 M potassium chloride (KCl) has a volume of 100ml. What is its
volume when the concentration is increased to 10M ?
Given: M1= 0.15M M2= 10M
V1= 100ml Find: V2 = ? (ml)
Solution: V2 = M1V1/ M2
= ( 0.15M ) ( 100ml) / 10M
=15/10ml
V2 = 1.5 ml
___________________________________________________
Division: Agusan del Norte 2. Edgardo B. Tupas 4.Lilibeth S. Apatemail
address:[email protected]
5
●Dilution can also be used in commercial pesticides that are typically sold as solutions in
which the active ingredients are far more concentrated than is appropriate for their application.
Before they can be used on crops, the pesticides must be diluted. This is also a very common
practice for the preparation of a number of common laboratory reagents.
Sample Problem:
If you have 300ml of 1.5M NaCl, what is the final volume in ml of a 0.25M
NaCl ?
Given:
M1 = 1.5M
V1 = 300ml
M2 = 0.25M
Find : V2 = ? (ml)
Solution: nconc= ndilute
M1 V1= M2V2
V2= M1 V1
M2
= 1.5M x 300ml
0.25M
= 1800ml or 1.8L
Activity 1
Solving time!
Learning Objective: Determine the concentration of acid-base titrations in a solution
What you need: Pen , paper and calculator
What to do:
Solve the following problems. Show your solutions and observe the proper process in
solving the problem.
Problem:
1. A volume of 33.0ml of 1.0 M Hydrochloric acid (HCl) neutralizes a 28.0ml sample of KOH
solution. What is the concentration of Potasium hydroxide (KOH)?
HCl + KOH → KCl + H2O
2. What mass of Ca(OH)2(Calcium hydroxide) is present in a sample if it is titrated to its

equivalence point with 44.02ml of 0.0885 M HNO3 (Nitric acid) ?
The balanced chemical equation is as follows:
2HNO3+ Ca (OH)2 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6
Activity 2
Please answer me!
Learning Objective: Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.

What you need: Pen , paper and calculator
What to do:
Solve the following problems. Show your solutions and observe the proper process in
solving the problem.
Problem:
1. A 10ml of 6M HCl (Hydrochloric acid) solution needs to be diluted to 3M HCl solution.
How much water is needed to dilute the solution?
2. What volume should you dilute 133ml of a 7.90M CuCl2 (Copper(II)Chloride) solution so
that 51.5 ml of the diluted solution contains 4.49g CuCl2?
Reflection: Write your answer on a separate sheet.

In real life situation, titrations are used everyday , specially in the medical world and
laboratories. In our daily living if we experienced stomach pain and bloating why is it that we
need to take Kremil-S?
Rubrics:
3- Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
2- Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts but with minimal misconception
1-Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions
0-No discussion
7
Ilao, Luciana V., Lontoc, Betty M., and Paderna- Gayon, Edwehna Elinoe S. “ General
Chemistry
2”: Kto12, STEM.1st ed., edited by Josefina G. Belen, 70-74.856 Nicanor Reyes Sr.St.
Sampaloc,
Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore, Inc., 2016
Licuanan, Patricia B. et.al Ph.D. General Chemistry 2,. Commission on Higher Education
Kto 12
Transition Program Management Unit, Published by the Commission on Higher Education,
2016 Office Address: 4th floor, Commission on Higher Education, C.P. Garcia Ave. Diliman,
Quezon City
Website:
www.google.com.chem.Libretexts.org.Chemistry2 Stoichiometric problems
www.google.com.chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_chemistry/Mao%3A_Intr
oductory_Chemistry_(Tro)14%3A_Acids_and Bases/14.10%/3A_AcidBase_Titration
www.google.com.YPRC/PHA/UNIT II.Pharmaceutical Analysis.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9

STEM Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 3 – Week 3: Colligative Properties of Solutions
First Edition, 2021
Borrowed materials (e.g. songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks, etc.)
Writer Pamela Lou C. Suazo

Emely Tragua
Jesusa C. Olayon
Jay H. Nicanor
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

Myra Joy B. Montero
Management Team Schools Division Superintendent: Josita B. Carmen, CESO V

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent: Jasmin R. Lacuna, CESE
CID Chief: Celsa A. Casa, PhD
LRMDS Manager: Bryan L. Arreo
Science EPS: Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

General Chemistry 2 Quarter 3 Week 3
Colligative Properties of Solutions
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies
❖ Differentiate the colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions and of electrolyte

solutions STEM_GC11CB-IIId-F-116
❖ Calculate boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the concentration of a
solute in a solution STEM_GC11CB-IIId-F-117
❖ Calculate molar mass from colligative property data STEM_GC11CB-IIId-F-118
❖ Describe laboratory procedures in determining concentration of solutions
STEM_GC11CB-IIId-F-119
Time allotment: 4 hours

1. identify electrolyte from nonelectrolyte;
2. describe the colligative properties of electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions;
3. describe how acid-base titrations can be used in determining unknown concentrations of
solutions;
4. carry out calculations involving boiling point elevation and freezing point depression;
5. use colligative properties to determine molar mass of compounds;
6. recognize the applications of colligative properties of solutions.
Key Concepts
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions
• Colligative Properties are properties of solutions that depend only on the number of
solute particles and not on the identity of the solute. The colligative properties of
solutions are boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, vapor pressure
lowering and osmotic pressure.
• Electrolytes are particles that ionize in a solution. Ionic compounds (e.g., NaCl),
strong acids (e.g., HCl) and strong bases (e.g., NaOH) are strong electrolytes. Strong
electrolytes conduct electricity because the solute dissociates completely into ions as it
dissolves.
• Nonelectrolytes are particles that do not ionize in solution. As a result, they do not
conduct electricity. Polar covalent compounds like table sugar dissolved as a molecule
and not as ions, thus, they are considered as nonelectrolytes.
Boiling Point Elevation
• Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure.
• Boiling point is also affected by the presence of solute. Addition of nonvolatile solute,
Author: Pamela Lou C. Suazo

School/Station: Unidad National High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
2
substance whose vapor pressure is too low to measure readily, lowers the vapor
pressure of a solution. This means, that the solution must be heated to a higher
temperature than the boiling point of a pure solvent to reach the vapor pressure of 1
atm.
Figure 1. Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature

Source: H. Eugene LeMay et al., Prentice Hall Chemistry: Connections to Our
Changing World (Needham, MA: Prentice Hall, 2002), 522.
• Boiling Point Elevation (∆Tb) is the difference in temperature between the boiling
point of the solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent. The boiling point of a
solution is always greater than the boiling point of the pure solvent. In mathematical
terms,
∆Tb=Kbm
where Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant

m = molal concentration of the solution
• The boiling point of the solution can be computed by adding the computed ∆Tb to the
boiling point of pure solvent.
Tb, solution = Tb, solvent + ∆Tb
Tb, solution = Tb, solvent + Kbm
Sample Problem:
When sugar is added to water it will boil at a higher temperature than pure
water. What is the boiling point of the solution if 500 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) is added
to 1000g of water. For water, Kb is 0.52 C˚/m.
Solution:
Given:
mass of solute 500 g C12H22O11
mass of solvent 1000 g H2O
Kb 0.52 C˚/m
Steps in solving the problem:
1. Convert the mass of solute to the number of moles

3
1 mol C12 H22 O11
500 g C12H22O11 x = 1.46 mol C12H22O11
342.3 g C12 H22 O11
2. Calculate the molality

moles of solute
molality =
kilogram of solvent
1.46 mol 𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11
=
1 kg 𝐻2 𝑂
= 1.46 mol / kg or 1.46 m
3. Determine the boiling point elevation

∆Tb = Kbm
= 0.52 C˚/m x 1.46 m
= 0.76 C˚
4. Determine the boiling point of the solution

Tb, solution = Tb, solvent + ∆Tb
= 0.76 C˚ + 100.0 C˚
= 100.76 C˚
The boiling point of the solution would be 0.76 C˚ higher than the boiling point
of pure water. Thus, the boiling point of the solution would be 100.76 C˚
Freezing Point Depression
• Freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which vapor pressure of the solid
and liquid phase are the same.
• Freezing Point Depression (∆Tf) is the difference in temperature between the freezing
point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent. The freezing point of a
solution is always lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
Figure 2. Phase Diagram of Solvent and Solution

Source: CK-12 Foundation, “Freezing Point Depression,” CK-12, 2018, https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-
chemistry-concepts-intermediate/section/16.14/.
• The figure above shows that a solution has a lower freezing point as compared to a
pure solvent. Addition of a solute lowers the vapor pressure of the pure solvent. In
mathematical terms, it is expressed as

4
∆Tf=Kfm
where Kf = molal freezing point depression constant

m = molal concentration of the solution
• Since the freezing point of the solution is lower than that of a pure solvent, the
equation can be written as:
Tf, solution = Tf, solvent - ∆Tf
Tf, solution = Tf, solvent – Kfm
Sample Problem:
While antifreeze protects a car from freezing (as its name implies), it also
protects it from overheating. Calculate the freezing point of a solution of 200 g ethylene
glycol (C2H6O2) antifreeze in 750 g of water. Kf for water is 1.86 C˚/m.
Solution:
Given:
mass of solute 200 g C2H6O2
mass of solvent 750 g H2O
Kf 1.86 C˚/m
1 mol C2 H6 O2
200 g C2H6O2 x = 3.23 mol C2H6O2
62.0 g C2 H6 O2

moles of solute
molality =
kilogram of solvent
3.23 mol C2 H6 O2
=
0.750 kg 𝐻2 𝑂
= 4.30 mol / kg or 4.30 m
3. Determine the freezing point depression

∆Tf = K fm
= 1.86 C˚/m x 4.30 m
= 8.00 C˚
4. Determine the freezing point of solution

∆Tf = Tf, solvent – Kfm
= 0.0C˚/m - 8.00 C˚
= -8.00 C˚
Addition of antifreeze lowers the freezing point of water by 8.00 C˚. Thus, the
freezing point of the solution is -8.00 C˚.
Electrolytic Solutions
• The examples presented earlier on boiling point elevation and freezing point depression
deal with solutions of nonelectrolyte solute. Calculations of electrolytic solutions are
almost similar except that the dissociation of electrolytic solute is included in the
equation.
∆Tb = iKbm ; ∆Tf = iKfm
where i (van’t Hoff factor) denotes the number of ions in one formula unit

5
• Consider the dissociation in each of the equations below:
(electrolyte) NaCl (s)  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) 2 dissolved particles

(nonelectrolyte) C6H12O6 (s)  C6H12O6 (aq) 1 dissolved particle
• The first equation shows that NaCl, an ionic compound, will dissociate into 2 ions
while the second equation shows that C6H12O6 will not dissociate into ions. In
electrolytic solutions the van’t Hoff factor (i) is being considered which is equal to the
number of ions in one formula unit. This means that NaCl will have i equal to 2 (Na+
and Cl-). NaCl will have twice as many dissolved particles than C6H12O6 which implies
that the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression of the solvent in NaCl
solution (electrolyte) will be twice as much as that of the solvent in the glucose
solution.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the boiling point elevation of a solution prepared by adding 100 g of

sodium acetate (CH3COONa) to 400 mL of water? The Kb for water is 0.52 C°/m.
(𝜌𝐻2 𝑂=1𝑔/𝑚𝐿 , molar mass of CH3COONa=82.034 g/mol)
Solution:
Given:
mass of solute 100 g NaCH3COO
volume solvent 400 mL H2O
molar mass 82.034 g/mol
Kb 0.52 C˚/m

1 mol CH3 COONa
100 g NaCH3COO x = 1.22 mol CH3COONa
82.034 g CH3 COONa
2. Convert volume of solvent to mass in kilograms

1g 1 kg
400 mL H2O x x = 0.4 kg H2O
mL 1000 g

moles of solute
molality =
kilogram of solvent
1.22 mol CH3 COONa
=
0.400 kg 𝐻2 𝑂
= 3.05 mol / kg or 3.05 m
4. Determine i,
CH3COONa  Na+ + CH3COO-
therefore, i = 2 (2 moles of ions per mole of electrolyte)
5. Determine the boiling point elevation

∆Tb = iKbm
= (2)(0.52 C˚/m)(3.05m)
= 3.172 C˚

6
Vapor Pressure Lowering
- Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapor above the liquid.
- A substance that has high vapor pressure evaporates quickly. This substance is referred
to as volatile substance. Nonvolatile substance, on the other hand, is a substance that
has no tendency to vaporize or sublime under existing conditions.
- When a nonvolatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the solute takes up the space at
the surface decreasing the tendency of the solvent to escape from the liquid phase to its
gaseous phase. This causes the vapor pressure of the liquid to reduce. This is also
known as vapor pressure lowering. Reduction in vapor pressure does not depend on the
nature of the solute but on the concentration of the solute added. Hence, vapor pressure
lowering is considered as a colligative property.
Figure 3. Phase Diagram of Solvent and Solution

Source: Patalinghug, Wyona C., Vic Marie I. Camacho, Fortunato B. Sevilla III, and Maria Cristina D.
Singson. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 1. (Quezon City: Commission on
Higher Education, 2016), 231.
Osmotic Pressure
Time Time
Figure 4. Osmosis
Source: Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry. (Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage
Learning),531.
- Figure 4 shows a solution and pure solvent are separated by a semipermeable

membrane, a membrane that allows certain types of molecules to pass through it but
prohibits the passage of other types of molecules. As time passes, the volume of the
solution increases and that of the solvent decreases.
- This flow of solvent into the solution through the semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis. Eventually the liquid levels stop changing, indicating that the system has
reached equilibrium.

7
Figure 5. A pure solvent and solution
separated by a semipermeable membrane
Source: Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry.

(Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning),531.
- In Figure 5, the solution is separated by a semipermeable membrane. The solvent moves

through the membrane from right to left. This will result to uneven liquid levels in two
sides. Eventually, the pressure difference resulting from uneven heights becomes so
large that the net flow of solvent ceases. The pressure required to prevent osmosis is
known as osmotic pressure of solution.
Applications of Colligative Properties
- Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2), a major ingredient in car antifreeze lowers the freezing point
of water in winter and raises its boiling point in summer.
- Glycerol (C3H8O3), structurally similar to ethylene glycol allows some fish, insects,
housefly to survive during winter by lowering the freezing point of their blood.
- Ice creams sold by street vendors use a mixture of ice and salt. Addition of salt lowers
the freezing point of ice which makes the ice cream colder and faster.
- Some food preparations like atsara, papaya soaked in solution of vinegar, sugar, salt
and water is an example of an osmosis. The high concentration of solute prevents the
growth of bacteria. The bacteria on the food tend to shrivel and die.
- The movement of water from soil into plant roots and then into the upper portions of
the plant is also due in part to osmosis.
Calculate Molar Mass from Colligative Properties Data
- Each colligative property is proportional to solute concentration. By measuring the

freezing point depression and boiling point elevation, we can always work backward to
determine the molar mass of an unknown substance.
Sample Problem:
Suppose a 5.00 g sample of an unknown compound is dissolved in 0.050 kg of

water. The boiling point of the solution is elevated to 4.33 C˚ above the normal boiling
point of pure water. What is the molar mass of the unknown substance? For water, Kb
is 0.52 C˚/m.

8
Given:
mass of solute 5.00 g C2H6O2
mass of solvent 0.050 kg H2O
∆Tb 4.33 C˚
Kb 0.52 C˚/m
1. Using the given information, solve for molality. Rewrite the equation to solve
for molality.
∆Tb = Kbm
∆𝑇
m = 𝑏
𝐾𝑏
4.33 C˚
=
0.52 C˚/m
= 0.83 m or 0.83 mol/kg
2. Molality can be calculated from the number of moles per kilogram of solvent.
Since we already know the value of molality and the number of kilogram of
solvent, the only unknown left is the moles of solute.
moles of solute
molality =
kilogram of solvent
Given:
molality 0.83 mol/kg
mass of solvent 0.050 kg H2O
mole of solute ?
3. Rewrite the equation and solve for the unknown.
mol solute = m x kg solvent

= 0.83 mol/kg x 0.050 kg
= 0.0415 mol
The number of moles of a substance can also be calculated from the mass of
the solute divided by the molar mass of the substance.
mass of solute
moles of solute =
molar mass of solute
4. From this, we can rearrange the equation to get the molar mass of the
unknown substance.
mass of solute
molar mass of solute =
moles of solute
5.00 g
molar mass of solute =
0.0415 mol
= 120 g/mol
Acid-Base Titration
• Acid-Base Titration is a laboratory technique that employs a neutralization reaction.

It is used to determine the concentration of an unknown acid using a base (or vice
versa) with known concentration called a standard solution. The titrant (solution with
known concentration) is gradually added to the analyte (solution with unknown
concentration) until the equivalence point is reached. The equivalence point is the
condition where the reacting acid and base are stoichiometrically equivalent. A
chemical indicator, like phenolphthalein, is used which changes color at the endpoint
of titration.

9
a b c
Before Titration During Titration Equivalence point
Figure 6. Titration of an acid with a base

Source: Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry. (Belmont, CA:
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning),167.
- In Figure 6a, the flask contains the acid solution with a small of phenolphthalein while
the burette contains the titrant which is a base. In Figure 6b, a base is gradually added
(drop by drop) to the acid solution during titration. The indicator changes color but it
disappears during mixing. Figure 6c shows that the equivalence point is reached when
there is a permanent change in color of the solution. The volume of base added is the
difference between the final and initial burette readings.
Sample Titration
Burette
Flask
Figure 7a. Starting conditions before the titration.

10
Figure 7b. NaOH is gradually added to the flask until the
equivalence point is reached.
Figure 7c. These are the conditions when the

equivalence point was reached.

11
Figure 7d. Calculations in determining the concentration of HBr.
Source: “ExploreLearning Gizmos: Math & Science Simulations,” ExploreLearning,

accessed March 1, 2021, https://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?+method=cResource.dsp
View&ResourceID=1045.
Activity 1. Electrolyte or Nonelectrolyte
Objectives:
1. Identify electrolyte from nonelectrolyte.
2. Describe the colligative properties of electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions.
What you need: Pen, Paper and Periodic Table of Elements
What to do: Identify which of the following substances are electrolyte or nonelectrolyte
when mixed with water. Answer the guide questions that follows.
Electrolyte/Nonelectrolyte
Ex: HCl Electrolyte
1. C12H22O11
Sucrose
2. H2SO4
Sulfuric acid
3. HF
Hydrogen fluoride
4. Ba(OH)2
Barium Hydroxide
5. CH3OH
methanol
Guide Questions
1. Which of the following substances are strong electrolytes? weak electrolytes?
2. Which of the following substances listed above will greatly affect the boiling point
of water?
3. Which would decrease more the freezing point of water: salt or sugar? Why?

12
Activity 2. Titration
Objective: Describe how acid-base titrations can be used in determining unknown

concentrations of solutions;
What you need: Pen and paper.
What to do: A sample titration is given. Answer what is asked in every item.
Part A. Before Titration
1. What is the color of the indicator when the equivalence point is reached?
_______________________________________________________________________
2. What is the concentration of the titrant?

_______________________________________________________________________
3. What is the volume of the analyte?

_______________________________________________________________________
4. What does this tell you about the pH of the solution in the flask?
_______________________________________________________________________
5. The balanced equation for the reaction of H2SO4 and KOH is given at bottom right. Based
on this equation, how many moles of KOH react with 1 mole of H2SO4?
_______________________________________________________________________

13
Part B. At Equivalence Point
What to do: A sample titration is given. Complete the table with the necessary
information.
Titrant Analyte
Titrant
Analyte Indicator volume concentration
(M)
(mL) (M)
Activity 3. Solve Me
Objectives:
1. Carry out calculations involving boiling point elevation and freezing point
depression.
2. Use colligative properties to determine molar mass of compounds;
What you need: Pen, Paper, Periodic Table of Elements and Calculator.
What to do: Solve the following problems. Write your solutions in a separate sheet of
paper.
Part A
1. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of the solution when you add 1.00 kg of
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) antifreeze to 4450 g of water in your car’s radiator.
Kb = 0.512C°/m; Kf = 1.86C°/m
2. Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 50.0 g of NaCl in 5000 mL of
water. Kf for water is 1.86 C˚/m
3. Calculate the molar mass of sucrose in a solution prepared by dissolving 4.27 grams
glucose in 50.0 grams water. The solution boils at 100.13 °C which is above the
normal boiling point of pure water. Kb = 0.512C°/m
14
Part B
What to do: Identify the ions present and determine the i in each of the following
compounds.
Compounds Ions van’t Hoff factor (i)

Example Na+ , Cl- 2
1. Ca(NO3)2
2Ca2+ , NO3- 3
Calcium nitrate
2. MgSO4
Mg2+ , SO42- 2
Magnesium sulfate
3. NaOH
Na+ , OH- 2
Sodium hydroxide
4. KBr
K+ , Br- 2
Potassium Bromide
5. AgCl
Ag+ , Cl- 2
Silver Chloride
Reflection
When are colligative properties considered beneficial to life? Write your answers in
a separate sheet of paper. Be guided on the following rubrics.
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
High level of Moderate level of Low level of science No explanation at
science concept science concept concept all.
understanding is understanding is understanding is
apparent in the apparent in the apparent
explanation with explanation with with
no misconceptions. minimal misconceptions.
misconceptions.
References for learners
“ExploreLearning Gizmos: Math & Science Simulations.” ExploreLearning. Accessed

March 1, 2021.
https://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?+method=cResource.dspView&Res
ourceID=1045.
“Freezing Point Depression,” CK-12, 2018, https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-chemistry-

concepts-intermediate/section/16.14/.
Bayquen, Aristea V., and Gardee T. Peña. 2016. General Chemistry 1. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc.

15
LeMay, H. Eugene, Herbert Beall, Karen M. Robblee, and Douglas C. Brower. 2002.
Prentice Hall Chemistry: Connections to Our Changing World. Needham, MA:
Prentice Hall.
Patalinghug, Wyona C., Vic Marie I. Camacho, Fortunato B. Sevilla III, and Maria Cristina
D. Singson. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 1.
Quezon City: Commission on Higher Education.
Silberberg, Martin S., and Amateis, Patricia. 2018. Chemistry: the Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change: Advanced Topics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.
Answer Key
Activity 1.
Electrolyte/Nonelectrolyte
1. C12H22O11 Nonelectrolyte
Sucrose
2. H2SO4 Electrolyte
Sulfuric acid
3. HF Electrolyte
Hydrogen fluoride
4. Ba(OH)2 Electrolyte
Barium Hydroxide
5. CH3OH Nonelectrolyte
methanol
Activity 2.
Part A
1. Blue
2. 0.70 M KOH
3. 100 mL H2SO4
4. The pH is below 6.0.
The initial pH of the solution is 0.9
5. 2 moles of KOH will react with 1 mole of H2SO4
Part B
Titrant Analyte
Titrant
Analyte Indicator volume concentration
(M)
(mL) (M)
Bromothymol
0.70 M KOH H2SO4 30.9 mL 0.108 M
Blue

16
S Activity 3.
Part A
1. Tb,solution = 101.85°C ; Tf,solution = −6.73°C
2. -1.02 °C
3. 342 g/mol
Part B
Compounds Ions van’t Hoff factor (i)
1. Ca(NO3)2
2Ca2+ , NO3- 3
Calcium nitrate
2. MgSO4
Mg2+ , SO42- 2
Magnesium sulfate
3. NaOH
Na+ , OH- 2
Sodium hydroxide
4. KBr
K+ , Br- 2
Potassium Bromide
5. AgCl
Ag+ , Cl- 2
Silver Chloride

17

Quarter 3 – Week 3B: Thermochemistry
First Edition, 2021
Writer Cristobert C. Ayaton

Tita Anunciado
Romeo Villarin
Jesusa Olayan
Jay H. Nicanor
Emely Tragua

Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Myra Joy B. Montero
Management Team Josita B. Carmen, CESO V, Schools Division Superintendent

Jasmin R. Lacuna, CESE, Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Celsa A. Casa, CID Chief
Edna E. Trinidad, EPS - Science
Bryan L. Arreo, LRMDS Manager

Author: CRISTOBERT C. AYATON

School/Station: LIANGA NATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL – LIANGA I DISTRICT
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
1
General Chemistry 2 Grade 11, Quarter 3, Week 3B
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ________________________________
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Most Essential Learning Competencies:

• Explain the first law of thermodynamics (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-124)
• Explain enthalpy of a reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-125)
• Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess’s Law (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-
127)
1. Distinguish exothermic or endothermic reactions associated with chemical changes and their
corresponding energy change;
2. Calculate heat, work and energy change using the first law of thermodynamics;
3. Use the thermochemical equation to interpret reactions and calculate the heat evolved or
absorbed when a given amount of reactant is converted to products;
4. Calculate the heat evolved or absorbed when an object or substance undergoes a known
temperature change; and
5. Calculate the change in enthalpy of a reaction using Hess’s Law.
Key Concepts
❖ Thermodynamics deals with the study of energy and its transformations. (Greek: thérme-,
“heat”; dy’namis, “power”)
❖ Thermochemistry is the branch of thermodynamics that deals with the energy changes
involved in physical and chemical processes.
❖ Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat.
❖ Work is the energy that causes an object to move when a force is applied, and heat is the energy
used to cause the temperature of an object to increase.
Forms of Energy
1
A. Kinetic energy – the energy of motion; 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.
2
1. Thermal energy – energy formed as a result of collision of atoms or molecules
2. Electrical energy – energy associated with the flow of electrons
B. Potential energy – the stored energy or energy possessed by an object due to position
relative to other objects; 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
1. Radiant energy or solar energy – energy that comes from the sun and the Earth’s
primary source of energy
2. Chemical energy – energy stored within the molecules as a result of attraction between
electrons and atomic nuclei
3. Nuclear energy – energy stored within the collection of neutrons and protons in an atom
➢ The SI unit for energy is the unit joule (pronounced as “jool”), J, in honor of James Joule
(1818-1889), a British scientist who investigated work and heat.
1 J = 1 kg·m2/s2; 1 kJ = 1,000 J

2
➢ Another unit for energy is calorie, cal. It was originally defined as the energy required by 1 g
of water to raise its temperature by 1°C. Now, a calorie can be defined in terms of its
relationship with the unit joule:
1 cal = 4.184 J (exactly) or 1 J = (1 cal)/4.184 = 0.239 cal
➢ Nutritional Calorie (note the capital C), Cal, is a unit of energy used in nutrition.
1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1,000 cal
A. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
❖ The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can
only be transformed from one form to another. This is also called the law of conservation of
energy.
➢ The total energy of the universe is constant but energy can be transferred between system
and its surroundings.
Universe = System + Surroundings
ΔEuniverse = ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings = 0 (Law of Conservation of Energy)
❖ System refers to the portion of the universe that we are interested in or is being studied, like
the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. Everything else that is not part of the system
is called surroundings, like the container and the environment around the chemicals in a
chemical reaction. A boundary layer separates the system from its surroundings.
Types of system
1. Open system – allows the exchange of both energy and mass

2. Closed system – allows the exchange of energy but not mass
3. Isolated system – allows neither energy nor mass to be exchanged
Figure 1. Three systems represented by water in a

flask. (a) an open system; (b) a closed system; and (c) an
isolated system
Image source: Loquere, Christina Y. 2016. Teaching

Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 2.
Ampayon, Butuan City: Caraga State University.
Chemistry Division. p. 3
❖ Internal energy (E) of the system is the sum of all the kinetic and potential energies of the
components of the system; it is the total energy stored in a system.

3
➢ Consider a system which has an initial internal energy, Einitial, then undergoes a change which
might involve a work done or heat being transferred. After a change, the final internal energy
of the system is Efinal. The change in internal energy, denoted ΔE (read “delta E”), can be
defined as the difference between Efinal and Einitial:
ΔE = Efinal – Einitial
(+) ΔE: Efinal > Einitial, indicates that the system gains energy from its surroundings
(-) ΔE: Efinal < Einitial, indicates that the system loses energy to its surroundings
*Note that any increase in the energy of the system is accompanied by a decrease in the
energy of its surroundings, and vice versa.
➢ Generally, actual values of Efinal & Einitial cannot be measured because several interactions are
involved, but changes in internal energy can be measured experimentally applying the 1 st law
of thermodynamics.
Relating ΔE to Heat and Work
❖ The First Law of Thermodynamics can be represented mathematically as

ΔE = q + w
where q is the heat “added to” or “liberated from” the system, and w is the work done “into” or “by”
the system.
❖ Heat, q, is the energy transferred between system and its surroundings as a result of a
difference in their temperatures only. Heat always flows from hotter to cooler objects.
❖ Work, w, is the energy involved when a body is moved through a distance, d, against some
force, f: 𝑤 = 𝑓 × 𝑑.
➢ Expansion or compression of gases involves a form of work that is called pressure–volume

work (P–V work). When pressure does not change (or constant) in a process, the sign and
magnitude of the pressure–volume work are given by:
𝑤 = −𝑃∆𝑉
where P = pressure (constant) and ΔV = Vfinal – Vinitial is the change in volume of the system.
➢ The units for work obtained using the above equation will be those of pressure (usually atm,
short for “atmosphere”) multiplied by those of volume (usually L). The relationship between
L-atm and J is given by:
1 L-atm = 101.325 J
Sign Conventions for q, w, and ΔE:
For q: (+) means the system gains heat; (-) means the system loses heat
For w: (+) means work is done on the system; (-) means work is done by the system
For ΔE: (+) means net gain of energy by the system; (-) means net loss of energy by the system

4
Sample Problem 1: Two gases, A(g) and B(g), are confined in a cylinder-and-piston arrangement.
Substances A and B react to form a solid product C(s): A(g) + B(g) → C(s). As the reaction proceeds,
the system releases 1,150 J of heat to the surroundings. The piston moves downward as the gases
react to form a solid product. As the volume of the gas decreases under the constant pressure of
the atmosphere, the surroundings do a 480 J of work on the system. What is the change in the
internal energy of the system?
Strategy and Answer: The problem asks ΔE, given q and w. Heat is released by the system to the
surroundings, and work is done on the system by the surroundings, so q is negative and w is
positive: q = -1,150 J and w = 480 J. Thus,
ΔE = q + w = (-1,150 J) + (480 J) = -670 J.
The negative value of ΔE tells us that a net quantity of 670 J has been transferred from the system
to the surroundings.
Sample Problem 2: A gas is allowed to expand at constant temperature from a volume of 10.0 L
to 20.0 L against external pressure of 1.0 atm. If the gas also absorbs 250 J of heat from the
surroundings, what are the values of q, w, and ΔE?
Strategy and Answer: The work done by the system is

w = -PΔV = -1.0 atm (20.0 L – 10.0 L) = -10.0 L-atm = -1,013.25 J
The amount of heat added to the system is 250 J,
q = 250 J
Therefore, ΔE = q + w = 250 J + (-1,013.25 J) = -763.25 J.
Endothermic and Exothermic Processes
❖ Exothermic – a process where heat is released from the system to the surroundings; q < 0
Examples: Freezing of water, combustion of gasoline
❖ Endothermic – a process where heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings; q > 0
Examples: Melting of ice, boiling of water
Figure 2. Exothermic and endothermic process.
(a) During an exothermic reaction the reaction
mixture and surroundings warm up. (b) During an
endothermic reaction the reaction mixture and
surroundings cool down.
Image source: Loquere, Christina Y. 2016.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2. Ampayon, Butuan City: Caraga State
University. Chemistry Division. p. 4
(a) (b)
State Function
❖ A state function depends only on the current state of the system, not on the path taken
by the system to arrive at that state.
❖ Internal energy, for example, is a state function; a property of a system that is determined
by specifying the system’s condition, or state (in terms of temperature, pressure, and so

5
forth). E is a state function, thus, ∆E depends only on the initial and final states of the
system and not on how the change occurs.
Figure 3. Internal energy, E, as a state function. Cool water that cools down and ice
cubes that warm up, both arriving at the same state, depict E as a state function.
Image source: Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., & Woodward,
P. M. (2012). Chemistry: The Central Science. (13th ed.) Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 174
B. ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPIES OF REACTION
❖ Enthalpy, H, is defined as the internal energy plus the product of pressure, P, and volume, V,
of the system. (From the Greek enthalpein, “to warm”). It is the amount of energy in the system
capable of doing mechanical work.
𝐻 = 𝐸 + 𝑃𝑉
➢ Like E, both P and V are state functions – they depend only on the current state of the system
and not on the path taken to that state. Because of that, H is also a state function.
❖ When the change occurs at constant pressure, enthalpy change, ΔH, is given by the
relationship
∆𝐻 = ∆(𝐸 + 𝑃𝑉) = ∆𝐸 + 𝑃∆𝑉 (constant pressure)
➢ Recall that ∆E = q + w and that the work involved in the expansion or compression of a gas
is w = -P∆V (at constant pressure). Substituting q + w for ∆E and -P∆V for w into the equation
above, we have
∆𝐻 = ∆𝐸 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = (𝑞𝑃 + 𝑤) + 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑞𝑃 − 𝑃∆𝑉 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑞𝑃
∆𝐻 = 𝑞𝑃
The subscript P on q means “pressure,” indicating that the process occurs at constant
pressure. Thus, the change in enthalpy is equal to the heat qP , either gained or lost, at constant
pressure.
For ΔH:
(+) (that is, when qP is positive) means the system has gained heat from the surroundings; the
process is said to be endothermic.
(-) (that is, when qP is negative) means the system has released heat to the surroundings; the
process is said to be exothermic.
❖ The enthalpy change that accompanies a chemical reaction is called either the enthalpy of
reaction or the heat of reaction and is sometimes written ΔHrxn, where “rxn” is a commonly
used abbreviation for “reaction.” Because ΔH = Hfinal – Hinitial, the enthalpy change for a chemical
reaction is given by
∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

6
(+) ΔH means Hproducts is greater than that of Hreactants.
(-) ΔH means Hreactants is greater than that of Hproducts.
➢ In giving numerical value for ΔHrxn, the reaction involved must be specified. For example,
when 2 mol of H2(g) burns to form 2 mol of H2O(g) at a constant pressure, the system releases
483.6 kJ of heat. This information can be summarized as
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g) ΔH = -483.6 kJ
Balanced chemical equations that show the associated enthalpy of reaction in this way are
called thermochemical equations.
➢ Characteristics of enthalpy and guidelines in using thermochemical equations:
1. Enthalpy is an extensive property. The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional to the

amount of reactant consumed in the process. Changing the stoichiometric coefficient in the
chemical equation also changes the value of enthalpy of reaction (ΔH) proportionally. For
example, 890 kJ of heat is produced when 1 mol of CH4(g) is burned in a constant-
pressure system:
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -890 kJ
The combustion of 2 mol of CH4(g) with 4 mol of O2(g) releases twice as much heat, 1,780
kJ.
2 CH4(g) + 4 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g) ΔH = -1,780 kJ
2. The enthalpy change for a reaction is equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, to ΔH for
the reverse reaction.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g) ΔH = -483.6 kJ (exothermic)
2 H2O(g) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g) ΔH = +483.6 kJ (endothermic)
3. The enthalpy change for a reaction depends on the states of the reactants and products.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -890 kJ
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ΔH = -802 kJ
Less heat would be available for transfer to the surroundings because the enthalpy of
H2O(g) is greater than that of H2O(l). One way to see this is to imagine that the product is
initially liquid water. The liquid water must be converted to water vapor, and the
conversion of 2 mol H2O(l) to 2 mol H2O(g) is an endothermic process that absorbs 88 kJ:
2 H2O(l) → 2 H2O(g) ΔH = +88 kJ
Sample Problem 1: The complete combustion of acetic acid, CH3COOH(l), to form H2O(l) and
CO2(g) at constant pressure releases 871.7 kJ of heat per mole of CH3COOH. Write a balanced
thermochemical equation for this reaction.
Strategy and Answer: Write the chemical equation. We know that the reactants are CH 3COOH
and O2 (since the reaction is combustion) and the products are H 2O and CO2. Then balance the
equation and indicate the heat released. Since heat is released, ΔH is negative. So, the answer is
CH3COOH(l) + 2O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g) ΔH = - 871.7 kJ

7
Sample Problem 2: Consider the following reaction, which occurs at room temperature and
pressure:
2Cl(g) → Cl2(g) ΔH = -243.4 kJ
Which has the higher enthalpy under these conditions, 2Cl(g) or Cl2(g)?
Strategy and Answer: With negative ΔH, we can say that it is exothermic. For exothermic reaction,
the Hreactants is greater than the Hproducts. So, 2Cl has the higher enthalpy.
Sample Problem 3: The thermochemical equation for the combustion of propane is:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) ΔHrxn = -2220 kJ
a. How many kJ of heat (q) are released when 0.50 mole of propane reacts?
b. How much heat is released when 88.2 g of propane reacts?
Strategy and Answer: The heat released by an exothermic reaction is an extensive property.
Therefore, q depends on the amount of propane consumed. The equation indicates that 2220 kJ
of heat is evolved per mole of propane burned. The conversion factor is:
−2220 kJ
1 mol C3 H8
Calculations
kJ −2220 kJ
(a) q = mol C3H8 × = 0.50 mol C3H8 × = -1,110 kJ
mol C3 H8 1 mol C3 H8
(b) Since we know the heat of reaction per mole, we should first convert the number of grams
of C3H8 to moles.
1 mol C3 H8 −2220 kJ
q = 88.2 g C3H8 × × = -4,440 kJ
44.1 g C3 H8 1 mol C3 H8
C. CALORIMETRY
❖ Calorimetry is an experimental technique that determines the energy change associated with
a physical or chemical process; temperature change is observed when a system absorbs or
releases energy in the form of heat. Simply, calorimetry is the measurement of heat flow.
❖ Calorimeter is a device for measuring the heat absorbed or released by a physical or chemical
process.
Heat Capacity, Molar Heat Capacity, and Specific Heat Capacity
Heat capacity, C, of an object is the amount of heat required to raise its temperature by 1K (or
1°C). The greater the heat capacity of an object, the greater the heat is required to increase its
temperature. Units for C: J/K or J/°C
*Note that ΔT in K = ΔT in °C.
For pure substances the heat capacity is usually given for a specified amount of substance, in
mole or in gram.
Molar heat capacity, Cm, is the heat capacity of one mole of a substance. Units for Cm: J/mol·K
or J/mol·°C
Specific heat capacity (or simply specific heat), Cs, is the heat capacity of one gram of a
substance. Units of Cs: J/g·K or J/g·°C

8
The quantity of heat that flow in or out of a substance is
𝑞 = 𝐶∆𝑇
where C = heat capacity, ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial = change in temperature.
In terms of specific heat capacity, the formula above becomes
𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑠 ∆𝑇
where m = mass of the substance, Cs = specific heat capacity, and ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial = change in
temperature.
Two common types of calorimeters
1. Constant-pressure calorimeter – the “coffee-cup” calorimeter

➢ Often used to measure heat transferred in processes open to the atmosphere (qp).
➢ Commonly used to find the specific heat capacity of solids that do not react with or
dissolve in water.
Figure 4. Coffee-cup calorimeter. A constant-pressure calorimeter made of two

Styrofoam coffee cups. The outer cup helps to insulate the reacting mixture from
the surroundings. Two solutions, both at the same temperature, with known
volume containing the reactants are carefully mixed in the calorimeter. The heat
generated or absorbed by the reaction can be determined by measuring the
change in temperature.
Image source: Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., &
Woodward, P. M. (2012). Chemistry: The Central Science. (13th ed.) Pearson
Prentice Hall. p. 183
In finding the specific heat of a substance, the following relationship can be used:
qlost + qgained = 0
qlost = -qgained
Sample Problem 1: A 150.0 g of metal is heated to 78.4 °C. The metal is placed in 100.0 g H2O at
25.0 °C. The final temperature of the mixture is 33.43 °C. What is the specific heat of the metal?
For H2O, Cs = 4.184 J/g·°C.
Strategy and Answer: We will use the relationship qmetal = -qwater.
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝛥𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝛥𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐽
− 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝛥𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 −(100.0 𝑔 )(4.184 𝑔 · ℃)(33.43℃ − 25.0℃)
𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝛥𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 (150.0 𝑔)(33.43℃ − 78.4℃)
𝐽
𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.523
𝑔∙℃
For solutions: 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = ∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝐶𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = −𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛

For dilute solutions, Csoln = Cwater = 4.184 J/g·K

9
➢ If we assume that the calorimeter perfectly prevents the gain or loss of heat from the solution
to its surroundings, the heat gained by the solution must be produced from the chemical
reaction under study. That means, the heat generated by the reaction, qrxn, is entirely
absorbed by the solution. In an exothermic reaction, heat is “lost” by the reaction and
“gained” by the solution, so the temperature of the solution rises. The opposite is true for an
endothermic reaction. Therefore, the heat gained by the solution, qsoln, is equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign from qrxn.
➢ A reaction that involves solutes occurs in the solution and liberates heat that is absorbed by
the solution (which is mostly water), the stirrer, the thermometer, and the container walls.
These later three parts constitute the calorimeter, and so
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = −(𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑞𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )
Sample Problem 2: When a student mixes 50 mL of 1.0 M HCl and 50 mL of 1.0 M NaOH in a
coffee-cup calorimeter, the temperature of the resultant solution increases from 21.0°C to 27.5°C.
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction in kJ/mol HCl, assuming that the calorimeter loses
only a negligible quantity of heat, that the total volume of the solution is 100 mL, that its density
is 1.0 g/mL, and that its specific heat is 4.184 J/g.K.
Strategy and Answer: Because the total volume of the solution is 100 mL, its mass is
msoln = (100 mL) (1.0 g/mL) = 100 g
The temperature change, ΔT = 27.5OC – 21.0°C = 6.5°C = 6.5 K.
Since the temperature increases, the reaction must be exothermic:
𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = − 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝐶𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 𝛥𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = − (100 𝑔) (4.18 𝐽/𝑔 ∙ 𝐾) (6.5 𝐾) = − 2,700 𝐽 = − 2.7 𝑘𝐽
Because the process occurs at constant pressure, ΔH = q p = -2.7 kJ. To put the enthalpy change
on a molar basis, we use the fact that the number of moles of HCl is given by the product of the
respective solution volumes (50 mL = 0.050 L) and concentrations:
mol HCl = (0.050 L) (1.0 mol/L) = 0.050 mol
Thus, the enthalpy change per mole of HCl is
ΔH = -2.7 kJ / 0.050 mol = -54 kJ/mol HCl
2. Constant-volume calorimeter – the “bomb” calorimeter

➢ Designed to measure very precisely the heat released in a combustion reaction.
➢ The stainless steel “bomb” is loaded with a small amount of substance and O 2 at 30 atm of
pressure, and is immersed in a calorimeter which is essentially an insulated container of
known amount of water. The combustion reaction is initiated by passing an electrical
current through a fine wire that is in contact with the sample. When the wire gets
sufficiently hot, the sample ignites. The heat evolved during combustion is absorbed by the
water and the calorimeter assembly (bomb and contents, can, thermometer, etc.).
Measurements of ΔT of the water and calorimeter are related to the heat evolved by the
reaction q and to ΔH.
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝛥𝐻 = − 𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛

10
Figure 5. Bomb calorimeter. A constant-volume bomb calorimeter is filled
with oxygen gas before it is placed in the bucket. The sample is ignited
electrically, and the heat produced can be accurately determined by measuring
the increase in temperature in the known amount of surrounding water.
Image source: Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., &
Woodward, P. M. (2012). Chemistry: The Central Science. (13th ed.) Pearson
Prentice Hall. p. 83
➢ To calculate the heat of combustion from the measured temperature increase in the bomb
calorimeter, it is necessary to know the heat capacity of the calorimeter, C cal. Once we know
the value of Ccal, we can measure the temperature changes produced by other reactions, and
from these we can calculate the heat evolved in the reaction, q rxn:
𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = − 𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 × 𝛥𝑇
Sample Problem 3: A chemist places one serving of dessert in a bomb calorimeter and burns it in
O2 (heat capacity of the calorimeter = 8.151 kJ/K). The temperature increases by 4.937 K.
Calculate the heat gained by the calorimeter.
Answer:
𝑘𝐽
𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 × ∆𝑇 = 8.151 (4.937 𝐾) = 40.24 𝑘𝐽
𝐾
Sample Problem 4: Methylhydrazine, CH6N2, is commonly used as a liquid rocket fuel. The
combustion of methylhydrazine with oxygen produces N 2(g), CO2(g), and H2O(g):
2CH6N2(l) + 5O2(g) → 2N2(g) + 2CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
When 4.00 g of methylhydrazine is combusted in a bomb calorimeter, the temperature of the

calorimeter increases from 25.00°C to 39.50°C. In a separate experiment, the heat capacity of the
calorimeter is measured to be 7.794 kJ/°C. What is the heat of reaction for the combustion of a
mole of CH6N2 in this calorimeter?
Strategy and Answer: We will first calculate the heat evolved for the combustion of the 4.00 g
sample. We will then convert this heat to a molar quantity. For combustion of the 4.00 g sample
of methylhydrazine, the temperature change of the calorimeter is
∆𝑇 = (39.50℃ − 25.00℃) = 14.50℃
We can use this value and the value for C cal to calculate the heat of reaction:
𝑘𝐽
𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = −𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 × ∆𝑇 = −7.794 (14.50℃) = −113.0 𝑘𝐽
℃
We can readily convert this value to the heat of reaction for a mole of CH6N2:

11
−113.0 kJ 46.1 g CH6 N2 𝑘𝐽
( ) × ( ) = −1.30 × 103 𝐶𝐻6 𝑁2
4.00 g CH6 N2 1 mol CH6 N2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
D. Hess’s Law
It is often possible to calculate the ∆H for a reaction from the tabulated ∆H values of other
reactions. Thus, it is not necessary to make calorimetric measurements for all reactions.
As an example, combustion of methane gas, CH 4(g), to form CO2(g) and H2O(l) can be thought of
as occurring in two steps: (1) combustion of CH4(g) to form CO2(g) and H2O(g) and (2) condensation
of H2O(g) to form H2O(l). The enthalpy change for the overall process is the sum of the enthalpy
changes for these two steps:
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ΔH = -802 kJ

(Add) 2 H2O(g) → 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -88 kJ
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) + 2 H2O(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -890 kJ
The net equation is: CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -890 kJ
❖ Hess’s law states that if a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, then the ∆H for the overall
reaction must be the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.
➢ The overall enthalpy change for the process is independent of the number of steps and
independent of the path by which the reaction is carried out. This law is a consequence of
the fact that enthalpy is a state function. Therefore, ∆H for any process can be calculated as
long as we find a way for which ∆H is known for each step.
Sample Problem 1: Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction
S(s) + H2(g) → H2S(g) ΔH = ?
Strategy and Answer: The reaction enthalpies of the following reactions involving sulfur and
hydrogen are known from combustion bomb calorimetry:
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔH = -296.1 kJ

H2(g) + ½O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔH = -285.8 kJ
H2S(g) + 3/2O2(g) → SO2(g) + H2O(l) ΔH = -561.7 kJ
These equations can be arranged so that their sum is the formation reaction of hydrogen sulfide.
The first one is unchanged: S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)

The second one is unchanged: H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l)
The third one is changed: SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2S(g) + 3/2 O2(g)
Their sum is the overall equation: S(s) + 3/2 O2(g) + H2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l) → SO2(g) + H2O(l) + H2S(g) + 3/2 O2(g)
The net equation is: S(s) + H2(g) → H2S(g) ΔH = ?
We must reverse the sign of the enthalpy change of the third reaction before summing the enthalpy
changes.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔH = -296.1 kJ

12
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔH = -285.8 kJ
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2S(g) + 3/2 O2(g) ΔH = 561.7 kJ
S(s) + H2(g) → H2S(g) ΔH = - 20.2 kJ
Sample Problem 2: The standard enthalpy change for the combustion of 1 mole of ethanol is:
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH = -1367 kJ
What is ΔH for the following reaction in which H2O is formed as a gas, rather than as a liquid?
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) ΔH = ?
Given the heat of vaporization of water
H2O(l) → H2O(g) ΔHvap = 44 kJ
Strategy and Answer: We can imagine a two-step path for this reaction. In the first step, ethanol
undergoes combustion to form liquid H2O, followed by the second step in which H2O(l) is vaporized.
In the second step, the value of ΔHvap is tripled since the stoichiometric coefficient is tripled. The
sum of the two steps gives the desired overall reaction, and according to Hess’s law the sum of the
ΔH’s gives the overall ΔH.
C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH = -1367 kJ

3 H2O(l) → 3 H2O(g) ΔHvap = 132 kJ
C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) + 3 H2O(l) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l) + 3 H2O(g) ΔH = -1,235 kJ
The net equation is

C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g) ΔH = -1,235 kJ
Activity 1. Warm up your mind!
Learning objectives:
1. Distinguish exothermic or endothermic reactions associated with chemical changes and their
corresponding energy change;
2. Use the thermochemical equation to interpret reactions and calculate the heat evolved or
absorbed when a given amount of reactant is converted to products;
3. Calculate the heat evolved or absorbed when an object or substance undergoes a known
temperature change; and
What you need: Paper, pen, calculator

What to do: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. A chemical reaction that gives off heat to its surroundings is said to be ____________ and has
a ____________ value of ΔH.
a. endothermic, positive c. exothermic, positive
b. endothermic, negative d. exothermic, negative
2. Which of the following processes is endothermic?

13
a. O2(g) + 2 H2(g) → 2 H2O(g) c. 3 O2 (g) + 2 CH3OH (g) → 2 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
b. H2O(g) → H2O(l) d. H2O(s) → H2O(l)
3. A 500—g iron rod is cooled from 90°C to 30°C. How much is the amount of heat released
by the metal? Specific heat of iron = 0.451 J/g·C°
a. 1.35 kJ b. 75.1 kJ c. 13.5 kJ d. 751 kJ
4. The thermochemical equation showing the formation of ammonia (NH 3) from its elements
is:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) —> 2 NH3 (g) ΔH = -92 kJ
This equation shows that 92 kJ of heat is:

a. Absorbed from the surroundings when one mole of nitrogen reacts.
b. Absorbed from the surroundings when one mole of ammonia is formed.
c. Lost to the surroundings when one mole of hydrogen is used up in the reaction.
d. Lost to the surroundings when three moles of hydrogen are used up in the reaction.
5. An oxyacetylene torch is a tool that mixes and burns oxygen and acetylene to produce an
extremely hot flame. This tool is used to cut steel or weld iron and other metals. The
temperature of the film can reach 3,480°C. The burning of acetylene is given by the
thermochemical equation:
C2H2 (g) + 3/2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ΔH = - 1301.1 kJ
What is the ΔH for the reaction below?
2 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 C2H2(g) + 3 O2(g)
a. ΔH = 1301.1 kJ c. ΔH = 2602.2 kJ
b. ΔH = - 1301.1 kJ d. ΔH = - 2602.2 kJ
Activity 2 – Energize your mind!
Learning objectives:
1. Calculate heat, work and energy change using the first law of thermodynamics;
2. Use the thermochemical equation to calculate the heat evolved or absorbed when a given
amount of reactant is converted to products;

What to do: Answer as directed. Show your solution for necessary calculations. Write your
1. A gas is confined to a cylinder under constant atmospheric pressure. When 0.49 kJ of heat
is added to the gas, it expands and does 214 J of work on the surroundings. What are the
values of ΔH and ΔE for this process?
2. Calcium carbide, CaC2, is the raw material for the production of acetylene (used in welding
torches). Calcium carbide is produced by reacting calcium oxide with carbon. Carbon
monoxide is also produced in this reaction. When one mole of calcium carbide is formed,
464.8 kJ is absorbed.
Supply the needed answer for the following:

14
(a) Write a thermochemical equation for this reaction.
(b) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
(c) What is ΔH when 1.00 g of CaC2(s) is formed?
(d) How many grams of carbon must react to produce 3.03x10 3 kJ of heat?
3. Calculate ΔH for the decomposition of one mole of acetylene to its elements in their stable
state at 25°C and 1 atm:
C2H2(g) → 2C(s) + H2(g)
Given thermochemical equations:
C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + H2O(l) ΔH = -1299.6 kJ

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔH = -393.5 kJ
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔH = -285.8 kJ
Reflection: Cite at least three situations relating to thermodynamics and thermochemistry in the
context of your real-life day-to-day living. Write your responses on a separate sheet. Be guided
with the following rubric:
Reflection Rubric
3 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the
concepts, and has no misconception.
concept, but with minimal misconception.
1 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts, but
with misconceptions.
0 No discussion provided.

Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B., Jusayan, Shirley R., Macale, Aphrodite M., Sabularse, Veronica C.,
and San Pascual, Joseph Carmelo K. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2. Quezon City: Commission on Higher Education.
Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., & Woodward, P. M. (2012). Chemistry:
The Central Science. (13th ed.) Pearson Prentice Hall.
Loquere, Christina Y. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 2. Ampayon,
Butuan City: Caraga State University. Chemistry Division.
Answer Key
Activity 1
1. d; 2. d; 3. c; 4. d; 5. c
Activity 2 – Solve me!
1. ΔH = 0.49 kJ, ΔE = 0.28 kJ

2. a. CaO(s) + 3C(s) → CaC2(s) + CO(g) ΔH = +464.8 kJ;
b. endothermic c. +7.26 kJ d. 235 g
3. ΔH = -226.8, exothermic

15

Quarter 3 – Week 4: Chemical Kinetics
First Edition, 2021
Writer Ryan Paul M. Vales

Emely Tragua
Jesusa C. Olayon
Jay H. Nicanor
Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

Division Team Myra Joy B. Montero
Pamela Lou C. Suazo


Author: Ryan Paul M. Vales

School/Station: Tagbina National High School
Division: Surigao del Sur
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 4
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
 Most Essential Learning Competencies:

- Describe how various factors influence the rate of reaction (STEM_GC11CKIIIi-j-130)
- Differentiate zero-, first-, and second-order reactions (STEM_GC11CKIIIi-j-132)
- Explain reactions qualitatively in terms of molecular collisions (STEM_GC11CKIIIi-j-136)
- Explain activation energy and how a catalyst affects the reaction rate
(STEM_GC11CKIIIi-j-137)
- Cite and differentiate the types of catalysts (STEM_GC11CKIIIi-j-138)
 Specific Learning Objectives:
1. Define rate of reaction.
2. Explain reactions qualitatively using molecular collisions.
3. Describe how each factor can affect the rate of reaction.
4. Explain activation energy and how a catalyst affects the reaction rate.
5. Cite and differentiate the types of catalysts.
6. Explain the form and function of a rate law.
7. Use rate laws to calculate reaction rates.
8. Use rate and concentration data to identify reaction orders (zero-, first-, and
second-order reactions) and derive rate laws.
Key Concepts
A. Rate of Reaction
 Chemical kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical reactions, as well as the mechanism
by which a reaction occurs and the different factors that influence it.
 Several chemical reactions occur in daily life --- fruits ripen, leaves change colors from green
to brown, food gets spoiled, gasoline burns, iron rusts, among others. These chemical
reactions proceed in a given amount of time. The reactants disappear and new
substances/products are formed. The change from reactants to products takes place at
different length of time depending on the reaction. It could be slow, moderately fast, or a
very fast reaction.
 The rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in the concentration of reactant or
mol/L
product per change in time. It is expressed in molar per second or M/s (It can also be ).
s
The concentration of a reactant or product is represented in square brackets [ ]. For this
hypothetical chemical equation
aA + bB  cC + dD
the rate of reaction can be expressed as
1 ∆[A] 1 ∆[B] 1 ∆[C] 1 ∆[D]
rate = −
( )= − ( ) = ( ) = ( )
𝑎 ∆t 𝑏 ∆t 𝑐 ∆t 𝑑 ∆t
By convention, a negative sign is attached on the change in the concentration of the
reactants considering that the concentration of the reactants decreases as the reaction
proceeds. With this convention, the positive sign for the rate is maintained.
Author: Ryan Paul M. Vales 1

 Consider the balanced equation for the decomposition of nitrous oxide (N 2O) into nitrogen
gas and oxygen gas
catalyst
2N2O(g) 2N2(g) + O2(g)
The rate of this reaction may be expressed in terms of the change in concentration of N 2O,
N2, or O2 as
1 ∆[N2 O] 1 ∆[N2 ] ∆[O2 ]
rate = − ( )= ( ) = ( )
2 ∆t 2 ∆t ∆t
The rate expression shows the relative speed at which the concentration of one species
changes with respect to that of another species. In the example, the rate expression
indicates that the formation of N2 is the same as fast as the decomposition of N2O and is
twice as fast as the formation of O2.
B. The Reaction Process

 A balanced chemical equation does not show the actual details in a chemical reaction. The
reaction is not a single-step reaction but occurs in a series of steps. Breaking of bonds and
rearrangement of molecules take place during the course of the reaction. The reaction
process can be explained in terms of the Collision Theory and the Transition State Theory.
 Collision Theory
 Chemists have proposed a model known as the Collision Theory to explain why a
reaction occurs. Consider the given hypothetical reaction shown below:
A2 + B2  2AB
In order for the reaction above to take place, the molecules of A2 must collide with
the molecules of B2. Once the A2 comes in contact with B2, a short-lived molecule
A2B2 is formed. The bonds of A2 and B2 are destroyed and new bonds are formed. The
rearrangement of bonds of the starting molecules will cause the formation of a new
substance AB. In a container filled with the substance A2 and B2 initially, no AB is
present. Then, molecular collisions proceed and AB is formed.
A2 + B2  A2B2  2AB
However, not all collisions of A2 and B2 form a product. Only effective collisions will
result to the formation of a product. For an effective collision to occur, there must be
a proper orientation of the reactants during collision. If the collision is ineffective like
what is shown in Figure 1, products are not formed.
Figure 1. The collision of the diatomic molecules A2 and B2 shown here is

an ineffective collision. No new substance is formed.
Figure 2. An effective collision that shows the formation of products.

There is proper orientation of the reactants during collision.


It can be deduced from the Collision Theory that the greater the number of collisions,
the greater the chances of effective collisions, and the greater the amount of products
per unit time. Therefore, the greater the number of molecular collisions, the faster
the reaction rate.
 Transition State Theory
 Sufficient energy is required for effective collisions to occur. The energy comes from
the kinetic energy of the reacting molecules.
 Consider the reaction below:
A2 + B2 A2B2 2AB
Activated Complex
(Transition State)
The formation of A2B2 is crucial since it determines whether the reaction proceeds.
The A2B2 is called a transition state (activated complex) and it determines how fast
the reaction will occur. It is a short-lived molecule and, therefore, very unstable
because from the top, it rolls down immediately to form the product AB. It possesses
high energy and is the rate-determining step in a reaction.
 Activation energy is the energy needed for the formation of the activated complex
and for the reaction to occur. The activation energy represents the minimum amount
of energy that is needed in a chemical reaction in order to transform reactants into
products. The value of the activation energy is equivalent to the difference in potential
energy between particles in the transition state and particles of reactants in their
initial state. The activation energy thus can be visualized as a barrier that must be
overcome by reactants before products can be formed.
 Figure 3 illustrates the energy diagram of endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Energy diagram is used to show changes in energy that occur during chemical
reactions. The difference of the energy of the reactants and the products is
mathematically expressed as:
∆E = energy of the product - energy of the reactants
Figure 3. Energy diagram of endothermic and exothermic reactions

Source: CK-12 Foundation, “Chemical Reactions and Energy,” CK-12, 2014, https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-
12-physical-science-for-middle-school/section/8.4/.
In figure 3A, the energy of the products is greater than the energy of the reactants,
∆E is positive which indicates endothermic reaction. This type of reaction absorbs
energy for the reaction to occur.

In figure 3B, the energy of the reactants is higher than the energy of the products
and ∆E comes out to be negative. If ∆E is negative, the reaction is an exothermic
reaction which means that the reaction releases energy.
Slow reactions have high activation energies. Fast reactions have relatively low
activation energies. An endothermic reaction always has a greater activation energy
and a slower rate than the opposing exothermic reaction.
C. Factors Affecting Reaction Rate

 The reaction rate sometimes proceeds slowly, moderately slow, or quite fast. Reaction rate
is influenced by several factors, namely (1) nature of reactants, (2) surface area, (3)
temperature, (4) concentration, and (5) catalysts.
 Nature of Reactants
 Since bonds are broken and rearranged during a chemical reaction, the reaction rate
depends on the complexity of the bonds to be broken. The more complex the bonds
to be destroyed, the slower the rate of reaction. On the other hand, if the bonds are
simple, the reactions will occur faster. For instance, the reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen to form water occurs explosively and very rapidly because the bonds of
hydrogen and oxygen are simple, whereas the formation of polyester is a slow
reaction because the polymer is produced by complex alternating combination of
terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.
 The state of reactant also affects the rate of reaction. The reaction between two gases
would occur faster than the reaction between two liquids. The reaction between two
liquids would occur faster than the reaction between two solids. A reaction that has
the same state of matter for all the reactants is called a homogeneous reaction. If the
reactants are in different states, then the reaction is called a heterogeneous reaction.
 Surface Area
 An increased surface area of solids in heterogeneous reaction indicates that more
reactant particles are exposed. The greater the exposure of reactant particles, the
greater the chances for more frequent collisions. Since reaction rate occurs faster
with an increase in the number of collisions, then an increase in surface area will
consequently increase the rate of reaction.
Figure 4. Surface area and reaction rate

Source: “Factors That Affect Rate of
Reaction.” Good Science, October 1, 2020.
https://www.goodscience.com.au/year-10-
chemistry/factors-that-affect-rate-of-
reaction/.
 Temperature
 An increase in temperature leads to an increase in the rate of reaction. With high
temperature, reactant particles move faster and have more energy. An increase in the
movement of reactant particles results to more frequent collisions. An increase in the
energy of reactant particles entails greater proportion of successful collisions – that is,

collisions will more likely involve sufficient energy to break bonds. This will consequently
increase the rate of reaction.
 The rule of thumb by chemists is that for every 10⁰C increase in temperature, the rate
of reaction approximately doubles or triples.
 Common real-life application of this concept is our use of refrigerator/freezer for food
storage as this avoids rapid food spoilage since at lower temperatures, the reaction rate
is slower.
 Concentration
 The reaction rate was earlier defined as the change in the concentration of reactants or
products per unit time. For this reason, concentration has great effect on the reaction
rate. Consider this reaction:
A2 + B2 A2B2 2AB
If the concentration of A2 or B2 is increased, there will be greater number of particles for
a given space. Since the distances between the particles will be decreased due to the
increased number of particles, there will be greater chances for more frequent collisions
among the particles. Consequently, this will increase the rate of reaction.
 Catalyst
 Usually, the presence of catalyst will lead to an increase in rate of reaction.
 Catalysts are substances that lower the activation energy (energy required to break
bonds), by orienting reactant particles in a way that makes bonds easier to break. The
following figure compares the activation energy of chemical reactions with and without
catalyst:
Figure 5. Catalysts and reaction rate

Source: “Factors That Affect Rate of Reaction.” Good Science, October 1, 2020.
https://www.goodscience.com.au/year-10-chemistry/factors-that-affect-rate-of-reaction/.
Lower activation energy (just as in the graph with catalyst) indicates greater proportion
of successful collisions between reactant particles. Consequently, this will increase the
rate of reaction.

 Catalysts increase the rate of a chemical reaction, but are not themselves changed
during the reaction.
 A catalysed reaction is written as:
catalyst
reactants products
This illustrates that the reaction takes place in the presence of a catalyst, but the
catalyst is neither a reactant nor a product.
 There are different types of catalysts:
1. Positive Catalyst – This type of catalyst decreases the activation energy by
accepting an alternative path for the reaction to occur, thus increasing the rate
of reaction. The following example is a reaction that uses positive catalyst:
Pt(s)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
2. Negative Catalyst – This type of catalyst decreases or slows down the rate of
reaction. It increases the activation energy needed for the reaction to occur. It is
also known as inhibitor. Examples of this catalyst include corrosion inhibitors
(inorganic substances such as phosphates, chromates, silicates, etc.) that slows
down the corrosion rate of metals. The following sample reaction uses negative
catalyst:
H3PO4(s)
2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
3. Auto-catalyst – In autocatalysis, the chemical reaction is catalyzed by one of the
products, that catalyst is called auto-catalyst. One of the simplest examples of
this is in the oxidation of a solution of oxalic acid (C2H2O4) by an acidified solution
of potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
4. Induced catalyst – This is a substance that influences the speed of a reaction
which is not possible under ordinary conditions. For instance, sodium arsenite
solution is not oxidized by air. If, however, air is passed through a mixture of the
solution of sodium arsenite (NaAsO2) and sodium sulfite (Na2SO3), both of them
would undergo simultaneous oxidation; thus, sulfite has induced the arsenite
and hence is called the induced catalyst.
D. Rate Law
 The rate law is a mathematical expression describing the relationship between the
concentration of the reactants and the rate of reaction. Generally, the rate law is expressed
this way:

rate = k[A]x[B]y[C]z…
where
k is the rate constant,
[A], [B], and [C] are the molar concentrations of reactants,
and the exponents x, y, and z are the order of the reaction with respect to the reactant.
 The rate constant does not depend on the concentration of reactant A, B, or C, but it
varies with temperature and surface area.
 The unit of the rate constant k varies depending on the rate law expression. The rate
constant k and the exponents x, y, and z must be determined experimentally by analyzing
how the reaction rate changes as the concentrations of the reactants change.
 Rate laws cannot be predicted by reaction stoichiometry; it is determined experimentally.
 Order of a Reaction
Consider a simple hypothetical reaction with only one reactant.
A products
The rate law for this reaction takes the form
rate = k[A]x
Let us define the order of reaction based on that rate law.

 A zero-order reaction has a constant reaction rate that is equal to its rate constant
regardless of the changes in the concentration of the reactant
rate = k[A]0 = k
 In the first-order reaction, the rate increases generally in the same order as the
concentration of the reactant. So the rate doubles when the reactant concentration
is doubled and a triple increase in reactant concentration means an increase of
three times the original rate.
rate = k[A]1 = k[A]
 In a second-order reaction, doubling the reactant concentration would quadruple
the original reaction rate. A triple increase in reactant concentration would increase
the reaction rate ninefolds.
rate = k[A]2
 Orders of reaction play a role in determining the units for the rate constant k.
Table 1 shows the rate constant units for common reaction orders.
Table 1. Rate Laws for Different Reaction Orders

based on the Reaction A products
Reaction Order Rate Law Units of k
M
zero rate = k[A]0 = k
s
1
first rate = k[A]1 = k[A]
s
1
second rate = k[A]2
M·s
1
third rate = k[A][B]2
M² · s
 Writing Rate Laws from Reaction Order

 The exponents in a rate law define the reaction order and it describes the effects of
the concentration of reactants on the rate of reaction.
Consider a chemical reaction with a rate law that is:
rate=k[A]x[B]y
If the exponent x is 1, the reaction is first-order with respect to A. If x is 2, the
reaction is second-order with respect to A. If y is 1, the reaction is first-order in B.
If y is 2, the reaction is second-order in B. If x or y is equal to zero, the reaction is
zero-order in A or B, respectively, and the rate of the reaction is not affected by the
concentration of the reactant. The sum of the orders with respect to each reactant
is the overall order of the reaction. So if x = 1 and y = 2, the overall order of the
reaction is third-order (x + y = 1 + 2 = 3).
 Consider these examples:
a. The rate law:
rate = k[CO2]
describes a reaction that is first order in carbon dioxide and first order overall.
b. The rate law:
rate=k[Na+][Cl−]
describes a reaction that is first order in Na +, first order in Cl−, and second
order overall.
c. The rate law:
rate=k[C4H6]2
describes a reaction that is second order in C4H6 and second order overall.

d. An experiment indicates that the reaction of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with
carbon monoxide (CO):
NO2(g)+CO(g)⟶NO(g)+CO2(g)
is second order in NO2 and zero order in CO at 100 °C. What is the rate law
for the reaction?
Solution:
The reaction will have the form:
rate=k[NO2]x[CO]y
The reaction is second order in NO2; thus x = 2. The reaction is zero order in
CO; thus y = 0. The rate law is:
rate = k[NO2]2[CO]0 = k[NO2]2
Recall that a number raised to the power of zero is equal to 1, so [CO]0 = 1,
thus we can simply drop the concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) from the
rate equation; the reaction rate is solely dependent on the concentration of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
 Determining Rate Laws from Initial Rates

 The rate law for a chemical reaction can be experimentally determined using the
method of initial rates. The technique determines how the reaction rate is affected
by the concentration of reactants by comparing the initial rates of reaction at
different initial concentrations of reactants. To illustrate this, consider the
following example.
 Ozone in the atmosphere is depleted when it reacts with nitrogen oxides. The
following reaction of ozone and nitrogen monoxide has been studied in the
laboratory:
NO(g)+O3(g)⟶NO2(g)+O2(g)
and the following reaction rate data were determined at 25°C.
Initial Rate of
Initial [NO] Initial [O3] Reaction
Experiment
(M) (M) (Δ[NO2]/Δt)
(M/s)
1 1.00 × 10−6 3.00 × 10−6 6.60 × 10−5
2 1.00 × 10−6 6.00 × 10−6 1.32 × 10−4
3 1.00 × 10−6 9.00 × 10−6 1.98 × 10−4
4 2.00 × 10−6 9.00 × 10−6 3.96 × 10−4
5 3.00 × 10−6 9.00 × 10−6 5.94 × 10−4
Determine the rate law as well as the rate constant for the given chemical
reaction at 25°C.
 Solution
The rate law would be:
rate = k[NO]x[O3]y
The values of x, y, and k can be determined from the experimental data following
this three-part process:
1. Determine the value of x from the given data in which [NO] varies and [O 3] is
constant.
Notice that in the last three experiments, [NO] varies while [O3] stayed constant.
From experiment 3 to 4, when [NO] doubles, the rate doubles, and when [NO]
triples from experiment 3 to 5, the rate also triples. The rate is directly
proportional to [NO]. The rate increases in the same order as the concentration

of the reactant, so this is a first-order reaction, thus x in the rate law is equal
to 1.
2. Determine the value of y from the given data in which [O3] varies and [NO] is
constant.
[NO] is constant while [O3] varies in the first three experiments. Notice that from
experiment 1 to 2, when [O3] doubles, the rate doubles; when [O3] triples from
experiment 1 to 3, the rate also tripled. Thus, the change in reaction rate is
directly proportional to the change in [O3], so it is a first-order reaction, thus
y is equal to 1. Therefore, the rate law is:
rate = k[NO]1[O3]1 = k[NO][O3]
3. Determine the value of the rate constant k from one set of concentrations and the
corresponding rate of reaction.
rate
𝑘=
[NO][O₃]
6.60 x 10−5 M/s
𝑘=
(1.00 x 10−6 M)(3.00 x 10−6 M)
𝑘 = 2.20 x 107 M⁻¹s⁻¹
The large value of k for this example (2.20 x 107 M⁻¹s⁻¹) indicates that this is a
fast reaction, it could play an important role in the depletion of ozone if the
concentration of NO is large enough.
Also, notice that overall, the reaction is a second-order reaction (x + y = 1 + 1
= 2). Based on Table 1 (Rate Laws for Different Reaction Orders), the unit of k
1
for second-order reaction should be or M-1s-1; that is consistent with our
M·s
final answer.
Activity 1. Comprehension Check!

1. Define rate of reaction.
3. Cite and differentiate the types of catalysts.
4. Explain the form and function of a rate law.
5. Use rate laws to calculate reaction rates.
6. Use rate and concentration data to identify reaction orders (zero-, first-, and
second-order reactions) and derive rate laws.
What you need: Pen, calculator
What to do: Read each item carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. For
calculations, show all steps leading to the final answer.
1. Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not:
a. The rate of reaction illustrates the change in the concentration of reactant only.
b. Decreasing the activation energy decreases the reaction rate.
c. Lowering the temperature speeds up the reaction.
d. If the temperature is increased, more collisions are provoked among molecules.
e. Reactions which require low activation energies are very fast.
f. Collisions always lead to reactions.
g. In order for the reaction to occur, the colliding molecules must have equal or greater
energy than the activation energy.
h. In a reaction in which one reactant is a solid and one is a liquid, pulverizing the solid
reactant would speed up the reaction.
i. An auto-catalyst increases the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur thereby
slowing down the reaction rate.
j. Increasing the concentration of reactant in a zero-order reaction would increase the
reaction rate.

2. Hydrogen peroxide (agua oxygenada, H2O2) is a colorless liquid used as disinfectant and
bleach. At high temperatures, it decomposes easily into water and oxygen.
2H2O2(aq) ⇋ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Write the equation for the rate of reaction based on the concentration of the reactants and
products.
3. The rate law for the chemical reaction

H2(g)+2NO(g) ⟶ N2O(g)+H2O(g)
has been determined experimentally to be, rate = k[NO]2[H2]. What are the orders of reaction
with respect to each reactant, and what is the overall order of the reaction?
4. Consider the reaction:
P4 + 6H2 ⟶ 4PH3.
A rate study of this reaction was conducted at 298 K. The data obtained are shown in the
table.
[P4], M [H2], M Initial Rate, M/s
0.0110 0.0075 3.20 x 10-4
0.0110 0.0150 6.40 x 10-4
0.0220 0.0150 6.39x 10-4

a. What are the orders of reaction with respect to each reactant, and what is the
overall order of the reaction?
b. Write the rate law for the reaction.
c. Determine the value and units of the rate constant, k.
5. Chloroform (CHCl3) is a known anesthetic. It is also used to produce the refrigerant
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) according to the reaction
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g)  CCl4(g) + HCl(g)
Several experiments obtained the following data:
Initial [CHCl3] Initial [Cl2] Initial Rate of

Experiment
(M) (M) Reaction (M/s)
I 0.0011 0.014 2.60 x 10-4
II 0.0011 0.028 5.20 x 10-4
III 0.0022 0.028 2.08 x 10-3
IV 0.0022 0.014 1.04 x 10-3
Write the rate law expression for this reaction. Determine the value of the rate constant.

Activity 2. Experiment Time: Rate of Reaction of Hydrogen Peroxide!
- Learning Objectives:
1. Explain reactions qualitatively using molecular collisions.
3. Explain activation energy and how a catalyst affects the reaction rate.
- What you need:
Hydrogen Peroxide (Agua Oxygenada)-recommended concentration is 3% (10
volumes) or 6% (20 volumes); small piece of chicken liver (if not available, a small
amount of saliva will be a good substitute); ice (not needed if you will not use chicken
liver); beaker (or clear glass/container); dropper (optional); watch glass (or clear
container), stirrer
- What to do:
Note: Prior to the experiment, place the chicken liver in an ice bath to maintain its
freshness.
A. Stir It
1. Pour 10 mL of the hydrogen peroxide solution into a beaker (if you don’t have
beaker at home, you can use clear glass).
2. Gently stir the solution in one direction (if you don’t have glass stirring rod, empty
ballpen shell can be a good substitute, just make sure it’s clean prior to using it).
Observe for any formation of bubbles, which indicates the decomposition of the
hydrogen peroxide into oxygen gas.
3. Try to increase the speed of the stirring. Be careful not to spill the hydrogen
peroxide solution. Take note of your observation. Does bubble formation
intensify?
Observations:
Slow Stirring
Fast Stirring
B. Catalyze It
1. Prepare two watch glasses---glass A and glass B. If you don’t have watch glass,
you can use small clear container or clear glass.
2. Cut a small piece of fresh chicken liver and place it in watch glass B (or container
B). If chicken liver is not available, a small amount of saliva will be a good
substitute.
3. Place a few drops of the hydrogen peroxide solution into the liver (or saliva) in
glass B/container B. Simultaneously, place a few drops of the hydrogen peroxide
solution in glass A/container A (There should be no other thing in glass A except
for the hydrogen peroxide; the amount of hydrogen peroxide in glass A and glass
B must be the same). Observe what happens.
4. Record your observations.
Observations:
Glass A or
Container A (without
chicken liver/ saliva)
Glass B or
Container B (with
chicken liver/saliva)

Waste Disposal
 Discard waste solutions containing hydrogen peroxide in properly labeled waste
bottles. If waste bottles are not available, discard the solutions in the sink while
flushing with running water. Hydrogen peroxide can actually help clean the
sink.
 Properly dispose the chicken liver in your covered compost pit.
Documentation
 Take pictures of your experiment. Attach the pictures on this activity sheet.
Alternatively, if you don’t have printers at home or cannot possibly print
outside, you may send the pictures to your General Chemistry class group chat
instead.
- Guide Questions:
1. How does stirring affect the rate of a reaction? Will shaking the beaker with
hydrogen peroxide produce a similar affect? Why or why not?
2. How will you explain your observations on the chicken liver (or saliva) with
hydrogen peroxide?
3. Study the product label of the hydrogen peroxide solution. What is the
recommended storage temperature for the product? Many manufacturers
recommend storage temperature of less than or equal to 30⁰C, why do you think is
this so?
Reflection
Give practical applications of chemical kinetics-related concepts in real life. Write your
responses on a separate sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubrics:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Reflection Rubric
concepts, but with minimal misconception.
0 No discussion

“Chemical Reactions and Energy.” CK-12 Foundation, 2014, https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-
physical-science-for-middle-school/section/8.4/.
“Factors That Affect Rate of Reaction,” Good Science, October 1, 2020,
https://www.goodscience.com.au/year-10-chemistry/factors-that-affect-rate-of-reaction/.
Ayson, Marissa F., and Rebecca S. De Borja. General Chemistry 2 Textbook. Quezon City,
Philippines: Vibal Group, Inc., 2016.
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B., Shirley R. Jusayan, Veronica C. Sabularse, Joseph Carmelo K. San
Pascual, and Aprhodite M. Macale. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry
2. Quezon City, Philippines: Commission on Higher Education, 2016.
Bayquen, Aristea V., and Gardee T. Peña. Exploring Life through Science Series: General
Chemistry 2. Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House, 2017.
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
Flowers, Paul, Klaue Theopold, and Richard Langley. “Rate Laws.” Chemistry LibreTexts.
Libretexts, November 5, 2020.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_Chemistry_(OpenS
TAX)/12%3A_Kinetics/12.3%3A_Rate_Laws.
Laidler, Keith J. “Transition-State Theory,” 2021.
https://www.britannica.com/science/transition-state-theory.
Answer Key
Activity 2: Answers vary
5. rate = k[CHCl3]2[Cl2]; k = 1.5x104 /M2·s

c. k = 0.0427 s-1
rate equation; the reaction rate is solely dependent on the concentration of H 2.)
to 1, thus [P4]0 = 1, that is why we can simply drop the concentration of P4 from the
b. rate law: rate = k[H2] (Remember that a number raised to the power of zero is equal
4. a. order in P4 = 0; order in H2 = 1; overall order = 1
3. order in NO = 2; order in H2 = 1; overall order = 3
∆t ∆t 2 ∆t 2
ቁ = ቀ ቁቀ = ቁ 2. rate = − ቀ
∆[O2 ] ∆[H₂O] 1 ∆[H2 O₂] 1
1. a. False; b. False; c. False; d. True; e. True; f. False; g. True; h. True; i. False; j. False
Activity 1:


Quarter 4 – Week 5A: Entropy & Free Energy
First Edition, 2021
Writer Myra Joy B. Montero
Editors:
Ace Michael B. Magalso
Edgardo Tupaz
Lilibeth S. Apat
Delia P. Alcantara
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad

Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Cristobert C. Ayaton
Ryan Paul M. Vales


General Chemistry 2 Quarter 4 Week 5A
ENTROPY & FREE ENERGY
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
❖ Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140

❖ Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-142
❖ Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-143

1. predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy;
2. describe the degree of disorder of a system;
3. calculate the standard entropy change of a reaction;
4. identify the spontaneity of a process based on entropy;
5. solve problems involving the standard Gibbs free energy; and
6. write a reflective essay about the application of entropy to real-life situation.
Key Concepts
SPONTANEOUS PROCESS
• A reaction that does occur under the given set of conditions is called a spontaneous
reaction. If a reaction does not occur under specified conditions, it is said to be
nonspontaneous. We observe spontaneous physical and chemical processes every day,
including many of the following examples:
❖ A waterfall runs downhill, but never up, spontaneously.
❖ A lump of sugar spontaneously dissolves in a cup of coffee, but dissolved sugar
does not spontaneously reappear in its original form.
❖ Water freezes spontaneously below 0°C, and ice melts spontaneously above 0°C
(at 1 atm).
❖ Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder one, but the reverse never happens
spontaneously.
❖ A piece of sodium metal reacts violently with water to form sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. However, hydrogen gas does not react with sodium hydroxide to
form water and sodium.
❖ Iron exposed to water and oxygen forms rust, but rust does not spontaneously
change back to iron.
• These examples show that processes that occur spontaneously in one direction cannot,
under the same conditions, also take place spontaneously in the opposite direction.
Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
2
Figure1. (a) A spontaneous process. After the valve is opened, the molecules distribute evenly
between the two bulbs. (b) A nonspontaneous process. After the valve is opened, the molecules
preferentially gather in one bulb.
(source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, page 803)
ENTROPY
• Entropy (S) is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is described as

a measure of how spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among the different
possible ways that system can contain energy. The greater the dispersal, the greater is
the entropy. Most processes are accompanied by a change in entropy.
• The entropy change of a system, ∆𝑺system, can be quantified using two approaches. The
first approach is defined by Ludwig Boltzmann. In 1868 Boltzmann showed that the
entropy of a system is related to the natural log of the number of microstates (W):
S = klnW [eqn.1]
where k = Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
W = number of microstates
• Like enthalpy, entropy is a state function. Consider a certain process in a system. The
entropy change for the process, ∆S, is:
∆S = Sf - Si [eqn. 2]
where Si and Sf are the entropies of the system in the initial and final states,
respectively.
• From the Equation above we can write
∆S = klnWf – klnWi [eqn. 3]
𝑊𝑓
= kln
𝑊𝑖
where Wi and Wf are the corresponding numbers of microstates in the initial and
final state. Thus, if Wf < Wi, ∆S < 0 and the entropy of the system increases.
• Equation 3 shows the direct relationship between entropy, a macroscopic property of
matter, and the arrangement of atoms or molecules, a microscopic state (or microstate)
of matter: entropy increases with the number of microstates of the system.
• For simplicity, the quantitative concept of the number of microstates can be defined
qualitatively as the ‘disorder’ and ‘the dispersal of matter and energy’. A more ‘disorderly’
distribution of energy and matter corresponds to a greater number of microstates
associated with the same total. With this simplified definition, the entropies of the
phases of a given substance follow the same order with its degree of disorder as shown
in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2. The relationship between the entropies of the phases and the degree of disorder.

3
• This relationship of the entropies of the phases can be used to make a qualitative
prediction about the ∆𝑺 of reactions. The entropy of the system is expected to increase
for:
1. melting (𝑺liquid > 𝑺solid);
2. vaporization (𝑺gas > 𝑺liquid); and
3. dissolving (𝑺solution > 𝑺solute + 𝑺solvent).
• The second approach to quantify the entropy change of the system is the one by Rudolph
Clausius, one of the two persons who extended the work of Carnot.
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = [eqn. 4]
𝑇
The 𝒒rev and T in equation 4 are the heat released or absorbed in a reversible process
and at the Kelvin temperature at which the heat transfer occurred, respectively.
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• In the case of the heat transfer, a reversible process is a process where the direction can
be reversed at any point by an immeasurably small change in temperature. It is important
to note that for other reversible processes, an immeasurably small change can be made
in some other property of the system. Recall that heat is spontaneously transferred only
from higher temperatures to lower temperatures, thus a temperature difference is the
driving force of the heat flow from one object to another.
• Equation 4 encapsulates the definition of the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
entropy increases in any spontaneous process. A spontaneous process is one that
proceeds on its own without any outside assistance. The word “any” means that equation
4 also holds true for an irreversible spontaneous process. Consider below the melting of
1 mole of ice, which is roughly equivalent to the size of an ordinary ice cube, in the palm
of your hand.
Example 1
The melting of an ice cube in your palm is an irreversible process since the
temperature of the system (the ice cube) and the immediate surroundings (your hand) is
different. The melting requires 6.01 × 103 J/mol of heat. Calculate the entropy change of
the system, surroundings and universe.
Using equation 4 and taking T of the system as 0℃ (273 K), we can solve the entropy
change of the system as follows:
Given: T = 0℃
= 0 + 273 = 273 K
𝑞
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ≥ 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
𝑇
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(6.01 𝑥 103 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
273 𝐾
∆𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎 𝑱/𝑲
The entropy change of the system is positive as expected since melting is an ‘order
to disorder’ process.
For the entropy change of the surrounding, we use the same equation but this
time we will use the temperature of your hand and the heat it lost. We assume that the
temperature of your hand is the same as the normal body temperature, 37. 0℃ (310 K).
Because the heat lost by your hand is the heat gained by the ice, the heat lost by
your hand is equal in magnitude to the heat gained by the ice but has opposite sign, −6.01
× 103 J/mol. So the entropy change of the surroundings is:
𝑞
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇

4
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(−6.01 𝑥 103 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =
310 𝐾
∆𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 𝑱/𝑲
The universe is composed of the system and the surroundings. Therefore, the
entropy change of the universe is the sum of the entropy change of the system and the
surroundings.
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 [eqn. 5]
Thus, the entropy change of the universe is
[22.0+(−19.4)]𝐽
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = = 𝟐. 𝟔 𝑱/𝑲
𝐾
If the melting of the ice cube in your hand were a reversible process, that is the
temperature of the surroundings is infinitesimally above 273 K, the entropy change of the
surroundings would equal to -22.0 J/K and ∆𝑺universe would be zero.
• In summary,
Reversible process ∆𝑺universe = ∆𝑺system + ∆𝑺surroundings = 0
Irreversible process ∆𝑺universe = ∆𝑺system + ∆𝑺surroundings > 0
Thus, the second law of thermodynamics can also be stated the entropy of the
universe increases in any spontaneous process.
• For a spontaneous process, the second law says that ∆S univ must be greater than zero,
but it does not place a restriction on either ∆Ssys or ∆Ssurr. Thus, it is possible for either
∆Ssys or ∆Ssurr to be negative, as long as the sum of these two quantities is greater than
zero. For an equilibrium process, ∆Suniv is zero. In this case, ∆Ssys and ∆Ssurr must be equal
in magnitude, but opposite in sign.
• If for some hypothetical process we find that ∆Suniv is negative, this means that the process
is not spontaneous in the direction described. Rather, it is spontaneous in the opposite
direction.
ENTROPY CHANGES IN THE SYSTEM

• By applying Hess’s law, the standard molar entropy, 𝑺°, can be added to obtain the
standard entropy of reaction,
°
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 : ∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛
°
= ∑ 𝑛𝑆° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) [eqn. 6]
where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.

• The standard entropy values of a large number of compounds have been measured in J/
mol∙K. To calculate ∆𝑺𝐫𝐱𝐧 (which is ∆𝑺sys), their thermodynamic values are already given.
Proceed according to example 2.
Example 2
Suppose you are asked to determine the ∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛°
of methanation, reaction of
producing methane from CO2.
CO2 (g) + 4 H2(g) → CH4(g) + 2 H2O(g)
The 𝑺 ° in J/mol∙K of reactants and products are as follows:
Table 1. Supplied thermodynamic data for the standard entropy change of the
following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
Substance CO2(g) CH4 (g) H2(g) H2O(g)
S° (J/mol∙K) 213.6 186.2 130.6 188.7

(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)

5
Using equation 6, you get
°
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝑆° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
°
𝐽
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 186.2) + ( 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 188.7)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝐽
− [(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 213.6) + (4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 130.6)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝑱
∆𝑺°𝒓𝒙𝒏 = −𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟒
𝑲
Take note that the standard molar entropy of H2 is not zero. Unlike the
standard molar enthalpies of formation, the standard molar enthalpies of elements
at the reference temperature of 298 K is not zero.
GIBBS FREE ENERGY
• In the second law of thermodynamics, a reaction is spontaneous if the ∆𝑺universe is greater

than zero. To determine the sign of the ∆𝑺universe, however, both ∆𝑺system and ∆𝑺surroundings
need to be calculated. The complications of having to calculate the ∆𝑺surroundings to
determine whether a reaction will occur spontaneously can be eliminated.
• Recall that the equation of ∆𝑺surroundings is
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =
𝑇
And that the 𝑞sys of the surroundings is equal to the ∆𝑯system at constant pressure but
has opposite sign, therefore this equation becomes,
∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = − [eqn. 7]
𝑇
Substituting equation 7 to equation 4 gives

∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 −
𝑇
Multiplying both sides by –𝑻:
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 < 0 [eqn. 8]
This equation is the criterion for a spontaneous process at constant pressure and
temperature that is expressed only in terms of the properties of the system (∆𝑯system and
∆𝑺system). The term ∆𝑺surroundings is eliminated in the equation.
• A new state function was proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs in order to express the
spontaneity of a reaction more directly. It is called Gibbs free energy (G), or simply free
energy which is defined as
𝑮 = 𝑯 − 𝑻𝑺 [eqn. 9]
where T is the absolute temperature. The change in the free energy of a system at constant
temperature and pressure is
∆𝑮system = ∆𝑯system –𝑻∆𝑺system [eqn. 10]
• Comparing equation 10 with equation 8, the change in the free energy of a system at
constant temperature and pressure, ∆𝑮, is equal to –𝑻∆𝑺universe:
∆𝑮sys = – 𝑻∆𝑺univ = ∆𝑯sys –𝑻∆𝑺sys < 0 [eqn. 11]

6
• Thus, equation 11 provides us how the sign of ∆𝑮 will be interpreted in connection with the
spontaneity of processes that occur at constant temperature and pressure.
• We can now summarize the conditions for spontaneity and equilibrium at constant
temperature and pressure in terms of ∆G as follows:
∆𝑮 < 0 The reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction
∆𝑮 > 0 The reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward direction;
input of energy from the surroundings is required to make
it occur. However, the reverse reaction is spontaneous.
∆𝑮 = 0 The reaction is at equilibrium.
STANDARD FREE-ENERGY CHANGES

• Just like enthalpy and entropy, the standard free energies of formation, 𝐺𝑓° , can be used to
calculate the standard free energy change of a reaction:
°
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝐺° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝐺° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) [eqn. 12]
where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.
Example 3
Let us consider again the melting of an ice cube in your palm problem that was
discussed in Example 1. We found out that the process is spontaneous because the sum
of the entropy change of the system and the surroundings is greater than zero. This time,
let us determine if we will arrive at the same conclusion about the spontaneity of the
reaction when the free energy change of the system, equation 8, is used. The data are as
follows from the previous calculation:
n of ice cube = 1 mole
∆𝑯system = 6.01 × 103 J/mol
∆𝑺system = 22.0 J/K
T of the reaction = 298 K
Substituting the above data to equation 6, the free energy change of the reaction is
∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = [(1𝑚𝑜𝑙) (6.01 𝑥 103 )] − [(298𝐾) (22.0 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
∆𝑮𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = −𝟓𝟒𝟔 𝑱
Since the sign of ∆𝑮system is negative, the melting of an ice cube in the palm is a
spontaneous reaction.
Example 4
Calculate the standard free energy change of the reaction at 298 K.
4 PCl3(g) → P4(g) + 6 Cl2(g)
using the following standard free energies of formation in kJ/mol:
Table 2. Supplied thermodynamic data for the standard free energies of the
following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
Substance PCl3(g) P4(g) Cl2(g)

∆𝐺𝑓° (kJ/mol) −269.6 24.4 0
(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10 edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)
th
Substituting the above data to equation 8, the free energy change of the reaction is
∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [(1𝑚𝑜𝑙) (24.4 )] − [(4 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (−269.6 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝑮°𝒓𝒙𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑱
Since the sign of ∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.

7
APPLICATIONS OF EQUATION (Eqn. 10)
• In order to predict the sign of ∆G, according to Equation 10, we need to know both ∆H and
∆S. A negative ∆H, an exothermic reaction, and a positive ∆S, a reaction that results in an
increase in the microstates of the system, tend to make ∆G negative, although temperature
may also influence the direction of a spontaneous reaction. The four possible outcomes of
this relationship are:
1. If both ∆H and ∆S are positive, then ∆G will be negative only when the T∆S
term is greater in magnitude than ∆H. This condition is met when T is large.
2. If ∆H is positive and ∆S is negative, ∆G will always be positive, regardless of
temperature.
3. If ∆H is negative and ∆S is positive, then ∆G will always be negative
regardless of temperature.
4. If ∆H is negative and ∆S is negative, then ∆G will be negative only when T∆S
is smaller in magnitude than ∆H. This condition is met when T is small.
• The temperatures that will cause ∆G to be negative for the first and last cases depend on
the actual values of ∆H and ∆S of the system.
𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟑. 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐺 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 ∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆

• Under nonstandard state conditions, we must use the sign of ∆G rather than that of ∆G° to
predict the direction of the reaction. The sign of ∆G°, on the other hand, tells us whether
the products or the reactants are favored when the reacting system reaches equilibrium.
Thus, a negative value of ∆G° indicates that the reaction favors product formation whereas
a positive value of ∆G° indicates that there will be more reactants than products at
equilibrium.
TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime, is an extremely valuable inorganic
substance used in steelmaking, production of calcium metal, the paper industry, water
treatment, and pollution control. It is prepared by decomposing limestone (CaCO3) in a kiln
at a high temperature.
CaCO3(s) ↔ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The reaction is reversible, and CaO readily combines with CO2 to form CaCO3. The
pressure of CO2 in equilibrium with CaCO3 and CaO increases with temperature. In the
industrial preparation of quicklime, the system is never maintained at equilibrium; rather,
CO2 is constantly removed from the kiln to shift the equilibrium from left to right, promoting
the formation of calcium oxide.
The important information for the practical chemist is the temperature at which the
decomposition of CaCO3 becomes appreciable (that is, the temperature at which the
reaction begins to favor products). We can make a reliable estimate of that temperature as
follows.

8
First, we calculate ∆H° and ∆S° for the reaction at 25°C, using the following data,
Table 4. Supplied thermodynamic data of the following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
CaO CO2 CaCO3
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻𝑓° ( ) −635.6 -393.5 −1206.9
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
𝑆° ( ) 39.8 213.6 92.9
𝐾∙𝑚𝑜𝑙
(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10 edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)
th
∆𝐻 ° = [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝑂) + ∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )]

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 ° = [(−635.6 ) + (−393.5 )] − (−1206.9 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 ° = 177.8
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Next, we apply Equation 6 to find ∆S°:

∆𝑆° = [𝑆°(𝐶𝑎𝑂) + 𝑆° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − 𝑆°(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆° = [(39.8 ) + (213.6 )] − (92.9 )
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
∆𝑆° = 160.5
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
From this equation, ∆G° = ∆H° - T∆S°, we obtain

∆G° = 177.8 kJ/mol - (298 K) (160.5 J/K∙mol)(1 kJ/(1000 J)
∆G°= 130.0 kJ/mol
Because ∆G° is a large positive quantity, we conclude that the reaction is not favored for
product formation at 25°C (or 298 K). Indeed, the pressure of CO2 is so low at room
temperature that it cannot be measured.
To find the temperature at which the system is at its equilibrium, i.e., the ∆G° = 0, we set
∆G° of equation 10 equal to 0 and solve for the value of T.
∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

0 = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°
𝑇∆𝑆° = ∆𝐻°
∆𝐻°
𝑇=
∆𝑆°
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
(117.8 ) (1000 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑘𝐽
𝑇=
𝐽
160.5
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑇 = 1,108 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 835 ℃
Observe that in equation 10, ∆G° will become negative (∆G° < 0) if the term ∆H° < T∆S°. To
achieve this condition, temperature must be higher than 1,108 K (or 835°C). This means
that, at temperature T > 835°C, the reaction favors the formation of CaO and CO 2.
To show that ∆G° < 0 when T > 835°C, we solve for ∆G° at T = 840°C, or 1113 K.
∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

𝑘𝐽 𝐽 1 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺° = 177.8 − (1113 𝐾) (160.5 )( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 1000 𝐽
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺° = −0.8
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Clearly, the value of ∆G° is negative when the temperature is greater than 835°C.
9
Two points are worth making about such a calculation. First, we used the ∆H° and ∆S°
values at 25°C to calculate changes that occur at a much higher temperature. Because both
∆H° and ∆S° change with temperature, this approach will not give us an accurate value of
∆G°, but it is good enough for “ballpark” estimates. Second, we should not be misled into
thinking that nothing happens below 835°C and that at 835°C CaCO3 suddenly begins to
decompose.
Activity 1. Changes in Entropy
Learning Objectives: 1. Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.

2. Describe the degree of disorder of a system.
What you need: Pen, Paper and Periodic Table of Elements
PART A
What to do: Determine whether the entropy change is greater or lesser than zero for
each of the following processes. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Freezing ethanol
2. evaporating a beaker of liquid bromine at room temperature
3. dissolving sucrose in water
4. cooling nitrogen gas from 80°C to 20°C
PART B
What to do: Compute for the total entropy change (∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 ) in the oxidation of metallic iron
into ferric oxide (Fe2O3) under standard conditions. Determine the spontaneity of the
process at these conditions. (the ∆𝐻𝑓° for elemental substance is zero and that for Fe2O3 is -
824.2 kJ/mol)
4Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)
Activity 2. Standard Entropy
1. Calculate the standard entropy changes of a reaction.
2. Identify the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.
Substance 𝑆° (
𝐽
)
𝐾∙𝑚𝑜𝑙
What you need: Pen and paper. Fe 27.3
PART A O2 205
Fe2O3 87.4
What to do: From the table of the standard entropy values, CaO 39.8
calculate the standard entropy changes for the following CO2 213.6
reactions at 25°C. Write your answers in a separate sheet of
CaCO3 92.9
paper.
NH3 193
1. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) N2 192
2. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) H2 131
3. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) HCl 187
Cl2 223
PART B
What to do: Identify whether the entropy change of the system in each of the following
reactions is positive or negative. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
2. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
3. H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)
10
Activity 3. Gibbs Free Energy
Learning Objective: Solve problems involving the standard Gibbs free energy.
What you need: Pen, Paper, Periodic Table of Elements and Calculator.
Substance 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑓° ( )
What to do: Calculate the standard free-energy changes for 𝑚𝑜𝑙
the following reactions at 25°C and interpret the values CH4 -50.8
obtained from the calculations. Write your answers in a O2 0
separate sheet of paper. CO2 -394.4
H2O -237.2
1. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
MgO -569.6
2. 2MgO(s) → 2Mg(s) + O2(g)
Mg 0
Reflection
All things trend toward disorder. When cups of hot milk are left on the table for a
long period of time, the drinks cool to the temperature of their surroundings by losing their
heat. The cooling process occurs naturally without any external aid and is unidirectional.
The flow of heat is brought about by the temperature difference. How can you relate the
second law of thermodynamics in this process?
Your answer should consist at most five (5) sentences. Write your response on a separate
sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubric:
Reflection Rubric
5 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the concepts, and
has no misconception.
4 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the concept, but
with minimal misconception.
3 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts, but with
misconceptions.
2 Practical application is explained but not consistent to the concepts.
Silberberg, M. S. (2006). Chemistry: The molecular nature of matter and change (4th ed.). NY,
USA: McGraw Hill.
Brown, T., LeMay H. E., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., & Woodward, P. (2009). Chemistry: The
Central Science (11th ed.). USA: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chang, R., & Goldsby, K. A. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed.). NY, USA: McGraw Hill.
Mcquarrie, D. A., Rock, P. A., & Gallogly, E. B. (2011). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Canada:
University Science Books.
Atkins, P. & De Paula, J. (2010). Physical Chemistry (9th ed.). Great Britain: Oxford University
Press.
Brady, J. E., & Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its Changes (4th ed.). USA: John Wiley
& Sons
Cengage Learning.

11
12
Activity 3.
1. -818.0 kJ/mol
2. 1139kJ/mol
Activity 2.
Part A
1. 160.5 J/K.mol
2. -199 J/K.mol
3. 20 J/K.mol
Part B
1. Two reactant molecules combine to form one product molecule. Even though H2O is a
more complex molecule than either H2 and O2, the fact that there is a net decrease of
one molecule and gases are converted to liquid ensures that the number of microstates
will be diminished and hence ∆S° is negative.
2. A solid is converted to two gaseous products. Therefore, ∆S° is positive.
3. The same number of molecules is involved in the reactants as in the product.
Furthermore, all molecules are diatomic and therefore of similar complexity. As a result,
we cannot predict the sign of ∆S°, but we know that the change must be quite small in
magnitude.
Activity 1.
Part A
1. Upon freezing, the ethanol molecules are held rigid in position. This phase transition
reduces the number of microstates and therefore the entropy decreases; that is, ∆S < 0.
2. Evaporating bromine increases the number of microstates because the Br2 molecules
can occupy many more positions in nearly empty space. Therefore, ∆S > 0.
3. Sucrose is a nonelectrolyte. The solution process leads to a greater dispersal of matter
due to the mixing of glucose and water molecules so we expect ∆S > 0.
4. The cooling process decreases various molecular motions. This leads to a decrease in
microstates and so ∆S < 0.
Part B
1. 4979.3 J/K
Answer Key

Quarter 3 – Week 5: Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
First Edition, 2021
Writer Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Editors: Kevin Hope Salvaña

Lilibeth Q. Apat
Delia P. Alcantara
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad, Ed.D.

Myra Joy B. Montero


General Chemistry 2 Quarter 4 Week 5B
Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
1. Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of the reaction rates of the forward and the reverse
reaction. STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-145
2. Calculate equilibrium constant and the pressure or concentration of reactants or products
in an equilibrium mixture. STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-148
3. State the Le Chatelier’s principle and apply it qualitatively to describe the effect of changes
in pressure, concentration and temperature on a system at equilibrium.
STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-149
1. write equilibrium constant expression for a given balanced chemical equation for
homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria;
2. solve problems involving equilibrium constant; and
3. predict the effects of change in concentration, pressure and temperature on a system in
equilibrium.
Key Concepts
• Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is a state of which the concentrations of the reactant and

product remain constant over time. Only reversible reactions attain equilibrium.
Decomposition of colorless dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) gas into brown nitrogen

dioxide gas is an example of a reversible reaction.
N2O4 (g) ⇋ 2NO2 (g)
When pure N2O4 gas is placed initially in a glass container at room temperature, a
brown color will be observed indicating the formation of NO2. The change in color intensifies
as more N2O4 is converted to NO2. Beyond that point, no further change in color is observed
because the concentrations of N2O4 and NO2 remain constant. When this happens, the
system has already reached equilibrium, a condition at which the rate of formation of N2O4
from NO2 is equal to the rate of the decomposition of N2O4 to NO2.
Similarly, if we placed NO2 initially in a glass container, the brown color of NO2 will
get lighter indicating the formation of N2O4. When this happens, the system has reached
the state of equilibrium when there is no observable change in color. Thus, equilibrium
exists in both cases.

2
In the case of reversible reaction, when forward reaction proceeds, more products
are formed. Conversely, when reverse reaction proceeds, more reactants are present. As the
reaction proceeds, the rate of the forward reaction decreases as time passes because the
concentration of reactants decreases. At the same time, the rate of the reverse reaction
increases as more products are formed. The system will eventually reach a point where the
rate of the forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. At this point,
the system is said to have reached a state of dynamic equilibrium. Hence, reaction does not
go to completion.
• Law of Mass Action and Equilibrium Constant Expression
At equilibrium, no apparent change in the state of the system is observed. This is

because when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal, the
concentrations of the reactants and products remain constant over time. This principle is
known as the Law of Mass Action.
Consider the general reversible reaction below:

aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD
where A, B, C and D represent chemical species while a, b, c and d are their coefficients in
the balanced equation. The law of mass action is represented by the following equilibrium
expression:
[C]c [D]d
K =
[A]a [B]b
The square brackets indicate molar concentrations of chemical species at equilibrium while
K represents the equilibrium constant. The value of the equilibrium constant at a given
temperature can be calculated if we know the equilibrium concentrations of the reaction
components. If the value of K is greater than 1 (K>1), the equilibrium will lie to right and
favors the product. Conversely, if the value of K is less than 1 (K<1), the equilibrium will lie
to the left and favors the reactant.
• Homogeneous Equilibria
In a homogeneous equilibrium, the reactants and products are in the same phase.
Sample Problem. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reactions:
1. CO (g) + H2O (g) ⇋ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

2. N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) ⇋ N2O (g)
Answer:
[CO2 ][H2 ]
1. K = [CO][H2 O]
[N2 O]
2. K =
[N2 ][𝑂2 ]2
Equilibrium constants for homogeneous gaseous equilibria may also be expressed in

terms of partial pressures. To differentiate the two equilibrium constant, the symbol Kc and
Kp are used instead of K. The symbol Kc is based from the molar concentrations while Kp is
based from partial pressures. The expression is written in much the same way as described,
only that the partial pressure is raised to the coefficient instead of the molar concentration.

3
Sample Problem. Write the Kp for the reaction:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇋ 2 NH3 (g)
Answer:
(PNH 3 )2
Kp=
(PN2 ) (PH )3
2
Kc and Kp are related in the equation

Kp = Kc(RT)∆n
where R is the universal constant (0.0821 L ∙ atm/mol ∙ K), T is the absolute temperature
expressed in K, and ∆n is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous products
and that of gaseous reactants.
• Heterogeneous Equilibria
A heterogeneous equilibrium consists of reactants and products that exist in different

phases. In a heterogeneous equilibrium, pure solid and liquid are not included in the
equilibrium constant expression. The molar concentrations of these substances are always
constant.
Sample Problem. Write the Kc for the reaction:
CaCO3 (s) ⇋ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Answer: Kc = [CO2 ]
• Converting Kp to Kc
Sample Problem 1. Find Kc for the decomposition reaction of ammonium hydrosulfide to

ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gases.
NH4SH(s) ⇋ NH3 (g) + H2S (g) Kp = 0.19 (at 218°C)

Given:
Kp = 0.19
Temperature = 218+273=491 K
R = 0.0821
∆n = 2 moles of gaseous product –
0 mole of gaseous reactant
= 2
Solution:
Kp = Kc(RT)∆n
Kp
Rearranging the equation : Kc = (RT)∆n
Kp
Kc =
(RT)∆n
0.19
Kc =
(0.0821)(491 )2
Kc = 1.2 x 10-4
4
• Calculating Equilibrium Constant when equilibrium concentrations/partial pressures
are known
Sample Problem 2. The following equilibrium concentrations were observed for the Haber
process for synthesis of ammonia at 127°C:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇋ 2NH3 (g)
[NH3] = 3.1 X 10-2 mol/L

[N2] = 8.5 X 10-1 mol/L
[H2] = 3.1 X 10-3 mol/L
[NH3 ]2
Solution: K =
[N2 ][H2 ]3
(3.1 x 10-2 )2
=
(8.5 x 10-1 )(3.1 x 10-3 )3
K = 3.8 x 10-4
Sample Problem 3. The reaction for the formation of nitrosyl chloride gas
2NO (g) + Cl2 (g) ⇋ 2NOCl (g)
studied at 25°C. The pressures at equilibrium were found to be
PNOCl = 1.2 atm

PNO = 5.0 X 10-2 atm
PCl2 = 3.0 X 10-1 atm
Calculate the value of Kp for this reaction at 25°C.

(PNOCl )2
Solution: Kp =
(PNO )2 (PCl 2 )
(1.2)2
Kp =
(5.0 x 10-2 )2 (3.0 x 10-1 )
Kp = 1.9 x 103
• Calculating K from initial equilibrium concentrations/partial pressures

Sample Problem 4. A closed system initially containing 1.000 x 10–3 M H2 and
2.000 x 10–3 M I2 at 448°C is allowed to reach equilibrium. Analysis of the equilibrium
mixture shows that the concentration of HI is 1.870 x 10–3 M. Calculate K at 448°C for the
reaction taking place which is H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Given. balanced chemical equation: H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Initial concentrations: 1.000 x 10–3 M H2 and 2.000 x 10–3 M I2
equilibrium concentration: 1.870 x 10–3 M HI
Strategy: Using the ICE table, tabulate the given initial and equilibrium concentration.
Denote the changes in concentration using a variable as guided by
stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation. Solve for the

5
unknown to calculate for the equilibrium concentrations of H2 and I2 and then
solve for K.
Solution: Let x = amount of H2 that changes to attain equilibrium
ICE Table
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

Initial 1.000 x 10–3 M 2.000 x 10–3
M 0
Change -x -x + 2x
Equilibrium 1.000 x 10–3
M-x 2.000 x 10–3 M - x 1.870 x 10–3 M
[HI]eq = 2x = 1.870 x 10–3 M

1.870 x 10-3 M
x =
2
x = 9.350 x 10-4 M
[H2]eq = 1.000 x 10–3 M - x

= 1.000 x 10–3 M - 9.350 x 10-4 M
= 6.500 x 10-5 M
[I2]eq = 2.000 x 10–3 M - x

= 2.000 x 10–3 M - 9.350 x 10-4 M
= 1.065 x 10-3 M
[HI]2
Answer: K =
[H2 ][I2 ]
2
[1.870 x 10-3 M]
K =
[6.500 x 10-5 M][1.065 x 10-3 M]
K = 50.5
• Calculating equilibrium concentrations/ partial pressures from initial concentrations/

partial pressures and K values
Sample Problem 5. For the equilibrium Br2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ 2BrCl(g), the equilibrium constant
K is 7.00 at 400 K. If a cylinder is charged with BrCl (g) at an initial pressure of 1.00 atm
and the system is allowed to come to equilibrium, what is the equilibrium partial pressure
of BrCl?
Solution: Let x = amount of BrCl that changes to attain equilibrium.
ICE Table
Br2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ 2BrCl(g)
Initial 0 0 1.00 atm
Change +x +x - 2x
Equilibrium x x 1.00 atm - 2x
[PBrCl ]2
K =
[PBr2 ][PCl2 ]
[1.00 - 2x]2
7.00 =
[x][x]
6
1.00 atm-2x
√7.00 = √
x2
1.00-2x
2.65 =
x
2.65x = 1.00 – 2x
4.65x = 1.00
1.00
x =
4.65
x = 0.215
Answer:
(PBrCl)eq = 1.00 atm – 2x
(PBrCl)eq = 1.00 atm – 2 (0.215 atm)
(PBrCl)eq = 0.570 atm
• Le Chatelier’s Principle
We can qualitatively predict the effects of changes in concentration, pressure, and
temperature on a system at equilibrium by using Le Chatelier’s principle, which states when
stress is introduced into a system in equilibrium, the system will shift in order to relieve the
stress and regain equilibrium.
Change in Concentration
When the concentration of either a reactant or a product is increased, the equilibrium shifts
into the direction that would consume that added component. If the concentration is
decreased, then the equilibrium shifts into the direction that replenishes the lost
component.
Action Shift in Equilibrium

Adding more reactants Favors the forward reaction
Adding more products Favors the reverse reaction
Removing a reactant Favors the reverse reaction
Removing a product Favors the forward reaction
Figure 1. Lever-and-fulcrum analogy of equilibrium shift with

(a) addition or (b) removal of a reactant

7
Source: Adapted from Bayquen & Peña, General Chemistry 2, 137, Fig. 6-1.
Change in Temperature
When the temperature is increased, the reaction which consumes the applied heat
is favored i.e. the reaction which is endothermic. When the temperature is decreased, the
reaction which produces heat is favored i.e. the reaction which is exothermic.
Another way of interpreting the results is to treat heat as either a reactant or product.
When heat is added, equilibrium shifts to the reaction that consumes it. The same
generalization on the effect of changes in concentration is applied.
Change in Pressure (or Volume)

Changes in pressure due to changes in the volume of the container affect chemical
equilibrium. When the pressure is increased by decreasing the volume of the container,
the system adjusts by reducing the total pressure exerted by the gas particles present. The
equilibrium shifts toward the formation of a lesser number of gas particles.
Addition of a Catalyst
Catalyst can speed up the rate of a chemical reaction but they cannot affect the
system in equilibrium. If the catalyst can increase the rate of the forward reaction, it can
also increase the rate of the reverse reaction. Therefore, the catalyst only shortens the time
it takes to reach equilibrium but it has no effect on the equilibrium position.
Sample Problem. The Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen gas is an exothermic process.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇋ 2 NH3 (g) ∆Hrxn = -92.4 kJ
What will be the effect of the following condition on the equilibrium of the system?
A. Adding more H2
B. Removing N2
C. Removing NH3
D. Increasing the pressure in the reaction vessel
E. Decreasing the temperature of the system
Solution:
A. Adding H2 will favor the forward reaction.
B. Removing N2 will favor the reverse reaction.
C. Removing NH3 will favor the forward reaction.
D. Four moles of gas will produce two moles of NH3. An increase in pressure will shift
towards lesser number of gas particles. Thus, it will favor the formation of NH3.
E. The production of NH3 is an exothermic process, it will favor the forward reaction.

8
Activity 1. Write the Expression.
Learning Objectives: Write equilibrium constant expression for a given balanced chemical
equation for homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria.
What to do: Identify if the equilibrium is homogeneous or heterogeneous. Write both Kc and Kp for
each reversible reaction.
Homogeneous/
Reversible Reaction Kc Kp
Heterogeneous
1) 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇋ 2 SO3 (g)
2) 2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) ⇋ (NH4)2SO4 (s)
3) S (s) + H2SO3 (aq) ⇋ H2S2O3 (aq)
4) CH4 (g) + 2H2S (g) ⇋ CS2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
5) C (s) + 2H2 (g) ⇋ CH4 (g)
Activity 2. Solve Me!
Learning Objectives: Solve problems involving equilibrium constant.

What you need: Pen, paper and calculator.
What to do: Solve the following problems. Write your solutions in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Calculate Kp for the following reaction:

PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ⇋ PCl5 (g) Kc = 1.67 at 500 K
2. At a particular temperature, a 3.0-L flask contains 2.4 moles of Cl2, 1.0 mole of NOCl, and
4.5 x 10-3 mole of NO. Calculate K at this temperature for the following reaction:
2 NOCl (g) ⇋ 2NO (g) + Cl2 (g)
3. The following equilibrium pressures at a certain temperature were observed for the reaction
2 NO2 (g) ⇋ 2NO (g) + O2 (g)
PNO2 = 0.55 atm

PNO = 6.5 x 10-5 atm
PO2 = 4.5 x 10-5 atm
Calculate the value for the equilibrium constant Kp at this temperature.
4. The atmospheric oxidation of nitrogen monoxide, 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) ⇋ 2NO2 (g), was studied
at 184°C with initial pressures of 1.00 atm of NO and 1.000 atm of O2. At equilibrium
PO2 = 0.56 atm. Calculate Kp.

9
5. To study the reaction between ammonia and oxygen, 4 NH3 (g) + 7 O2 (g) ⇋ 2N2O4 (g) + 6
H2O(g) a flask was filled with 2.40 M NH3 and 2.40 M O2 at a particular temperature; the
reaction proceed, and at equilibrium [N2O4] = 0.134 M. Calculate Kc.
Activity 3. Predict!
Learning Objectives: Predict the effects of change in concentration, pressure and temperature on
a system in equilibrium.
What you need: Pen and paper.
What to do: Predict how will the following conditions affect the equilibrium of the system.
1. Consider the equilibrium
N2O4 (g) ⇋ 2NO2 (g) ∆H° = 58.0 kJ
in which direction will the equilibrium shift when:

A. N2O4 is added
B. NO2 is removed
C. the pressure is increased by addition of N2
D. the volume is increased
E. temperature is decreased
2. For the reaction
PCl5 (g) ⇋ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ∆H° = 87.9 kJ
in which direction will the equilibrium shift when

A. Cl2 (g) is removed
B. temperature is decreased
C. the volume of the reaction system is increased
D. PCl3 (g) is added
Reflection
Oceans absorb large amount of CO2 from the atmosphere. This may sound like a good thing,
but it is not. Emissions from vehicles and industries contribute high amount of carbon dioxide in
the air causing the ocean to be more acidic. Marine organisms also contribute to the CO 2
concentration through respiration. Let’s analyze the chemical reaction below.
CO2(g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2CO (aq)
More CO2 shifts the equilibrium towards producing more carbonic acid, H2CO. The low
temperature in the colder regions of the globe also favors the dissolution.
Ocean acidification is quite complex. Phytoplankton cannot survive the acidic condition.
Organisms that depend on plankton for food will also be affected. Acidification can also lead to
coral bleaching and destruction. Moreover, calcium carbonate which makes up shells of marine
organisms is soluble in acidic conditions.
Despite all these, note that the dissolution of CO2 in water is a reversible process. Thus,
reducing the amount of CO2 in the air should reverse and minimize its adverse effect.
With that in mind, what can you contribute as a SHS student to reduce the adverse
effects of too much CO2? Make a short essay. Your answer should consist of at most five (5)
sentences. Write your essay on a separate sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubric:
10
Reflection Rubric

2 Practical application is explained but not consistent to the
concepts.
Bayquen, Aristea V., and Gardee T. Peña. 2016. General Chemistry 1. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc.
Patalinghug, Wyona C., Vic Marie I. Camacho, Fortunato B. Sevilla III, and Maria Cristina D.
Singson. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 1. Quezon
City: Commission on Higher Education.
Silberberg, Martin S., and Amateis, Patricia. 2018. Chemistry: the Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change: Advanced Topics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Whitten, K. 2007. Chemistry. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Cengage Learning.
Answer Key
5. 3.69 x 10-8
e. left
4. 1.3 x 10-4
d. right d. left
3. 6.3 x 10-13 c. no shift c. right
2. 1.7 x 10-5 b. right b. left
1. 4.07 x 10-2 2. a. right 1. a. right
Activity 2. Activity 3. Activity 3.

11

Quarter 4 – Week 6A: Acid-Base Equilibria
First Edition, 2021
Writer Ryan Paul M. Vales

Regional Team Relyn D. Raza, PhD
Ace Michael B. Magalso

Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Myra Joy B. Montero


Author: Ryan Paul M. Vales

General Chemistry 2, Quarter 4, Week 6A
ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
 Most Essential Learning Competencies:

- Define Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-153)
- Discuss the acid-base property of water (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-154)
- Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-156)
 Specific Learning Objectives:
1. Define Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases.
2. Identify Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases in chemical equations.
3. Identify conjugate acids and bases in chemical equations.
4. Discuss the acid-base property of water.
5. Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
6. Define the pH scale as a measure of acidity/basicity of solution
7. Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
Key Concepts
A. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
 Substances may be acidic, basic or neutral. To differentiate acids and bases, Arrhenius,
Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis definitions can be used. The Arrhenius definition can be stated
as “Arrhenius acids form hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution while Arrhenius bases
form hydroxide ions (OH-)”. The Lewis’ theory uses structure and bonding to describe
acids and bases and specifically stated that “an acid accepts an electron pair while a
base donates an electron pair”.
 In 1923, Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently
developed the definition of acids and bases based on the substance’s ability to either donate
or accept protons (Hydrogen ions).
 Bronsted-Lowry acid is any substance that can donate a proton (H+) and a Bronsted-
Lowry base is a substance that can accept a proton (H+). A substance that can function
as both a Bronsted-Lowry acid and Bronsted-Lowry base is called amphoteric.
 Notice that hydrogen ion (H+) is referred to as proton. Recall that a hydrogen ion (H+) is a
hydrogen atom that has lost an electron. Since hydrogen has only one electron, a
hydrogen atom that has lost an electron is simply a particle that contains 1 proton in the
nucleus. Thus, a hydrogen ion is a proton.
 Consider the equation below.
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) ⟶ NH4+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
The Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases states that the acid donates a proton (H+)
and the base accepts a proton (H+). In the equation above, the hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the
reactant becomes a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-) in the product. It donated the H+
and is therefore the proton donor. On the other hand, ammonia (NH3) becomes a positively

charged ammonium ion (NH4+), which means that NH3 accepted a proton. Therefore, HCl is
a Bronsted-Lowry acid and NH3 is a Bronsted-Lowry base.
 The equation below shows another example of Bronsted-Lowry acid and base.
HCl + H2O ⟶ Cl- + H3O+
Here, HCl donates a proton (H+) to H2O which accepts it, forming a positively charged
hydronium ion (H3O+) and a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-). Therefore, HCl is a
Bronsted-Lowry acid (proton donor) while H2O is a Bronsted-Lowry base (proton acceptor).
 Now consider the following equations:
(1) HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq)
(2) HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ CO32−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
In equation 1, HCO3− accepts a proton (H+) to form H2CO3 and is therefore a Bronsted-Lowry
base.
In equation 2, HCO3− donates a proton (H+) to form CO32- and is therefore a Bronsted-Lowry
acid.
HCO3− is an example of an amphoteric species. Recall that amphoteric species are
those which can act as either an acid or a base; in some situations, they donate a proton,
and in other circumstances, they accept a proton. Another common example of
amphoteric species is water.
 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
 Bronsted and Lowry theorized that in acid-base reactions, there are actually pairs of
acids and bases in the reaction itself. That is, for every acid there is a conjugate base
associated with that acid. The conjugate base is the result of the acid losing (or
donating) a proton (H+). The figure below shows examples of acid and its conjugate
base.
Acid Conjugate Base
HCl ⟶ Cl-
H2SO4 ⟶ HSO4-
NH4 + ⟶ NH3
H2CO3 ⟶ HCO3-
CH3COOH ⟶ CH3COO-
HBr ⟶ Br-
HNO3 ⟶ NO3-
Notice that the difference between the conjugate base and the acid associated with it
is only a proton.
 There is also a corresponding conjugate acid for every base in an acid-base reaction.
The conjugate acid is the result of the base gaining (or accepting) a proton (H+). The
figure below shows examples of base and its corresponding conjugate acid.
Base Conjugate Acid
H2O ⟶ H3O+
NH3 ⟶ NH4+
CO32- ⟶ HCO3-
OH- ⟶ HOH
HCO3- ⟶ H2CO3
CN- ⟶ HCN
NH2- ⟶ NH3

 Examine the reaction between water and acetic acid. Identify the conjugate acids and
bases in the given acid-base reaction.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ CH3COO−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Step 1: Identify the acid and base on the reactant side.
CH3COOH donates a proton (H+) forming CH3COO−, so it is the acid. H2O
accepts proton (H+) forming H3O+, so it is the base.
Step 2: Identify the conjugate acid and base on the product side.
Check the product side to determine what product has lost a proton (this is
the conjugate base) and which product has gained a proton (this is the
conjugate acid).
CH3COO− is the conjugate base of CH3COOH. H3O+ is the conjugate acid of
H2O.
The conjugate acid/base pairs are CH3COOH/CH3COO- and H3O+/H2O.
 Consider this second example. Identify the conjugate acid-base pair.
HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq)
Step 1: Identify the acid and base on the reactant side.
HCO3- is the base and H2O is the acid.
Step 2: Identify the conjugate acid and base on the product side.
H2CO3 is the conjugate acid and OH- is the conjugate base.
Hence, the conjugate acid-base pairs are HCO3-/H2CO3 and H2O/OH-.
B. The Acid-Base Properties of Water

 One of the special properties of water is its being an amphoteric substance. It can function
as an acid or as a base. It is also a very weak electrolyte; thus, it is a poor conductor of
electricity. It undergoes ionization to a small extent as illustrated below:
H2O(l) ⇋ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
This reaction is also known as autoionization (partial ionization) of water. Within the
framework of Bronsted, autoionization of water can be described by the following
equation.
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇋ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
acid base conjugate acid conjugate base
The equation above shows that one water molecule acts as an acid and another molecule
as a base. Therefore, the conjugate acid-base pairs are H2O(acid)/OH- and H3O+/H2O(base).
It does not make any difference which of the equations above is used to explain the
ionization of water. Even though the second equation is more appropriate, the first equation
offers the simplistic view of the ionization. Also, these equations show that the [H3O+] is the
same as [H+]. Therefore, we can use these interchangeably.
 Both H+ and H3O+ are utilized interchangeably in chemistry notation. They are considered
equivalent notations in acid/base chemistry. The H3O+ ion is considered to be the same as
H+ ion as it is the H+ ion joined to a water molecule. The proton (H+) cannot exist solitarily
in aqueous solution, due to its positive charge it is attracted to the electrons in water
molecules and the symbol H3O+ is used to represent this transfer.

 Let us use the following equation that represents the ionization of water:
H2O(l) ⇋ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
According to the concept of chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constant (Keq) is equal to
the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the products of the
concentrations of the reactants:
[H+][OH-]
Keq =
[H2O]
In pure water and dilute solutions and at constant temperature, the concentration of water
is constant. So we can rearrange the equation by collecting the constant terms on one side,
the Keq expression becomes:
Keq[H2O] = [H+][OH-]
Since Keq and water concentration are both constant, then it is replaced by:
Kw = [H+][OH-]
Kw is known as the ion-product of water; it is the product of molar concentrations of
hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxide ion (OH-) at a particular temperature.
In pure water at 25⁰C, the concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal and were found to be
[H+] = [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7M
Substituting these values into the equation for the ion-product of water, we have Kw at 25⁰C
as
Kw = [H+][OH-] = (1.0 x 10-7) (1.0 x 10-7) = 1.0 x 10-14
Even when the concentrations of hydrogen ion and hydroxide ions are not the same, the
value of Kw being constant holds true for all aqueous solutions at 25⁰C.
Since Kw is always equal to 1.0 x 10-14 at 25⁰C, this equation is very useful in calculating
the [H+] or [OH-] when either of the two is given, through the following equations:
Kw 1.0x10-14 Kw 1.0x10-14
[H+] = = and [OH-] = =
[OH-] [OH-] [H+] [H+]
 Remember:
 If [H+] or [H3O+] = [OH-], it is a neutral solution.
 If [H+] or [H3O+] > [OH-], it is an acidic solution.
 If [H+] or [H3O+] < [OH-], it is a basic solution.
Sample Problem:
What is the hydroxide ion concentration in an aqueous solution if [H+] is 2.5x10-3M? Is the
solution acidic, basic or neutral?
Kw 1.0x10-14
[OH-] = = = 4.0x10-12 M
[H+] 2.5x10-3
The solution is acidic since [H+] = 2.5x10-3M is greater than [OH-] = 4.0x10-12M.

C. The pH Scale
 The hydrogen or hydronium ion concentration for many solutions is usually very small. For
instance, the concentration of hydrogen ion in pure water is 1x10 -7 M. In stomach, the
concentration of HCl is 0.01 M or 1x10-2 M. For strongly basic solutions, the [H+] may be
10-12 M or 10-13 M. Since the values are very small, it is better to use a scale that will make
the measurements compact and will make the comparison of values clearer, thus the use
of pH scale.
Figure 1. pH Scale
Source: Ophardt, C. (2003). pH Scale. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/184ph.html
A solution with more H+ ions than OH- ion is acidic. For aqueous solutions at 25⁰C, that
matches to pH less than 7.
A solution with more OH- ions than H+ ion is basic. For aqueous solutions at 25⁰C, that
corresponds to pH greater than 7.
A solution with the same concentration of H+ and OH- ions is neutral. For aqueous solutions
at 25⁰C, that corresponds to pH = 7.
 Soren Sorenson, a Danish biochemist, proposed the term pH to refer to the “potential of
hydrogen ion”. He defined the “p” as the negative of the logarithm (-log) of [H+]. That is, pH
is the negative logarithm of the molarity of hydrogen ion. The pOH is the negative logarithm
of the molarity of OH-, and pKw is the negative logarithm of the ion-product constant of water.
These definitions give the following equations:
pH = -log[H+] or pH = -log[H3O+]
pOH = -log[OH-]
pKw = -log[Kw]
Based on the discussion in section B (The Acid-Base Properties of Water), Kw = [H+][OH−]. If
this is expressed in terms of logarithms, then:
\
pKw = pH + pOH
Since at room temperature (25⁰C),
Kw = 1.0×10−14, then
pKw = -log(1.0×10−14) = 14, so
14 = pH + pOH

 The scale typically starts from 0 and ends at 14. To recall, if the pH < 7, the solution is an
acid. If pH > 7, the solution is basic. If pH = pOH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
 Considering that pH is a logarithmic scale, each increase on the scale entails a decrease by
the factor of ten on the concentration of H+. That is, one unit change in pH represents a
tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration. So, if substance A has a pH of 1 and
substance B has a pH of 2, substance A has a molarity ten times more concentrated than
substance B; substance A is 10 times more acidic than substance B.
 The pH scale does not have upper nor lower bounds since pH is an indication of the
concentration of H+. The concentration of H+ in water in most solutions typically fall between
a range of 1 M (pH=0) and 10-14 M (pH=14), hence a range of 0-14 provides a sensible (but
not absolute) “ends” for the scale. Since the concentrations of H3O+ or H+ ions can exceed
one molar, it is possible to have pH below zero and above 14.
 The following figure illustrates the pH of common solutions and where they are on the scale:
 Sample problem:
What is the pH of the blood if its [H+] is 3.50 x 10-8 M? Is the blood acidic or basic? What is
the
Figure 2. The pH Scale with Common Solutions (at 25⁰C)

Source: The pH Scale. (2021, March 20). Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/25228

 Calculating pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions
 Sample Problem:
What is the pH of the blood if its [H+] is 3.50 x 10 -8 M? Is the blood acidic or basic?
What is the pOH and the [OH-]?
Given: [H+] = 3.50 x 10-8 M
Required: pH of the blood, determine if it is acidic or basic, pOH, [OH-]
Equations:
 Determine the pH and describe if it is acidic or basic
pH = -log[H+]
= -log (3.50 x 10-8)
pH = 7.46
(It is slightly basic.)
 Determine the [OH-]

Kw 1.0x10-14
[OH-] = + = = 2.9x10-7 M
[H ] 3.50x10-8
 Determine the pOH

pOH = -log[OH-]
= -log (2.9x10-7)
pOH = 6.54
Alternatively, the pOH can be solved this way too:

pKw = pH + pOH, so
pOH = pKw – pH (based on the discussion, typically pKw = 14)
= 14 – 7.46
pOH = 6.54

Activity 1. Comprehension Check!
1. Define Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases.
2. Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
3. Define the pH scale as a measure of acidity/basicity of solution
4. Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
What you need: Pen, calculator
What to do: Read each item carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. For
calculations, show all steps leading to the final answer.
1. Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is not:
a. A Bronsted-Lowry acid accepts hydrogen ions.
b. Conjugate acid is created when a base donates a proton.
c. When water molecule undergoes autoionization, a proton is transferred from one water
molecule to another to produce hydroxide ion and hydronium ion.
d. Water is considered amphoteric because it always acts as acid during a reaction.
e. It is impossible to have pH beyond 14 and below 0 since the pH scale ranges from 0-14
only.
f. In the pH scale, two unit change in pH represents a twentyfold change in the hydrogen
ion concentration.
g. The value of Kw being constant holds true for all aqueous solutions at 25⁰C.
h. Basic solutions have more OH- ions than H+ ions.
i. H+ and H3O+ are considered equivalent notations in acid-base chemistry.
j. At 25⁰C, neutral solutions have the same concentration of H+ and OH- ions.
2. The concentration of OH- ions in a particular household ammonia cleaning solution is

0.075M. What is the H+ ion concentration?
3. The pH of normal rain water is 5.80. What will be the pH of rainwater that falls near a coal-
burning power plant if its [H+] is 5.98 x 10-4 M? Compare the pH values of the normal
rainwater and the rainwater that falls near a coal-burning power plant.
4. The following table summarizes the [H+], [OH-], pH, pOH, and type of solution of some
common household items. Fill out the missing information based on the available data.
Type of solution
Solution [H+] [OH-] pH pOH
(acid, base, neutral)
Lemon juice 2.0x10-3 M
Shampoo 1.5x10-9 M
Vinegar 2.5
Soap 3.5

Activity 2. Acidic or Basic?
1. Identify Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases in chemical equations.
2. Identify conjugate acids and bases in chemical equations.
3. Discuss the acid-base property of water.
What to do: Read each item carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
Part A. Identify the Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases and its conjugated acids and bases in each
of the following chemical equations.
Equation Acid Base Conjugate Base Conjugate Acid

Example: HCl NH3 NH4+
Cl-
HCl + NH3 ⟶ NH4+ + Cl-
1. H2O + HF ⇋ F- + H3O+
2. HCOOH + CN- ⇋ HCN + HCOO-
3. CO32- + NH4+ ⇋ HCO3- + NH3
4. H2PO4- + OH- ⇋ HPO42- + H2O
5. H2SO4 + N2H5+ ⇋ HSO4- + N2H62+
Part B
1. Write a chemical equation that illustrates the autoionization of water.

2. Write the expression for the ion-product constant for water, Kw. Why is [H2O] absent from
this expression?
3. If a neutral solution of water, with pH = 7.00, is heated to 50° C, the pH drops to 6.63. Does
this mean that the concentration of [H+] is greater than the concentration of [OH-]? Explain.
Reflection
The pH level of the human blood must be maintained at a pH within 7.35-7.45. Excess
acidity or basicity in the blood, brought about by the food we take, would lead to disorder in the
metabolic processes; at times, the right amount of oxygen will not be circulated to the tissues. Our
natural filter, the kidneys, help preserve the normal pH level of the body. In at most five (5)
sentences, discuss ways that we can do so as not to overwork our kidneys in order to maintain
the pH balance of our body.
Write your responses on a separate sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubrics:
Reflection Rubric
concepts, but with minimal misconception.
concepts and has many misconceptions.
0 No discussion

Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B., Shirley R. Jusayan, Veronica C. Sabularse, Joseph Carmelo K. San
Pascual, and Aprhodite M. Macale. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry
2. Quezon City, Philippines: Commission on Higher Education, 2016.
Brønsted Concept of Acids and Bases. (2021, April 9). Retrieved April 9, 2021, from
Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases. (2021). Retrieved April 9, 2021, from
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/14-1-bronsted-lowry-acids-and-bases/
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
CK-12 Foundation. (2014, August 2). Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases. Retrieved April 10, 2021,
from https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-chemistry-second-edition/r18/section/20.5/
Determining and Calculating pH. (2020, August 16). Retrieved April 16, 2021, from
Diversity of Materials in the Environment: Acids and Bases . (2014). Retrieved April 10, 2021,
from http://depedcsjdm.weebly.com/uploads/7/9/1/6/7916797/p_46-
60_qtr_1_module_4_acids__bases.pdf
The Acid-Base Properties of water and Ion Product. (2021). Retrieved April 9, 2021, from
https://faculty.ncc.edu/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xZ3v05k1gPc%3D&tabid=1896
The pH Scale. (2021, March 20). Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
Answer Key
and the pH at which [H+] = [OH-] changes.
concentrations of H+ and OH-. As the temperature of water changes, the value of Kw changes,
3. No. In pure water, the only source of H+ is the autoionization reaction, which produces equal
considered a pure liquid and is eliminated from the equilibrium expression.
2. Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]. Because the concentration of H2O remains essentially constant, it is
1. H2O (l) + H2O (l) ⇋ H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Part B
N2H62+ HSO4- N2H5+ H2SO4 H2SO4 + N2H5+ ⇋ HSO4- + N2H62+ 5.

H2O HPO42- OH- H2PO4- H2PO4- + OH- ⇋ HPO42- + H2O 4.
HCO3- NH3 CO32- NH4+ CO32- + NH4+ ⇋ HCO3- + NH3 3.
HCN HCOO- CN- HCOOH HCOOH + CN- ⇋ HCN + HCOO- 2.
H3O+ F- H2O HF H2O + HF ⇋ F- + H3O+ 1.
Conjugate Acid Conjugate Base Base Acid Equation
Part A
Activity 2:
**Since pOH=-log[OH-], to determine the [OH-] given the pOH, you may use this: 10-pOH = [OH-]
*Since pH=-log[H+], to determine the [H+] given the pH, you may use this: 10-pH = [H+]
base 3.5 10.5 3.2x10-4 M** 3.1x10-11 M Soap
acid 11.5 2.5 3.13x10-12 M 3.2x10-3 M* Vinegar
acid 8.8 5.2 1.5x10-9 M 6.7x10-6 M Shampoo
acid 11.3 2.7 5.0x10-12 M 2.0x10-3 M Lemon juice
(acid, base, neutral)
pOH pH [OH-] [H+] Solution
Type of solution
4. Answer to item 4:
burning power plant is lower than the pH of normal rainwater indicating acidic rainfall.
3. pH = -log[H+]= -log (5.98 x 10-4) = 3.22; The pH of the rainwater that falls near a coal-
2. [H+] = [OHw -] = 0.075 = 1.3x10-13 M
K 1.0x10-14
1. a. False; b. False; c. True; d. False; e. False; f. True; g. True; h. True; i. True; j. True
Activity 1:


Quarter 4 – Week 6B: Acid-Base Equilibria
First Edition, 2021
Writer Cristobert C. Ayaton
Editors: Relyn D. Raza

Regional Team Ace Michael B. Magalso
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad

Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Myra Joy B. Montero
Ryan Paul M. Vales



1
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ________________________________
ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA

• Describe how a buffer solution maintains its pH (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-160)
• Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
(STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-161)
1. Explain the common-ion effect;
2. Describe how a buffer solution functions;
3. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using Henderson-Hasselbalch equation; and
4. Appreciate the importance of buffer solutions in real-life.
Key Concepts
THE COMMON-ION EFFECT
Consider solutions that contain a weak acid, such as acetic acid (CH3COOH), and a soluble
salt of that acid, such as sodium acetate (CH3COONa). Notice that such solutions contain two
substances that has a common ion, which in this case is an acetate ion (CH3COO‾ ).
Sodium acetate, being a soluble ionic compound and a strong electrolyte, dissociates
completely in aqueous solution into its component ions, Na+ and CH3COO‾:
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) [1]
In contrast, acetic acid is a weak electrolyte and ionizes partially in aqueous solution as
represented by its dynamic equilibrium:
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) [2]
The presence of a common ion suppresses the ionization of a weak acid or a weak base. The
addition of CH3COO‾ ions from CH3COONa to a solution of CH3COOH in water will suppress the
ionization of CH3COOH and consequently causes the equilibrium concentrations of the substances
in Equation 2 to shift from right to left, thereby decreasing the equilibrium concentration of
hydrogen ion (H+). Thus, a solution containing both CH3COOH and CH3COONa will be less acidic
than a solution containing only CH3COOH at the same concentration. In other words, the addition
of acetate ions causes the acetic acid to ionize less than it normally would.
The common-ion effect is the shift in equilibrium caused by the addition of a compound
having a common ion with the dissolved substance.
BUFFERS
A buffer solution (or simply buffer) is a solution of (1) a weak acid or a weak base and
(2) its salt; both components must be present. The solution has the ability to resist changes in
pH upon the addition of small amounts of either strong acid or strong base.

2
Composition and Action of Buffers
A buffer contains high concentrations (10-3 M or more) of a weak conjugate acid-base pair.
It resists changes in pH because it contains (1) relatively large amount of acid to neutralize any
added OH‾ ions from a small amount of strong base and (2) a relatively large amount of base to
neutralize any added H+ ions from a small amount of strong acid. However, the acid and the base
composing the buffer must not consume each other through a neutralization reaction. To satisfy
these requirements, a buffer must contain a weak acid and its conjugate base (supplied by a salt)
or a weak base and its conjugate acid (supplied by a salt).
Example of a weak conjugate acid-base pair is CH3COOH/CH3COO‾ (or we can write it as

CH3COOH/CH3COONa). It can be prepared by adding comparable molar amounts of acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and its salt sodium acetate (CH3COONa) to water. A solution containing these two
substances has the ability to neutralize an added acid or base. The dissociation of sodium acetate
in water is presented by Equation [1]. When we add an acid to the solution, the H+ ions will be
neutralized by the conjugate base in the buffer, CH 3COO‾, as shown by the equation
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
When we add a base to the solution, the OH‾ ions will be neutralized by the acid in the buffer as
shown by the equation
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
The effectiveness of a buffer solution is called its buffering capacity. It depends on the amount of
acid and base from which the buffer is made. The larger the amount, the greater the buffering
capacity.
Calculating the pH of a Buffer
Consider a general formula of an acid, HA. Its conjugate base, A‾, can be supplied from one
of its salts, MA, where M+ could be Na+, K+, or any other cation that does not react with water. The
acid-dissociation equilibrium can be represented by the equation
𝐻𝐴(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴− (𝑎𝑞) [3]
The corresponding acid-dissociation constant, Ka, can be expressed as
[𝐻 + ][𝐴− ]
𝐾𝑎 = [4]
[𝐻𝐴]
where [H+], [A‾], and [HA] represent concentrations of H+ ions, the conjugate base, A‾, and the
acid, HA, respectively.
Solving Equation [4] for [H+], we have
𝐾𝑎 [𝐻𝐴]
[𝐻 + ] = [5]
[𝐴− ]
From Equation [5], we can say that the [H+] and, thus, the pH depend on two factors: (1) the value
of Ka for the weak acid component of the buffer and (2) the ratio of the concentrations of the
conjugate acid-base pair, [HA]/[A‾].
Taking the negative logarithm on both sides of Equation [5], we have

3
[𝐻𝐴] [𝐻𝐴]
− log[𝐻 + ] = − log (𝐾𝑎 ) = −log 𝐾𝑎 − log [6]
[𝐴− ] [𝐴− ]
Recall that -log[H+] = pH and, thus, -log Ka = pKa, we now have
[𝐻𝐴] [𝐴− ]
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 − log = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log [7]
[𝐴− ] [𝐻𝐴]
(Remember the logarithm rules.)
A more general form of Equation [7] is
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒]
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log [8]
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
Equation [7] or [8] is called the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. If we know the Ka and
concentrations of the acid and the salt of the acid, we can calculate the pH of the buffer solution.
In doing equilibrium problem calculations involving common-ion effect, we can assume to

neglect the equilibrium concentrations of the acid and base in the buffer solution given that:
1. Concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair are both reasonably high (≥ 0.1 M).
2. If both concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair are less than 0.1 M, at least they are
a thousand times larger than Ka.
Therefore, we can usually use the initial concentrations of the acid and base components of the
buffer directly in the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Note that the H-H equation is just an
approximation, and a more detailed calculation may need to be performed to obtain equilibrium
concentrations.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1: What is the pH of a buffer that is 0.12 M in lactic acid, CH3CH(OH)COOH
and 0.10 M in sodium lactate, CH3CH(OH)COONa? For lactic acid, Ka = 1.4 x 10-4.
STRATEGY AND ANSWER: The conjugate acid-base pair is CH3CH(OH)COOH/CH3CH(OH)COO‾.

The concentration of the base, [base] or [CH3CH(OH)COO‾] = 0.10 M and the concentration of the
acid, [acid] or [CH3CH(OH)COOH] = 0.12 M. From the given value of K a, we can calculate pKa as
𝑝𝐾𝑎 = − log(1.4 × 10−4 ) = 3.85
Since we already know the values of pKa, [base], and [acid], we can now calculate the pH of the
buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒] 0.10 𝑀
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log = 3.85 + log ( ) = 3.77
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑] 0.12 𝑀
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2: Calculate the pH of a 0.30 M NH3/0.36 M NH4Cl buffer system. Ka for NH4+
= 5.6 x 10-10.
STRATEGY AND ANSWER: The conjugate acid-base pair is NH3/NH4+. The concentration of the
base, [base] or [NH3] = 0.30 M and the concentration of the acid, [acid] or [NH 4+] = 0.36 M. From
the given value of Ka, we can calculate pKa as
𝑝𝐾𝑎 = − log(5.6 × 10−10 ) = 9.25

4
Since we already know the values of pKa, [base], and [acid], we can now calculate the pH of the
buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒] 0.30 𝑀
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log = 9.25 + log ( ) = 9.17
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑] 0.36 𝑀
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3: Calculate the pH of a buffer system containing 0.10 M CH3COOH and 0.10
M CH3COONa. Ka = 1.8 x 10-5
ANSWER: [base] = 0.10 M, [acid] = 0.10 M, and pK a = 4.74
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒] 0.10 𝑀
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log = 4.74 + log ( ) = 4.74
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑] 0.10 𝑀
In this problem, pH = pKa. This happens when [base] = [acid]. Recall that log (1) = 0.
Activity 1. Let’s Check What You Have Learned
Objectives:
1. Explain the common-ion effect; and
2. Describe how a buffer solution functions.

What to do: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. For a generic equilibrium 𝐻𝐴(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴− (𝑎𝑞), which of these statements is true?
A. The equilibrium constant for this reaction changes as the pH changes.

B. If you add the soluble salt KA to a solution of HA that is at equilibrium, the pH would
increase.
C. If you add the soluble salt KA to a solution of HA that is at equilibrium, the concentration
of A- would decrease.
D. If you add the soluble salt KA to a solution of HA that is at equilibrium, the concentration
of HA would decrease.
2. Which acid-base pair can be a buffer system?
A. HCl / KCl C. H2SO4 / HSO4‾

B. HNO3 / NO3‾ D. H3PO4 / NaH2PO4
3. Perchloric acid, HClO4, is a strong acid and its conjugate base perchlorate ion, ClO4‾ is an
extremely weak base. What can we infer from this statement?
A. The solution cannot act as a buffer system since perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, readily combines
with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4.
B. The solution can act as a buffer system since perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, readily combines
with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4.
C. Perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, will not combine with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4. Thus,
the solution cannot act as a buffer system.
D. Perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, will not combine with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4. Thus,
the solution can absolutely act as a buffer system.

5
4. Which of the following correctly shows an effect to the pH of a buffer?
A. A buffer’s pH changes largely when no weak acid or base is added to it.

B. A buffer’s pH changes largely when a small amount of weak acid or base is added to it.
C. A buffer’s pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to
it.
D. A buffer’s pH changes very little when a large amount of strong acid or base is added to
it.
5. A buffer contains a weak acid, HA, and its conjugate base, A‾. The weak acid has a pKa of
4.5, and the buffer has a pH of 4.3. Without doing a calculation, which of these possibilities
is correct?
A. [HA] = [A‾]
B. [HA] > [A‾]
C. [HA] < [A‾]
D. [HA] ≥ [A‾]
Activity 2. Solve me!
Objective:
1. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

What to do: Answer as directed. Show your solution for necessary calculations. Write your
1. To mimic a blood buffer, a scientist prepared 1.00 L buffer containing 0.0025 mol carbonic
acid, H2CO3, and 0.025 mol hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3‾. Calculate the pH of the buffer.
The Ka of carbonic acid is 4.3 x 10-7.
2. The pH of an acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer is 4.50. Calculate the ratio

[CH3COO‾]/[CH3COOH]. Refer to Sample Problem 3 for the Ka value.
Hint: Let [CH3COO‾]/[CH3COOH] = x. If log 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑥 = 10𝑦 .
Read the selection below pertaining to “Ocean Acidification.”
Seawater is a weak basic solution, with pH values typically between 8.0 and 8.3. This pH
range is maintained through a carbonic acid buffer system similar to the one in blood. Just as in
our bodies, the carbonic acid buffer system can be perturbed by removing or adding CO2(g). The
concentration of dissolved CO2 in the ocean is sensitive to changes in atmospheric CO 2 levels.
According to studies, the atmospheric CO2 concentration has risen by approximately 30%
over the past three centuries. Human activity has played a prominent role in this increase.
Scientists estimate that one-third to one-half of the CO2 emissions resulting from human activity
have been absorbed by Earth’s oceans. While this absorption helps mitigate the greenhouse
gas effects of CO2, the extra CO2 in the ocean produces carbonic acid (H2CO3), which lowers
the pH.
If the amount of atmospheric CO2 continues to increase at the present rate, scientists
estimate that seawater pH will fall to 7.9 sometime over the next 50 years. While this change
might sound small, it has dramatic ramifications for oceanic ecosystems. Ocean acidification

6
makes it more difficult in exoskeleton formation for a number of marine organisms, including
stony corals, and existing shells may begin to dissolve.
Reflection: As a concerned individual, this calls for an act to mitigate the problem on ocean
acidification caused by anthropogenic emissions of CO2. In consideration to this perennial
challenge, we are left to answer a very important question: What can we do to help solve this
problem?
Your answer should consist at most five (5) sentences. Write your response on a separate sheet.
Be guided with the following rubric:
Reflection Rubric
concepts.
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B., Jusayan, Shirley R., Macale, Aphrodite M., Sabularse, Veronica C.,
and San Pascual, Joseph Carmelo K. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2. Quezon City: Commission on Higher Education.
Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., & Woodward, P. M. (2012). Chemistry:
The Central Science. (13th ed.) Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. 2016. Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Answer Key
Activity 1 – 1. B; 2. D; 3. C; 4. C; 5. B
Activity 2 – 1. pH = 7.37; 2. [CH3COO‾]/[CH3COOH] = x = 0.569

7
General Chemistry 2_Grade12 (STEM)

Quarter 4– Week 7: THE REDOX REACTIONS
First Edition, 2021
Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of
royalties.
etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every
effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the
respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Writer Emely M. Tragua
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Engr. Raul B. Galleros
Jesusa C. Olayon
Archie G. Layaog, PhD
Romeo A. Villarin

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Management Team Romeo O. Aprovechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division

Superintendent


0
General Chemistry 2, Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 7
THE REDOX REACTIONS
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCs)
1. Define oxidation and reduction reactions. STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-169

2. Balance redox reactions using the change in oxidation number method.
STEM_GC11ABIVf-g170

1. recognize redox reactions;
2. identify reducing and oxidizing agents in a given redox reaction;
3. balance redox equations using change in oxidation number method;
4. write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for a given redox reaction; and
5. balance a redox reaction using the half-reaction method.
Key Concepts
❖ Recognizing Redox Reactions
1. What are redox reactions?
Historically, the term “oxidation” referred to reactions of substances with Oxygen,

while “reduction” involved removal of Oxygen. Many known redox reactions today do not
involve reactions with Oxygen. Oxidation-reduction reactions are those that involve a
movement of electron or electrons from one particle to another. The movement of
electrons can be a complete transfer, such as in the formation of some ions, or a partial
transfer due to rearrangements in forming new covalent bonds. When electrons transfer,
there should be atoms that would give away electrons and atoms that would accept the
electrons. Therefore, redox reactions are made up of two half-processes that occur together:
the losing of electrons or oxidation and the gaining of electrons or reduction.
Example 1: Consider the reaction between magnesium (Mg) metal and oxygen (O2) gas. The
equation for the reaction is given below.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s)
The product of the reaction of the two elements, Mg metal, and O2 gas, is a white solid,
magnesium oxide, MgO. MgO is an ionic compound and is made up of Mg 2+ and O2- ions.
Oxidation Reaction: any chemical reaction in which an element increases in oxidation

number or loses electrons.
oxidation
0 +2 The +2 charge means that the Mg atom lost two
Example: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s) electrons to Oxygen.
(Mg is being oxidized)

1
Reduction Reaction: any chemical reaction in which an element decreases in oxidation
number or gains electrons.
reduction The -2 charge means that the O atom gains two
0 -2 electrons from Magnesium.
Example: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s)
(O is being reduced)
NOTE: oxidation cannot occur without reduction!
In the reaction between Mg and O2, the electrons lost by Mg were gained by O.
Electrons from Mg transferred to O.
The combustion or burning of Mg is a reaction that involved a transfer of electrons

between Mg and O. It is a redox reaction.
When Mg lost electrons, it was OXIDIZED. Loss of electrons is OXIDATION.

When O gained electrons, it was REDUCED. Gain of electrons is REDUCTION.
A helpful mnemonic:
**LEO says GER**

(Loss of Electrons; Oxidation)
(Gain of Electrons; Reduction)
Figure 1. Representation of Oxidation and Reduction

http:// classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/courses/bio225/chap05/Slide11.GIF)
Example 2. The reaction of hydrogen gas, H2, and fluorine gas F2 yields hydrogen fluoride,
HF, a covalent compound. No ions were formed, but the reaction is a redox reaction.
Was there electron transfer?
In H2, the electrons in each of the hydrogen atoms are evenly distributed between the
atoms since the two atoms attract the bonding electrons equally. That is also true in
F2.
However, the H – F bond is a polar bond, with the partially negative end of the dipole
at the fluorine end of the bond. This is because F is very electronegative and can pull
the bonding electrons towards itself and away from H, as shown in the next page.

2
Figure 2. Polarity in an HF molecule
Image source: www.chemwiki.ucdavis.edu
In the H – F bond, the bonding electrons are found closer to F atom, making it appear
that the electrons being shared have moved closer to F atom than to H atom. It is as
if H atom “lost” its electron and was “gained,” although just partially, by F atom.
The formation of HF from H2 and F2 is a redox reaction as illustrated in the two-half

reactions below.
2. Bookkeeping of electrons: Oxidation Numbers
A simple way of determining if a reaction is redox or not is by assigning oxidation

numbers to the elements involved in the reaction. The oxidation number of an atom
may be its actual or apparent charge in the substance.
Assigning oxidation numbers is like a bookkeeping technique that allows:

a. counting of the number of electrons lost /gained by a reactant, and
b. identifying the atom oxidized and the atom reduced.
Rules for Assigning oxidation numbers (ON):

1. A metal or nonmetal in the free state, which occurs as an element, is assigned an
oxidation number of zero (0).
e.g., all atoms in the following have ON of zero (0): Zn, H2, P4
2. A monoatomic ion has an oxidation number equal to its charge.
e.g., ON of Ca2+ is +2, ON of Br - is -1.
3. A. In its compounds, a hydrogen atom is usually assigned an ON of +1.
e.g., all H in H2O, HF, NH3, CH3COOH, H2SO4 are all +1.
B. In metallic hydride, a hydrogen atom is assigned an ON of -1
e.g., LiH, MgH2
4. In its compounds, an oxygen atom is assigned an ON of -2.
e.g., all O atoms in the oxygen-containing examples given for the previous rule is -
-2 except for peroxide, example H2O2 where the ON of hydrogen is +1 and oxygen
is -1.
5. In all its compounds, F has an ON of -1.
e.g., HF, NF3, Cl2F2, ClF3.
6.The sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements in any neutral atom or molecule
is zero.
e.g., the sum of ON of the following is zero: Al, H20, Br2, Cl2, F2, H2SO4
3
In H2O, each H has an ON of +1 and O has -2. Total ON is 2(+1) + -2 = 0
e.g., How to get the value of S in H2SO4?
H=+1;O=-2; S=?
2(H) +1 (S )+ 4(O)=0
2(+1) + S + 4(-2)=0
(+2) +S+(-8)=0
S = (+8)+(-2)
S = +6
7. The sum of the ON of all atoms in a polyatomic group is equal to the group's net
charge.
e.g., In PO43-, the ON of P is calculated as follows:
Net charge (or total ON) = -3
PO4 = -3
1(P) +4(O)= -3
P +4(-2)=-3
P=-3+8
P = +5
Sample Activity 1: Using the above rules, assign oxidation numbers for all atoms:
1. HCOOH
3. CO32−
(Answer: H = +1; O = -2; C = +2)
(Answer: C = +4; O = -2;)
2(H) +1(C) +2(O) =0 1(C) +3(O) =-2
2(+1) +1(+2) +2(-2) =0 1(+4) +3(-2) =-2
(+2) + (+2) + (-4) =0 (+4) + (-6) =-2
(+4) +(-4) =0
2. Ba (OH)2 4. NH4+
(Answer: N = -3; H = +1)
(Answer: H = +1; O = -2; Ba = +2)
1(N)+ 4(H)= +1
1(Ba)+2(O)+2(H)=0 1(-3) +4(+1) = +1
1(+2) +2(-2) +2(+1) =0 (-3) + (+4) = +1
(+2) +(-4) +(+2) =0
(+4) +(-4) =0
Sample Activity 2: Assign oxidation numbers above each atom of a compound in the
reactants and products:
HNO3(aq) + SO2(aq) —> H2SO4(aq) + NO2(l)
+1+5-2 +4 -2 +1 +6 -2 4. -2
+4 polyatomic ion
3. Is the reaction redox?
Use the equation in sample activity 2 above to show if a reaction is a redox reaction.
a. Are there atoms that changed in oxidation numbers from the reactant side to the
product side? Which are these?
The elements that changed in ON are: +1+5-2 +4-2 +1+6 -2 +4 -2
N from +5 to +4; S from +4 to +6
The presence of elements that change in oxidation number in the equation is an
indication that the reaction is indeed redox. However, there should always be one that
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will show an increase in ON (or the ON becoming more positive) and a decrease in ON
(or the ON becoming less positive).
b. For the elements that changed in ON, which lost electrons? Which gained electrons?
S was oxidized (change in ON from +4 to +6): lost of electrons
N was reduced (change in ON from +5 to +4): gained of electrons
(H and O did not change in ON and were neither reduced nor oxidized)
Are there reactions that are not redox? An example of a non-redox reaction is the
neutralization reaction between HCl and NaOH. No change in ON can be seen from the
reactant side to the product side for all the elements involved.
+1-1 +1-2+1 +1-2 +1-1
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) —> H2O(aq) + NaCl(l)
Sample Activity 3: Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and
determine if the reaction is redox:
+3 -2 +2-2 0 +4-2
1. Fe2O3(s) + CO (g) —> Fe(s) + CO2 (g) (redox; Fe and C changed ON)
+1 +4 -2 +1+7-2 +4-2 +1-2 +1 +7 -2

2.Na2CO3(aq) + 2HClO4(aq) —> CO2 (g) + H2 O (l) + 2NaClO4 (aq) (not redox; no change in ON)
+2 +5-2 +1-1 +2-1 +1+5-2

3. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) —> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3 (aq) (not redox; no change in ON)
+2 -2 0 +2.5-2 -1
4. 2S2O32- (aq) + I2 (aq) —> S4O62- (aq) + 2I- (aq) (redox; S and I changed ON)
Even without going through the details above to show the change in oxidation number
and electron transfer, some redox reactions are easy to recognize.
If in the reaction, a reactant or product is an element (neutral, independent form
consisting of only one element), and the same element is in combined or in ion form on the
other side of the equation, the reaction is definitely redox.
Here are some examples to illustrate this:
1. Al(S) + H2SO4(aq) —> Al2(SO4)3(s)+ H2(g) (Al is uncombined or in element state in the
reactant side.)
2. SO2(g) + O2(g) —> SO3(g) (Oxygen is in element form on the reactant side.)
3. FeO(s) + CO(g) —> Fe(s) + CO2(g) (Fe is obtained as the element on the product side.)
❖ The key reactants in a redox reaction
The main reactants in a redox reaction are the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
Oxidizing Agent: A substance that causes the oxidation of another element;

contains the substance being reduced.
Reducing Agent: A substance that causes the reduction of another element;

contains the substance being oxidized.
If oxidized → a reducing agent(reactant)

If reduced → an oxidizing agent(reactant)
5
0 0 +2 -2
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Mg is oxidized; Mg is the reducing agent.
O is reduced; O2 is the oxidizing agent.
The reactant that carries the atom or element oxidized is called REDUCING AGENT
(RA). The reactant that carries the atom or element reduced is called OXIDIZING
AGENT (OA). In this case, Mg is the reducing agent. While it is said that O is reduced,
it is O2, and not just O, that is the oxidizing agent.
The reducing agent and the oxidizing agent are reactants, not just the atoms oxidized
or reduced. It is also important to remember that RA and OA cannot be any of the
products of the reaction.
Consider the following examples, the ON of each element has been placed above their
respective symbols.
0 +2 -1 +2 -1 0
Example 1: Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
Zn is oxidized; Zn is the reducing agent.
Cu is reduced; CuCl2 is the oxidizing agent.
Example 2: +3 -2 +2 -2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) — Fe(s) + CO2 (g)
Atom oxidized: C
Atom reduced: Fe
Reducing agent: CO
Oxidizing agent: Fe2O3
Points to remember:
LEORA – Lose Electrons – Oxidation – Reducing Agent (the reactant that loses electrons
undergoes oxidation and is the reducing agent).
GEROA– Gain Electrons – Reduction – Oxidizing Agent (the reactant that gains electron
undergoes reduction and is the oxidizing agent).
If there is no change in oxidation numbers, it is not a redox reaction!
❖ Balancing Redox Equations by the Change in Oxidation Number Method
Redox equations are balanced based on the same conservation principles used in
balancing any chemical equation. In previous lessons, the students have balanced many
redox equations without being told that those were redox reactions. However, some redox
reactions may not be easy to balance, and the additional knowledge that the reaction involves
electron transfer is a useful one. In redox reactions, the reduction of an atom cannot happen
without another being oxidized. More importantly, the total number of electrons lost by
the reducing agent is equal to the number of electrons gained by the oxidizing agent.
One way to balance redox reactions is by keeping track of the electron transfer
using each of the atoms' oxidation numbers. For the oxidation-number-change method,
start with the unbalanced skeleton equation. The example below is for the reaction of iron
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(III) oxide with carbon monoxide. This reaction takes place in a blast furnace during the
processing of iron ore into metallic iron.
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) + CO2(g)

Step 1. Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and write the numbers
above the atom.
+3 -2 +2-2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) Fe (s) + CO2 (g)
Step 2: Identify the atoms that are oxidized and those that are reduced. The carbon atom is
being oxidized in the above equation since its oxidation increases from +2 to +4. The
iron atom is being reduced since its oxidation number decreases from +3 to 0.
Oxidation: C +2 —> +4 2 electrons lost / C atom; 2 electrons lost/CO

Reduction: Fe +3 —> 0 3 electrons gained / Fe atom; 6 electrons gained/ Fe2O3
Step 3: Use a line to connect the atoms that are changing oxidation numbers. On the line,
write the oxidation-number change.
The carbon atom’s oxidation number increases by 2, while the iron atom’s oxidation
number decreases by 3. As written, the number of electrons lost does not equal the number
of electrons gained. In a balanced redox equation, these must be equal. So, the increase in
the oxidation number of one atom must be made equal to the decrease in the other's oxidation
number.
Step 4: Use coefficients to make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the total
decrease in oxidation number. In this case, the least common multiple of 2 and 3 is
6. The oxidation-number increase should be multiplied by 3, while the oxidation-
number decrease should be multiplied by 2. The coefficient is also applied to the
formulas in the equation. So, a 3 is placed in front of the CO and front of the CO2. A 2
is placed in front of the Fe on the right side of the equation. The Fe2O3 does not require
a coefficient because the subscript of 2 after the Fe indicates that there are already
two iron atoms.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) —> 2Fe (s) + 3CO2(g)

Step 5: Check the balancing for both atoms and charge. Occasionally, a coefficient may need
to be placed in front of a molecular formula that was not involved in the redox
process. In the current example, the equation is now balanced.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) —> 2Fe (s) + 3CO2(g)

7
The number of atoms in the reactants is equal to the atoms in the products.
Elements Reactants Products
Fe 2 2
O 6 6
C 3 3
❖ Balancing Redox Equations by the Half-Reaction Method
Some redox equations are given in net ionic forms, and at times, there are oxygen or
hydrogen atoms on one side of the equation but none on the other side. These are not easy
to balance by inspection or by the change in oxidation number method but can be balanced
by the half-reaction method or the ion-electron method.
This method makes use of another conservation principle, that of balancing charges:
the sum of the charges of all substances on the reactant side should be equal to the sum of
the charges of all substances on the product side. Apply this method in balancing the
equation for the reaction between MnO2 and HCl. The reaction occurs in acid conditions. The
equation to be balanced is given in a net ionic form.
MnO2(s) + Cl-(aq) —> Mn2+(aq) + Cl2(g)
In this method, a redox reaction is seen as a pair of half-reactions that occur
simultaneously: the oxidation and reduction half-reactions. The half-reactions are balanced
separately and then added to each other to arrive at the balanced equation.
1. Split the equation into half-reactions. It is unnecessary to assign oxidation numbers, nor
to identify which is the oxidation half-reaction or the reduction half-reaction at this
point.
Half-reaction 1: MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq)
Half-reaction 2: Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
For each half-reaction,
2. Balance elements other than O and H.
Half-reaction 1 Half-reaction 2
MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
(there is one(1) Mn on both sides, so no (a coefficient of two (2) is placed for Cl- since
change made) there are two(2) Cl atoms in Cl2)
3. Balance the O atoms by adding the appropriate number of H 2O molecules.
MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
(add two(2) molecules of H2O to the product (no change made since there are no O
side to balance the 2 O atoms in the reactant atoms on either side of the equation)
side)
4. Balance the H atoms by adding the appropriate number of H+.
4H+ + MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
(add four (4) H+ to the reactant side to (no change made since there are no H
balance the H atoms at the product side) atoms on either side of the equation)

8
5. Balance charges on both sides by adding electrons to the more positive side.
2e-+ 4H+ + MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g) + 2e-
Sum of charges on reactant side: +4 Sum of charges on reactant side: -2

Sum of charges on product side: +2 Sum of charges on the product side: 0
(add two (2) electrons to the reactant side to (add two (2) electrons to the product side to
make the sum of charges on this side equal to make charges on this side equal to the
that in product side) reactant side)
The half-reaction representing oxidation and that representing reduction can be

identified by the electrons' position to balance charges. It is in half-reaction 1, and the
electrons are on the reactant side. This means electrons have to be added or gained by the
reactant to be transformed into the product. This half-reaction is the reduction half-reaction
(RHR), and MnO2 is the oxidizing agent.
In half-reaction 2, the electrons are on the product side. This means that it has to
give up or lose electrons for the reactant to be transformed into the product. This half-reaction
is the oxidation half-reaction (OHR), and Cl- is the reducing agent.
6. Make the number of electrons lost equal to the number of electrons gained by multiplying
the half-reaction with the appropriate factor.
2e-+ 4H+ + MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —>Cl2(g) + 2e-

The number of electrons gained and lost are equal.
7. Add the two half-reactions. Simplify the equation by removing the appropriate numbers of
substances that appear on both sides. These would be electrons and probably H 2O
molecules.
2e-+ 4H+ + MnO2(s) + 2Cl-(aq) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O + Cl2(g) + 2e-

The balanced equation is.
4H+ + MnO2(s) + 2Cl-(aq) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O + Cl2(g)

H 4 4
Mn 1 1
O 2 2
Cl 2 2
If the redox reaction occurs in basic or alkaline conditions, the half-reactions are
balanced as in acid conditions, but an additional step to convert to basic condition is done
before the balanced half-reactions are added to form the whole equation. An example is
worked on below.
HS-(aq) + ClO3-(aq) —> S(s) + Cl-(aq)
Step Half-reaction 1 Half-reaction 2

1 HS-(aq) —> S(s) ClO3-(aq) —> Cl- (aq)
2 HS-(aq) —> S(s) ClO3- (aq)—> Cl- (aq)
3 HS- (aq) —> S(s) ClO3-(aq)—> Cl-(aq) + 3H2O
4 HS-(aq) —> S(s) + H+ 6H+ + ClO3- (aq) —> Cl-(aq) + 3H2O
5 HS-(aq) —> S(s) + H+ + 2e- 6e- + 6H+ + ClO3-(aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 3H2O
6 3[HS-(aq) —> S(s) + H+ + 2e-]
3HS-(aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H+ + 6e- 6e-+ 6H+ + ClO3- (aq) —> Cl-(aq) + 3H2O

9
Step 7: For each half-reaction, add as many OH- as there are H+ on both sides of the half-
reactions.
7 3OH-+ 3HS-(aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H+ + 6e-+ 6OH-+ 6e-+ 6H+ + ClO3-(aq) —> Cl-(aq) +3H2O+
3OH - 6OH-
Step 8: Combine H+ and OH- to form water, H2O. Simplify the half-reactions by cancelling
similar substances.
8 3OH- + 3HS- (aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H2O + 6e- 6e- + 6H2O + ClO3 - (aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 3H2O + 6OH-
6e- + 3H2O + ClO3 - (aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 6OH-
Step 9. Add the half-reactions and simplify the equation if necessary.
3OH- + 3HS- (aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H2O + 6e-
6e- + 3H2O + ClO3- (aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 6OH-
3HS- (aq) + ClO3-(aq) —> 3S(s) + Cl- (aq) + 3OH-(aq)
H 3 3
S 3 3
Cl 1 1
O 3 3
In summary, the choice of which balancing method to use depends on the kind of
reaction. The oxidation-number method works best if the oxidized and reduced species
appear only once on each side of the equation and if no acids or bases are present. The half-
reaction method is more versatile and works well for reactions involving ions in an aqueous
solution.
Activity 1. Reducing Agent (RA) vs. Oxidizing Agent (OA)

1. Recognize redox reactions.
2. Identify reducing and oxidizing agents in a given redox reaction.
What to do: Complete the table below by following the steps and write your answer in a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Assign oxidation numbers for all elements in the equation.
2. Determine if the reaction is redox or not.
3. Identify the element oxidized and the element reduced.
4. Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
The sample equation is done for you.
Chemical Equation REDOX Atom Atom Reducing Oxidizing
Yes/No Oxidized Reduced Agent Agent
+2 -2 0 +2.5 -2 -1
Yes S I S2O32- I2
S2O3 2-
(aq) + I2 (aq) —>S4O62- (aq) + I- (aq)
1.
Na(s) + Cl2(g) —>NaCl(s)
2.
Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+ (aq) + Cu(s)
3.
H2(g) + F2(g) —> HF(g)
4.
SiO2(s) + C(s) —> Si(s) + CO(g)
5. Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) —>
PbI2(s) +2KNO3(aq)
Guide Question:
Why is it important to assign oxidation numbers to all the atoms in the equation?
10
Activity 2. Balancing Redox Reactions
1. Balance redox equations using change in oxidation number method.
2. Write the oxidation and reduction half reactions for a given redox reaction.
3. Balance a redox reaction using the half-reaction method.
What to do:
Part A. Identify if the following equations are balanced. If not, balance them using the
change in oxidation number method. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
1. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) —> 2NaCl(s)

2. Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+(aq) + Cu(s)
3. Zn(s) + 2HNO3(l) —> Zn(NO3)2(s) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
4.SiO2(s) + C(s) —> Si(s) + CO(g)
Part B. Balance the following redox equations using the half-reaction method:
1. Cr2O72- (aq) + HNO2(aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) (acidic)

2. Cr(OH)3 (s) + ClO3- (aq) → CrO42- (aq) + Cl- (aq) (basic)
Guide Questions:
1. When balancing redox reaction in a basic solution, how many OH- should be added to
each side?
2. When does the oxidation-number approach and the half-reaction method work best?
Reflection: Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.
Select one of the following redox reactions that is beneficial to humans. Explain.
A. Photosynthesis
B. Combustion
C. Galvanization of steel
D. Electroplating
Rubrics for Guide questions and Reflection:

2- Explanation is not consistent with the concepts.

11
BYJUS."Redox Reactions." Accessed April 11, 2021. https://byjus.com/jee/redox-

reactions/
Chemistry Libretexts. "Balancing Redox Reactions- Half-Reaction Method" Accessed April

10,2021.https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3
A_Introductory_Chemistry_(CK12)/22%3A_OxidationReduction_Reactions/22.10%3A
_Balancing_Redox_Reactions-_Half-Reaction_Method
CK-12."Balancing Redox Reactions: Oxidation Number Change Method" Accessed April

9,2021,https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook-
2.0/section/22.9/primary/lesson/balancing-redox-reactions%253a-oxidation-
number-change-method-chem
CourseHero."Types of Reactions:Redox and Non-Redox C12-1-10". Accessed April

8,2021.https://www.coursehero.com/file/28503590/Redox-and-Non-Redox-
Reactions-Experiments-Demonstrations-C12-1-10doc/
Teacherph. “General Chemistry 2: Senior High School SHS Teaching Guide “Accessed
January 9, 2021.https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-guide/
Web.Gccaz. Edu.” Electrochemistry.” Accessed April 9, 2021.

https://web.gccaz.edu/~jaszi38221/2014/spring/Lectures/CHM%20152%20Electro
chemistry%20Spring%202014%206pp.pdf
Answer Key

12
13
Activity 2. Balancing Redox Reactions
Part A. Identify if the following equations are balanced. If not, balance them using the change in oxidation
number method.
1. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) —> 2NaCl(s): Balanced
2. Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+(aq) + Cu(s): Not Balanced
Step 1. Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and write the numbers above the atom.
0 +2 +3 0
Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+(aq) + Cu(s)
Step 2: Identify the atoms that are oxidized and those that are reduced. In the above equation, the carbon atom is
being oxidized since its oxidation increases from +2 to +4. The iron atom is being reduced since its oxidation number
decreases from +3 to 0.
Oxidation: Al 0 —> +3 3 electrons lost / Al atom
Reduction: Cu +2 —> 0 2 electrons gained / Cu atom
Step 3: Use a line to connect the atoms that are undergoing a change in oxidation number. On the line, write the
oxidation-number change.
Step 4: Use coefficients to make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the total decrease in oxidation
number. In this case, the least common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6. So, the oxidation-number increase should be
multiplied by 2, while the oxidation-number decrease should be multiplied by 3 The coefficient is also applied to
the formulas in the equation. So, a 2 is placed in front of the Al and Al 3+ and a 3 is placed in front of the Cu and
of the Cu2+
Step 5: Check the balancing for both atoms and charge. Occasionally, a coefficient may need to be placed in front of
a molecular formula that was not involved in the redox process. In the current example, the equation is now balanced.
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+ (aq) —> 2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)
Al 2 2
Cu 3 3
Part B. Balance the following redox equations using the half-reaction method:
1.

14
2.

15

Learning Activity Sheets Quarter 4 – Week 8, Part A
First Edition, 2021
Writer: Charlyn M. Campado
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Salvaña
Romeo A. Villarin
Jesusa C. Olayon
Archie G. Layago, PhD
Division Team Delia P. Alcantara

Edgardo Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Emely M. Tragua
Jane C. Basul
Management Team:
Romeo O. Approvechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent

Printed in the Philippines by: Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)

0
General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12 (STEM), Quarter 4, Week 8, Part A
Understanding Galvanic Cell and Cell Potential
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.

(STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-172)
Define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential.
(STEM_ GC11ABIVf-g-176)
1. identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell; and
2. define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential.
Key Concepts
The Galvanic Cell
 Galvanic cell, also called a voltaic cell, is a type of electrochemical cell that uses chemical
reactions to generate electrical energy. It consists of at least two half cells, a reduction cell
and an oxidation cell. It acts as a device in which simultaneous oxidation and reduction
reactions take place to convert the chemical energy into electrical energy, which can be used
for any commercial purposes.
 Galvanic cell separates the flow of electrons through the process of oxidation and reduction.
As a result, a half reaction occurs and connecting each with a wire creating a path for the
flow of electrons through the wire. This flow of electrons is called a current. Current can be
made to flow through a wire completing a circuit and obtaining its output in any device
such as a watch or a television.
 Parts of a Galvanic Cell
 Anode – is where oxidation takes place

 Cathode – is where reduction takes place
 Salt bridge – contains electrolytes needed to
complete a galvanic cell circuit
 Half-cells – are compartments that separates
reduction and oxidation reactions
 External circuit – is where the flow of electrons
are conducted between electrodes
 Load – is the part of a circuit that utilizes the
flow of electron for functioning
Figure 1. Parts of a Galvanic Cell

Source: https://www2.chem.wisc.edu/

1
Reduction Potential, Oxidation Potential and Cell Potential
 Electrode Potential: Oxidation Potential and Reduction Potential
Electrode potential refers to the difference of equilibrium potential between the
surrounding solution and the metal electrode. It is the tendency of losing and gaining
electrons in an electrode. When a metal is dipped into a solution of its own ions, it will create
a potential difference at the interface of the solution and the metal. A measure of electrode’s
tendency to undergo reduction or oxidation process refers to the magnitude of the potential
difference. It is a reduction potential when reduction takes place at the cathode. On the
other hand, it is an oxidation potential when oxidation reaction takes place at the anode.
Oxidation potential refers to the ability of an electrode to become oxidized giving up or
losing electrons. Reduction potential refers to the the ability of anion solution to become
reduced picking up or gaining electrons from its own electrode. An ion is more easily reduced
if the reduction potential of an ion is greater. For instance, in a Daniel cell, an example of a
Galvanic Cell, as shown in the figure below, Cu+2 is reduced due to greater reduction
potential than Zn, which is oxidized.
At Anode: Oxidation
Salt Bridge
Zn(s) Zn+2(aq) + 2e-
anode cathode
At Cathode: Reduction
Cu+2(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
Oxidation half reaction Reduction half reaction

Figure 2. Daniel Cell
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StWm-a_j65U
A positive charge is developed on the metal rod as metal ions are deposited on the metal
surface. Oxidation is the reverse of reduction so reduction potential can be obtained from
oxidation potential by changing the sign. In general for an electrode:
Oxidation potential = – Reduction potential
Example, in a zinc electrode, the standard oxidation potential is represented as
Eo (Zn/Zn2+) = 0.76V and standard reduction potential as Eo (Zn2+/Zn) = -0.76V.
Electrochemical series is a series of chemical elements arranged in order of their

standard electrode potentials.
Table 1. Electrochemical Series
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph
2
 Cell Potential refers to the potential difference between the electrodes corresponding to an
external electron flow from anode to cathode. Cell potential is the combination of reduction
potential at the cathode and oxidation potential at the anode.
ECell = EOx,Anode + ERed,Cathode
since: Oxidation potential = – Reduction potential

so: EOx,Anode = -ERed,Anode
therefore: ECell = -ERed,Anode + ERed,Cathode
or: ECell = ERed,Cathode – ERed,Anode
Activity 1. Just React!
Learning Objective:
Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.
What to do: Analyze the figure below and answer the guide question correctly. Use a separate
sheet of paper for your answer.
Figure 3. A Galvanic Cell

Source: mcoord@2015
Guide Question:
What reaction takes place in (a) an electrode made of zinc and (b) an electrode made
of copper? Describe the reaction that occurs in each part.
Rubrics:
3 – Answers are scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
2 - Answers are scientifically consistent with the concepts but with minimal misconception.
1 – Answers are consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
Activity 2. You Have Potential!
Learning Objective:
Define electrode potential, reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential.
What you need:

Pen and Paper

3
What to do: Read each statement below and identify if it defines electrode potential, reduction
potential, oxidation potential or cell potential. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. It refers to the difference of equilibrium potential between the surrounding

solution and the metal electrode.
2. It is the reaction that takes place at the cathode.
3. It is the reaction that takes place at the anode.
4. It is the ability of anion solution to become reduced picking up or gaining
electrons from its own electrode.
5. It is the ability of an electrode to become oxidized giving up or losing electrons.
6. It refers to the potential difference between the electrodes corresponding to an
external electron flow from anode to cathode.
7. It is the combination of reduction potential at the cathode and oxidation
potential at the anode.
8. An example of this reaction is Zn(s) Zn+2(aq) + 2e- .
9. An example of this reaction is Cu (aq) + 2e-
+2 Cu(s) .
10. It is illustrated as: ECell = EOx,Anode + ERed,Cathode
Reflection
Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.
Galvanic cells are portable and can be self-

contained. Thus, they can be used as fuel cells and
batteries. A battery or a storage cell is a galvanic cell or
a series of galvanic cells that has all the reactants
required to produce electricity. What is the best
way to store, handle and care for batteries, whether (a) (b)
at home or on the road?
Figure 4. Sample of Galvanic Cell: (a) dry
cell, (b) wet cell
Source: http://www.differencebetween.info/
Rubrics:


4
BYJU”S. 2021. “Galvanic Cell (Voltaic Cell).”Accessed April15, 2021.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/galvanic-cell/
BYJU”S. 2021. “Reduction Potential.” Accessed April15, 2021.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/reduction-potential/
Chemistry Libretexts. 2020. “Galvanic Cells.”Accessed April15, 2021.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_
Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Basics_of_Electrochemistry/Electrochemistry/Ga
lvanic_Cells#:~:text=A%20galvanic%20cell%20consists%20of,cell%20and%20an%20oxidat
ion%20cell.&text=Each%20half%20cell%20consists%20of,also%20called%20a%20voltaic
%20cell.
Digital Kemistry. 2020. “What is the |Difference between Oxidation potential and Reduction
potential | Electrode potential”. Accessed April15, 2021.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StWm-a_j65U
Ekeeda. 2018. “Electrode Potential and Cell Potential - Electrochemistry - Chemistry Class 12.”
Accessed April15, 2021.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=axgRTKiu30o
Electrochemistry. “Galvanic Cells”. Accessed April15, 2021.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/electrochemistry/galvanic-cells/
Answer Key
10. Cell Potential

9. Oxidation Potential
8. Reduction Potential
7. Cell Potential
6. Cell Potential
1. Electrode Potential
Activity 2 You Have Potential!
electrode losses mass and during reduction electrode gains mass.

occurs in an electrode made of copper, at the cathode. During oxidation
1.Oxidation occurs in an electrode made of zinc, at the anode while reduction
Activity 1 Just React!

5
General Chemistry 2, Grade 12

Quarter 4– Week 8-B: CALCULATING STANDARD CELL POTENTIAL
First Edition, 2021
the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit. Such agency or
office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has been
exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the respective copyright owners.
The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Writer Jay N. Bernat
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Z. Salvana
Romeo A. Villarin
Jesusa C. Olayon

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Emely M. Tragua

Author: Jay N. Bernat

School/Station: Agay National High School
0
General Chemistry 2, Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 8-B
CALCULATING STANDARD CELL POTENTIAL
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCs)
Calculate the standard cell potential. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g 178)

Relate the value of the cell potential to the feasibility of using the cell to generate electric
current. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g 179)

1. identify spontaneous and non-spontaneous in the given redox reactions;
2. decide which will remain as reduction reaction and will be reversed as oxidation reaction in
the given half-reactions; and
3. calculate standard cell potential in the given redox reactions.
Key Concepts
❖ Standard Cell Potential
Galvanic cell or voltaic cell is a device that uses redox reaction to create electricity. A battery
is an example of a galvanic or voltaic cell. The chemicals present inside a battery react together in an
oxidation-reduction reaction that makes electricity. Galvanic or voltaic cells allow the redox activity
to be quantified by an easily measured property called potential. This property is more commonly
called voltage in terms of electrical applications. It is a measure of energy accompanying the transfer
of charge. Potentials are measured in volt unit, V=J/C or 1 volt = 1 Joule of energy/1 Coulomb of
charge.
When measured for purposes of electrochemistry, a potential reflects the driving force for a
specific type of charge transfer process, namely, the transfer of electrons between redox reactants.
Considering the nature of potential in this context, it is clear that the potential of a single half-cell or
a single electrode can’t be measured; “transfer” of electrons requires both a donor and recipient, in
this case a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent, respectively. Instead, a half-cell potential may only
be assessed relative to that of another half-cell. It is only the difference in potential between two half-
cells that may be measured, and these measured potentials are called cell potentials, Ecell, defined
as
Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode
where Ecathode and Eanode are the potentials of two different half-cells functioning as specified in the
subscripts. As for other thermodynamic quantities, the standard cell potential, E°cell, is a cell
potential measured when both half-cells are under standard-state conditions (1 M concentrations, 1
atm, 298 K):
E0cell = E0cathode − E0anode
in which reduction reaction takes place in the cathode while oxidation reaction takes place in the
anode.
To simplify the collection and sharing of potential data for half-reactions, the scientific
community has designated one particular half-cell to serve as a universal reference for cell potential
measurements, assigning it a potential of exactly 0 V. This half-cell is the standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE) and it is based on half-reaction below:
2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
A typical SHE contains an inert platinum electrode immersed in precisely 1 M aqueous H+ and
a stream of bubbling H2 gas at 1 bar pressure, all maintained at a temperature of 298 K as shown in
Figure 1.
1
Figure 1. A Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) showing a stream of bubbling H2 gas
Retrieved from: https://openstax.org/resources/a05122bd8eb816d073b80f8bfd82a27003021417
The assigned potential of the SHE permits the definition of a conveniently measured potential
for a single half-cell. The electrode potential (EX) for a half-cell X is defined as the potential
measured for a cell comprised of X acting as cathode and the SHE acting as anode:
Ecell = EX − ESHE
ESHE = 0 V(defined)
Ecell = EX
When the half-cell X is under standard-state conditions, its potential is the standard
electrode potential, E°X. Since the definition of cell potential requires the half-cells function as
cathodes, these potentials are sometimes called standard reduction potentials.
This approach to measuring electrode potentials is illustrated in Figure 2, which depicts a cell
comprised of an SHE connected to a copper(II)/copper(0) half-cell under standard-state conditions.
Figure 2. A Copper-SHE Cell connected to a voltmeter

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/new-chm-152-unit-8-power-points-sp13-140227172047-phpapp01-171219132037/95/new-
chm152unit8powerpointssp13140227172047phpapp01-33-638.jpg?cb=1513690818
A voltmeter in the external circuit allows measurement of the potential difference between the
two half-cells. Since the Cu half-cell is designated as the cathode in the definition of cell potential, it
is connected to the positive input of the voltmeter, while the designated SHE anode is connected to
the negative input. These connections is consistent with the sign conventions of electrochemistry as
described above. A cell potential of +0.337 V is measured, and so
E0cell = E0Cu = +0.377 V

2
❖ Calculating Standard Cell Potential
A table of E° values can be used to determine the reactions that will occur spontaneously and
the standard cell potential for any combination of two half-cells without actually constructing the
cell.
Table 1. Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solutions at 250C
Retrieved from https://img.17qq.com/images/bjejjdgppbz.jpeg
The half-cell with the higher reduction potential according to the table will undergo reduction
within the cell. The half-cell with the lower reduction potential will undergo oxidation within the cell.
If those specifications are followed, the overall cell potential will be a positive value. The cell
potential must be positive in order for redox reaction of the cell to be spontaneous. If a negative cell
potential were to be calculated, that reaction would be spontaneous in the reverse direction.
Steps in calculating for Standard Cell Potential at its standard state:

1. Write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for the cell.
reduction reaction: Y2+(aq) + 2e- → Y(s)
(Reduction gains electrons, hence, it is located on the reactant side.)
oxidation reaction: X(s) → X+(aq) + e-
(Oxidation loses electrons, hence, it is located on the product side.)
2. Use the table of Standard Reduction Potentials to determine the half-cell reactions potential.
(a) Eored for the half-cell that undergoes reduction reaction can be looked up straight away in
the table:
3
Y2+(aq) + 2e- → Y(s) Eo(reduction)
(b) In order to find the Eo value of the half-cell for the oxidation reaction, reverse the reaction
and write it as a reduction equation.
oxidation reaction: X(s) → X+(aq) + e-
reverse reaction: X+(aq) + e- → X(s)
Look up the value of Eo for this reversed reaction: X+(aq) + e- → X(s) Eo(rev)
Note: The E value for the oxidation reaction is the same as for the reversed reaction BUT the
o
sign will be the opposite (change + to -, or, change - to +)

X(s) → X+(aq) + e-
Eo(oxidation) = -Eo(rev)
3. Add the two half-cell potentials to get the overall standard cell potential.
E⁰ cell = E⁰red + E⁰ ox
Sample Problem:
Find the standard cell potential for an electrochemical cell with the following cell reaction.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
1. Write the (a) oxidation and (b) reduction half-reactions for the cell.
Oxidation: Zn (s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
2. Look up the reduction potential, E⁰red, for the reduction half-reaction in a table of reduction
potentials (Table 1).
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) E0red = +0.34 V
3. Look up the reduction potential for the reverse of the oxidation half-reaction and reverse the
sign to obtain the oxidation potential. For the oxidation half-reaction,
E⁰ ox = -E⁰red
Zn (s) → Zn (aq)
2+ + 2e - E0red = -0.76 V
Zn (s) → Zn (aq)
2+ + 2e - E0ox = +0.76 V
Since Zn has lower reduction potential than Cu, Zn will undergo oxidation reaction.
4. Add the two half-cell potentials to get the overall standard cell potential.
Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
2+ - E0red = +0.34 V
Zn (s) → Zn (aq + 2e
2+ - E0ox = +0.76 V
E⁰ cell = (+0.34 V) + (+0.76 V)
E⁰ cell = +1.10 V
Since the standard cell potential is positive, so the reaction is spontaneous as written.
Activity 1. Spontaneous or Not?
Learning Objective:
Identify spontaneous and non-spontaneous in the given redox reactions.
What to do: Using the Standard Reduction Potential Table, use half-reaction potentials to identify
whether the following redox reactions are spontaneous or non-spontaneous. All the reactants
and products are in their standard states. The first one is done for you.

4
Table 2. Spontaneity of Redox Reactions
Redox Reaction Half-cell Half-cell E0oxidatio E0reductio E0redox Spontaneo

Reaction Reaction n n us?
(Oxidation) (Reduction)
Yes No
Ca2+(aq) + 2 I-(aq) 2 I-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2e → 0.54 V -2.87 V -2.33 V No

→ Ca(s + I2(aq) I2(aq) + 2e- Ca(s)
1.) Pb2+(aq) + 2I-

→ Pb(s) + I2(g)
2.) Mg2+(aq) +
2Br-(aq) → Mg(s)
+ Br2(g)
3.) 2 H+(aq) +
2 Br-(aq) → H2(g) +
Br2(aq)
4.) Ce4+(aq) +
Fe2+(aq) → Ce3+(aq)
+ Fe3+(aq)
5.) Cr2+(aq) +
Cu2+(aq) →
Cr3+(aq) +
Cu+(aq)
Guide Questions:
1.What is the relationship between the E0 value of the half-cell reaction and the possibility of
spontaneous redox reaction?
2. What sign must the overall cell potential be in order for a reaction to be spontaneous?
Activity 2. The Last Redox Standing

Learning Objective:
Decide which will remain as reduction reaction and will be reversed as oxidation reaction in
the given half-reactions.
What to do: Given the following half-cell reactions, decide which will remain as reduction reaction
and which will be reversed as oxidation reaction. Identify the E0 of the half-reaction. Encircle the
appropriate word. The first one is done for you.
1. Zn2+(aq) + 2e- → Zn(s) E0 = -0.76 V reduction or oxidation

Al3+(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) E0 = -1.66 V reduction or oxidation
2. Mg2+(aq) + 2e- → Mg(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation
3. Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Au3+(aq) + 3e- → Au(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation
4. Ni2+(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation
5. Al3+(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Fe2+(aq) + 2e- → Fe(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

5
Guide Questions:
1. What type of reaction will the half-cell with the higher reduction potential undergo?
2. If both of the half-cell reactions undergo reduction reaction, what will you do to create a
spontaneous redox reaction?
Activity 3. Finding E0redox

Learning Objective:
Calculate the standard cell potential in the given redox reactions.
What to do: Given the following half-cell reactions, calculate the E0 by:
a. writing the balanced net-ionic equation for the overall reaction.
b. identifying the metal ions which undergo reduction reaction and oxidation reaction.
c. calculating the standard cell potential E0 for the overall reaction at 250C.
Sample Problem:
What is the standard cell potential, E0 of the reaction: Zn(s) + Pb2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Pb(s)?
a. Zn2+(aq) + 2e– → Zn(s)
Pb2+(aq) + 2e– → Pb(s)
b. Reduction: Pb2+(aq) + 2e– → Pb(s) E0 = -0.13 V
Oxidation: Zn aq) + 2e → Zn(s)
2+( – E0 = -0.76 V
c. E redox = E reduction + E oxidation
0 0 0
E0redox = -0.13 V + (-0.76 V)

E0redox = -0.13 V + 0.76 V
E0redox = 0.63 V
You may start here:

1. Ag → Ag+ and Sn → Sn2+
2. Pb2+ → Pb and Mg2+ → Mg
3. Al 3+ → Al and Fe2+ → Fe
Reflection
When a car is not used for 4-5 days, usually the battery is discharged. What will you do to prevent
this situation to happen?
Rubrics for Guide questions and Reflection:

AUS-e-TUTE.”Calculating Standard Electrode Potentials for Redox Reactions Tutorial”. Accessed

April 16, 2021. https://www.ausetute.com.au/calcelemf.html
Chemistry Libretexts. "Calculating Standard Cell Potentials". Accessed April 10,2021.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory_C
hemistry_(CK12)/23%3A_Electrochemistry/23.06%3A_Calculating_Standard_Cell_Potentials
#:~:text=The%20overall%20cell%20potential%20can,Step%202%3A%20Solve.&text=Before%
20adding%20the%20two%20reactions,must%20be%20multiplied%20by%20two.

6
Ck12.org. “Calculating Standard Cell Potential”. Accessed April 12, 2021.
https://www.ck12.org/chemistry/calculating-standard-cell-potentials/lesson/Calculating-
Standard-Cell-Potentials-CHEM/
misteranthony.weebly.com. “Electrochemical Cell Worksheet. Accessed April 18,

2021.http://misteranthony.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/5/7/51577565/voltaic_cell_workshee
t.pdf
Plps-k12.org. “Ch_17_Electrochemistry_Practice_Problems”. Accessed April 18,2021.

https://www.plpsk12.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=2482&dataid
=3257&FileName=Ch%2017%20Electrochemistry%20Practice%20Problems%20I%20-
%20key.pdf
Socratic.org. “How do you calculate electrochemical cell potential?”. Accessed April 13, 2021.
https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-calculate-electrochemical-cell-potential
Answer Key

7
8

Quarter 4 – Week 8C: Electrochemistry Involved in Commercial Cells and Corrosion
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government
agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation
of such work for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as
a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective
copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use
these materials from the respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent
nor claim ownership over them.
Writer: Rosemalyn L. Pahamtang
Editors:
Regional Team
Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Romeo A. Villarin
Jesusa C. Olayon
Division Team
Jane C. Basul, PhD
Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Management Team
Romeo O. Approvechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent
Jane C. Basul, EPS – Science
Bernie Pamplona, LRMDS Manager – OIC


General Chemistry 2, Quarter 4, Week 8-C
Electrochemistry Involved in Commercial Cells and Corrosion
Name: __________________________ Section: ___________________________
1. Describe the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries: a. Leclanché

dry cell; b. button batteries; c. fuel cells; and d. lead storage battery.
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-180)
2. Apply electrochemical principles to explain corrosion.
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-181)
1. describe the electrochemistry involved in Leclanche’ dry cell, button batteries,
fuel cells and lead storage battery;
2. explain corrosion in terms of the electrochemical reactions involved; and
3. enumerate some measures by which metals can be protected from corrosion.
Key Concepts:
 Electrochemistry
It is a field of chemistry which deals with the interconversion of chemical
energy and electrical energy that has many familiar applications in daily life. All
kinds of batteries, from those utilized to power a flashlight to a calculator to an
automobile, rely on chemical reactions to produce electricity. Redox chemistry,
electron transfer, is behind all electrochemical processes.
 Electrochemical Cell
It is any device that converts chemical energy from the reactions that occur in
the cells and in turn convert the chemical energy to electrical energy.
Electrochemical reactions produce the current obtained from cells and batteries.
1. Leclanché Dry Cell

The dry cell, the most familiar type of battery, is used in flashlights, radios,
some calculators, electronic devices like Walkman and Game Boy, and many other
gadgets. In spite of its name, the Leclanché dry cell is actually a “wet cell”: The zinc
casing acts as the anode and a graphite rod is the cathode. Leclanché cell involves
the two following half-reactions:
– anode (oxidation): Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
– cathode (reduction): 2MnO2 + 2NH4+ + 2e− → 2MnO(OH) + 2NH3
The chemical process involved in producing electricity in a Leclanché cell
begins when zinc atoms oxidize on the surface of the anode, i.e. they loses both

1
their valence electrons forming positively charged Zn2+ ions. As the Zn2+ ions stay
away from the anode, with their e- on its surface, the anode becomes more negatively
charged compared to cathode. When the cell is connected in an exterior electrical
path, the extra electrons on the zinc anode move through the circuit to
the carbon rod, the flow of electrons forming an electric current.
As the current moves around the circuit and then the electrons enter the
cathode (carbon rod), they react with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and water (H2O) to
yield manganese oxide (Mn2O3) and negatively charged hydroxide ions. This is
followed by a secondary acid-base reaction in which the hydroxide ions (OH–) receives
a proton (H+) from the ammonium ions present in the ammonium
chloride electrolyte to yield molecules of ammonia and water.
Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l), or if one
also considers the hydration of the Mn2O3(s) into Mn(III) oxy-hydroxide:
Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + 2MnO(OH)(s) + 2NH3(aq)

Alternately, forming Mn(II) hydroxide occurs as the reduction reaction of
Mn(IV) can proceeded.
Zn(s) + MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Mn(OH)2(s) + 2 NH3(aq)
The half-reactions at the anode and the cathode which are responsible for the
electrical energy derived from the cell can be summarized as follows:
 cathode (reduction): 2MnO2(s) + 2NH+4(aq) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

 anode (oxidation): Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e−
 overall:2MnO2(s)+2NH4Cl(aq)+Zn(s) → Mn2O3(s) + Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s) + H2O(l), Ecell = 1.5 V
2. Mercury and Silver Button Cells

Mercury is used to prevent corrosion that can result to gas buildup which in
turn can cause bulging and leakage or can adversely affect battery performance.
Button batteries are used to power watches, calculators, and cameras. In these
"button" batteries, the anode is a zinc–mercury amalgam, and the cathode uses
either HgO or Ag2O as the oxidant. The cathode and overall reactions and cell output
for these two sorts of button batteries are as follows:
For HgO:
 cathode (Hg): HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → Hg(l) + 2OH−(aq)
 anode(Zn): Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-
 overall (Hg): Zn(s) + 2HgO(s) → Hg(l) + ZnO(s), Ecell = 1.3 V or:
For Ag2O:
 cathode (Ag): Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → 2Ag(s) + 2OH−(aq)
 anode(Zn): Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-
 overall (Ag): Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) → 2Ag(s) + ZnO(s), Ecell = 1.6 V

2
3. Fuel Cells
These cells transform the energy of a fuel to electrical energy and are used for
handy power generation, static power generation, and power for transportation. The
following half reactions occur in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
 cathode (reduction): 4e- + O2(g) + 2H2O(g) → 4OH-(aq)
 anode (oxidation): 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) → 4H2O(g) + 4e−
 overall: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g), Ecell = 1.2 V
4. Lead Storage Cell
This is the battery used in cars and trucks. A typical 12-V battery consists of
6 cells connected in series to give a total potential of 12 V in the form of several Pb
plates dipped in H2SO4 solution. When the battery discharges, it produces
electrical energy as a galvanic cell. When it recharges, it uses electrical energy as
an electrolytic cell where the half-cell reactions and the overall reaction is reversed.
The half reactions in each cell during discharge and recharge are as follows:
 cathode (reduction): PbO2(s) + SO4−2 + 4H+ + 2e− PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
 anode (oxidation): Pb(s) + SO4 (aq)
−2 PbSO4(s) + 2e−
 overall: PbO2(s) + 2HSO4(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l), Ecell = 1.2 V
 discharge equation: ( ) forward reaction; recharge equation: ( ) reverse reaction
 Corrosion of Metals
Corrosion is a common term used for the deterioration of metals through an
electrochemical process. Although this process is usually described in terms of the
metal iron, it is not limited to iron but can happen to any metal that has lower
reduction potential than that of hydrogen. Tarnish in silver, green patina in copper
and brass are the examples of metal corrosion and the most common which is the
rust in iron.
Figure 1. (a) tarnish in silver; (b) green patina in brass/copper; (c) rust in iron
Source: https://www.wholeheartedmen.com/wp content/uploads/2014/09/silver.jpg
Silverwares slowly form a layer of silver sulfide (Ag2S) when it comes into
contact with foodstuffs in a period of time. This is known to as the tarnish in silver.
Silver tends to be oxidized to Ag+. The negative oxidation potential implies that the
process takes place gradually.
Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e–
Copper is also prone to corrosion. When exposed in air, copper forms a coating
of green patina called copper (II) carbonate (CuCO3). It appears when Cu metal
oxidized into Cu2+ which also occurs in a relatively slow pace as suggested by the
negative oxidation potential:
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–

3
If the function of cells is a positive application of electrochemistry, corrosion
is the application of electrochemistry with negative effect. The electrochemical
nature of corrosion can be deduced from the nature of the four major components
necessary for corrosion to occur, namely:
 a metal anode where corrosion will take place;
 a cathode where no corrosion will take place;
 an electrolyte which can be soil, water, moisture, etc.; and
 an electrical assembly between the metal anode and cathode.
The reaction requires the existence of H2O and O2. Rusting of iron includes a
series of redox reactions which appear at different areas of the same iron sample.
Figure 2. Electrochemical processes involved in rust formation

Source: Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B. et.al. Teaching Guide for Senior High School Gen. Chem. 2
The anode reaction happens in one region of the metal where the oxidation of
iron occurs:
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e– (E°oxidation = +0.44 V)
On another side of the metal, the electrons given up at the anode are used to
reduce O2 to H2O. This region serves as the cathode.
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– → 2H2O(l) (E°reduction = +1.23 V)
Note that the reaction potential is positive which means that the reaction is
spontaneous. The reaction also shows that the oxidation of iron is favored by acidic
conditions indicated by the presence of hydrogen ions at the cathode.
The Fe2+(aq) produced at the anode is oxidized by the O2(g) in air to Fe3+ which
forms iron (III) oxide in the hydrated form. This hydrated iron (III) oxide is what we
call rust.
4Fe2+(aq) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.H2O(s) + 8H+(aq)
To prevent corrosion of iron, the metal can be coated with a substance that
cannot be oxidized like a coat of paint or with a metal that is easier to oxidized than
iron. This is the basis of galvanization of iron where iron is coated with zinc metal to
protect the iron from corrosion. The reduction potentials of Fe2+ and Zn2+ is more
easily reduced than Zn2+ which means that Zn is more easily oxidized than Fe and
will therefore act as the anode; Fe, in turn, will act as the cathode at which O 2(g) is
reduced.

4
Activity 1. Know Me and Give My Reactions!
Learning Objective:
Describe electrochemistry involved in Leclanche’ dry cell, button
batteries, fuel cells and lead storage battery.
What to do: Given the diagrams below, identify what battery or cell being shown and
write the half reactions for oxidation and reduction reactions in a separate
sheet of paper. Number 1 is done for you.
Name of Oxidation Reduction
No. Battery or Cell battery or Reaction Reaction
cell
2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4e- + O2(g) +

→ 4H2O(g) + 4e− 2H2O(g) →
4OH-(aq)
1
Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry
Guide Questions:
1. Based on the half reactions of the four (4) types of batteries/cells, identify the
electrode where oxidation and reduction reaction occur?
2. In oxidation reaction, the electrons are _________while in a reduction reaction,
the electrons are ________.
3. Describe the reactions that play a critical role in the cells within batteries.
 Refer to rubrics on page 7 for scoring the guide questions.

5
Activity 2A. Is Corrosion Possible or Not?
1. Explain corrosion in terms of the electrochemical reactions involved.
2. Enumerate some measures by which metals can be protected from corrosion.
What to do: Given the reactivity series of metals, determine if the following scenario
allows corrosion to take place or not. Write CP if corrosion is possible otherwise
write CN if corrosion is not possible in a separate answer sheet.
Figure 3. Reactivity Series of Metals

Source: https://byjus.com/chemistry/reactivity-series/
2
____1. Painting metals.

____2. Applying grease or oil on metals.
____3. Coating iron or steel with copper.
____4. Putting an iron nail in pure water and exposed to oxygen in air.
____5. Putting an iron nail in a sealed test tube of air and a drying agent e.g.
anhydrous calcium chloride which absorbs any moisture.
Activity 2B. Which is Which?

What to do: Read and analyze each question. Write your answer in a separate
answer sheet.
A. Given each pair of metals, which is more likely to corrode (oxidize)?
___(1) Mg or Ca ___(2) Au or Hg ___(3) Fe or Zn
B. Consider the following metals: Ag, Au, Mg, Ni, and Zn. Which of these metals could
be used as a sacrificial anode in the cathodic protection of an underground steel
storage tank? (4) _______ and (5) _____
Activity 2C. Electrochemical Reactions in Corrosion, Match Me!
What to do: Match Column A to Column B. Write your answer in a separate answer
sheet.
Column A Column B
1. Rusting of
Iron A. 2Ag(s) + H2S(g) → Ag2S(s) + H2(g)
2. Formation of
green patina B. 4Fe2+(aq) + O2(gas) + 6H2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.H2O(s)+ 8H+(aq)
3. Tarnishing of
silver C. 2CuO(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → Cu2CO3(OH)2(s)

6
Reflection
Read and analyze the question. Write your answer in a separate sheet.
Why is it that from nails and bolts to bridges, to roofing and framing
components, countless items are made of galvanized iron and not from pure iron?
Rubrics for Reflection:
Points Description
3 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to
the concepts, and has no misconception
2 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to
the concepts, but with minimal misconception
1 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts,
but with misconceptions
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B. et.al. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2, pp 574-580. Published by the Commission on Higher Education,
2016.
Ilao, Luciana V., Loctoc, Betty M., and Paderna-Gayon, EdEdwehna Elinore S. “
General Chemistry 2”: K to 12, STEM. 1st ed., edited by Josefina G. Belen, 217-
220. 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr. St. Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines: rex
Bookstyore, Inc., 2016.
Website:
Chemistry Libretexts. 2021. “ Battery and Fuel Cells”. Accessed April 15, 2021.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry__The_
Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/20%3A_Electrochemistry/20.7%3A_Batteries_and_Fuel_Cells
Chemistry Libretexts. 2021. “Corrosion”. Accessed April 15, 2021.

Answer Key:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_The_Centra
l_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/20%3A_Electrochemistry/20.8%3A_Corrosion
Chemistry. “Corrosion”. Accessed April 15, 2021.

https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17- 6-corrosion/
BYJU’S. 2021. Reactivity Series.” Accessed April 16, 2021.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/reactivity-series/

7
8
Galvanizing is a process of coating iron or steel with zinc in order to provide greater
protection against corrosion for the iron or steel base. Galvanized iron is the same as pure iron,
the only difference is that it features a layer of zinc. The added layer of zinc helps to protect the
iron from rust and corrosion. Without it, the iron will be exposed to moisture and oxygen from
its surrounding environment. If left unchecked, this will trigger a chemical reaction with the
iron known as oxidation. Oxidation will cause the iron to rust and corrode.
Name of Oxidation Reduction Reaction
battery Reaction
or cell
2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) →4H2O(g) + 4e− 4e- + O2(g) + 2H2O(g) → 4OH-(aq)
Pb(s) + SO4−2(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e− PbO2(s) + SO4−2 + 4H+ + 2e− →
PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− 2MnO2(s) + 2NH+4(aq) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s)
+ 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn(s)+2OH-(aq) → ZnO(s)+H2O(l)+2e- HgO(s)+H2O(l) + 2e− → Hg(l) + 2OH−(aq)
In oxidation reaction, the electrons are lost while in a reduction reaction, the
electrons are gain.
3. A battery consists of one or more electrochemical cells. Each cell contains two
metal electrodes and at least one electrolyte solution. The battery operates through
electrochemical reactions called oxidation and reduction. These reactions involve
the exchange of electrons between chemical species. If a chemical species loses
one or more electrons, this is called oxidation reaction. The opposite process, the
gain of electrons, is called reduction reaction. Redox chemistry, electron transfer,
is behind all electrochemical processes.

Quarter 4 – Week 8D: Electrode Reaction during Electrolysis
First Edition, 2021
Writer Christy Marie N. Comedoy
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Jesusa C. Olayon
Romeo Villarin
Engr. Raul Galleros

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat

General Chemistry 2 Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 8D
Electrode Reactions during Electrolysis
Name: _____________________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Explain the electrode reactions during electrolysis. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-182)

Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-183)
1. trace the movement of electrons during electrolysis;
2. write the reaction that occurs in the cathode and the anode and;
3. describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes.
Key Concepts
Definition of Terms:
a. anion – is a negative ion that is attracted to the positive electrode (anode).

b. cation – is a positive ion that is attracted to the negative electrode (cathode).
c. electroplating – is a process of coating a metal with another metal by the use of electric
current.
d. electrode – is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves an electrolyte during
electrolysis. It could be a cathode (negative electrode) or anode (positive electrode).
e. electrolyte – is an ionic compound which when molten or in aqueous solution conducts
an electric current and gets decomposed in the process.
f. molten – is a liquified substance by the use of heat.
What is electrolysis?
Scientists have learned how to utilize the power of
electricity to split elements and compounds. This process is
called electrolysis. It would be easier for the term 'electrolysis'
to remember if you break the word into its parts, “electro”
refers to electric and “lysis” is the scientist's way of saying that
something is splitting. Therefore, electrolysis is “electric
splitting”.
Figure 1. Essential parts of electrolytic cell
Source:https://knowledgebank.nie.edu.sg/projects/Chemistry.pdf
Parts of an electrolytic cell
An electrolytic cell consists of two electrodes namely; cathode and anode. They are
immersed either in a molten salt or in a solution. A battery or some other source of electrical
energy acts as an electron pump, which will push electrons into one electrode and pulling them
from the other. Same with voltaic cells, the electrode at which reduction occurs is called the
cathode (negative electrode), and the electrode at which oxidation occurs is called the anode
(positive electrode).
Author: Christy Marie N. Comedoy

1
Table 1. Essential Parts and Function of Electrolytic Cell
Parts Function
Battery • provides electrical energy to drive the chemical reaction
• (+) terminal pulls electrons from anode
• (-) terminal supplies electrons from anode
Electrolyte • either in solution or molten state
• presence of free mobile ions to allow flow of electricity
Electrodes Anode ( + electrode) Cathode ( - electrode)
(usually carbon • connected to (+) terminal of battery • connected to (-) terminal of battery
rods/ metal • attracts negatively charged ions • attracts positively charged ions
plates) • oxidation occurs • reduction occurs
**Anode – Oxidation occurs ** Cathode – Reduction occurs
Electrode reactions in molten NaCl electrolysis

If the molten sodium chloride NaCl(l) is placed into a container and the inert electrodes
of carbon C(s) are inserted and attached to the positive and negative terminals of a battery, an
electrolytic reaction will occur.
1. Electrons from the negative terminal will travel to the cathode and are used to reduce
sodium ions into sodium atoms. Sodium will plate onto the cathode and will be deposited
there. The sodium ion will then migrate towards the cathode.
Na+ + e− ⇌ Na(s)
2. Negative chlorine ions migrate towards the anode and release electrons as they oxidize to
form chlorine atoms. Chlorine atoms will then combine together to form chlorine gas
which will bubble away.
2Cl− ⇌ Cl2(g) + 2e−
3. The site of oxidation is still the anode and the site of reduction is still the cathode, but
the charge on these two electrodes are now reversed. Anode is now positive charged and
cathode has a negative charge.
4. It is very important to note the conditions under which the electrolyte cell operates. The
substance that is the strongest reducing agent will undergo oxidation while the substance
that is the strongest oxidizing agent will be reduced. If we will be using aqueous solution of
sodium chloride instead of molten sodium chloride, hydrogen would undergo reduction
instead of sodium because it is a stronger oxidizing agent than that of sodium.
a. b.
Figure 2. (a) Electrolysis of molten Sodium chloride(NaCl), (b) Movement of electrons in
the molten Sodium chloride(NaCl) electrolysis
Source: (a) Central Chemistry 12ed. by Brown, Le May et. al (b) http://www.chemunlimited.com/Electrolysis.pdf
An electrolysis reaction, which is carried out in an electrolytic cell, uses an external

source of electricity to drive a nonspontaneous electrochemical reaction. A molten salt or an
electrolyte solution can either be used as the current-carrying medium within an electrolytic cell.

2
By comparing the reduction potentials associated with possible oxidation and reduction
processes, the products of electrolysis can be generally predicted. If the electrode is involved or
consumed in the electrolysis reaction, the electrodes are called active. These active electrodes are
important in electroplating and in metallurgical processes.
During electrolysis of molten NaCl, Na+ ions pick up electrons and are reduced to Na at the
cathode (Figure 2a). As Na+ ions near the cathode are depleted, additional Na+ ions migrate in. In
the same way, there is a net movement of ions to the anode where they are oxidized. The
electrode reactions for the electrolysis are the following:
Electrolysis of molten salts requires very high temperatures because ionic substances has
high melting points. Do we obtain the same products if we electrolyze the aqueous solution of a
salt instead of the molten salt? Frequently the answer is NO because water itself might be
oxidized to form O2 and or reduced to form H2 rather than the ions of the salt.
In the electrolysis of NaCl, the electrodes are inert. It means that they do not react but merely
serve as the surface where oxidation and reduction occur. Several practical applications of
electrochemistry, however, are based on active electrodes—electrodes that participate in the
electrolysis process.
Figure 4 shows an electrolytic cell for electroplating nickel
onto a piece of steel. The anode is a strip of nickel metal,
and the cathode is the steel. The electrodes are immersed in
a solution of NiSO4(aq). When an external voltage is applied,
reduction occurs at the cathode. The standard reduction
potential of Ni2+ (Eored = -0.28 V) is less negative than that
of H2O (Eored = -0.83 V), so Ni2+ is favorably reduced, placing
a layer of nickel metal on the steel cathode.
At the anode, the nickel metal is oxidized. To explain this
behavior, we need to compare the substances in contact
with the anode, H2O and NiSO4(aq), with the anode material,
Ni. For the NiSO4(aq) solution, neither Ni2+ nor SO42- can be
Figure 3. Electrolytic cell with an oxidized (because both already have their elements in their
active metal electrode highest possible oxidation state). The H2O solvent and Ni
Source:General Chemistry, 12th ed.-Brown.pdf
atoms in the anode, however, can both undergo oxidation.
The strongest reducing agents, which are the substances oxidized most readily, have the most
negative E°red values. Thus, it is the Ni(s), with its Eored = -0.28 V, that is oxidized at the anode
rather than the H2O. If we look at the overall reaction, it appears as if nothing has been
accomplished. However, this is not true because Ni atoms are transferred from the Ni anode to
the steel cathode, plating the steel with a thin layer of nickel atoms. The standard emf
(electromotive force) for the overall reaction is:
Eocell = Eored (cathode) - Eored (anode) = (-0.28 V) – (-0.28 V) = 0
Because the standard emf is zero, only a small emf is needed to cause the transfer of nickel
atoms from one electrode to the other.

3
Some Commercial Electrolytic Processes
The following are examples of commercial electrolytic
processes:
➢ Electroplating - uses electrolysis to deposit a thin layer of
one metal on another metal to improve beauty or resistance
to corrosion. Examples include electroplating nickel or
chromium onto steel and electroplating a precious metal like
silver onto a less expensive one. Widely used in industries
such as automobile, airplanes, electronics, jewelry, and toys.
➢ Hall-Héroult process – is the electrolytic process used
Figure 4. Electroplating
commercially to produce aluminum by Charles M.Hall and silver onto a spoon
Paul Héroult. Hall began working on the problem of reducing Source:https://chem.libretexts.org.
aluminum in about 1885 after he had learned from a
professor the difficulty of reducing ores of very active metals.
Before the development of an electrolytic process, aluminum
was obtained by a chemical reduction using Sodium or
Potassium as the reducing agent; a costly procedure that
made aluminum metal expensive. As late as 1852, the cost of
aluminum was $545 per pound which is far greater than the
cost of gold. Since aluminum has such a high affinity for
oxygen and is never found pure, electrolysis can be used to
produce 99.5% pure aluminum by separating the oxides. Now, Figure 5. Hall-Heroult
aluminum is found in its oxidized form which is called Process
Source:Central Chemistry 12th ed by
Bauxite. Brown, Le May et.al
➢ Electrorefining of metals – is another application of electrolysis and is important for
other chemical processes. It is common to purification of Copper, Silver, Gold, Aluminum
and many more.
➢ Manufacture of chemicals such as Chlorine, Sodium chloride and bleach.
Activity 1. Trace the Split
1. Trace the movement of electrons during electrolysis.
2. Write the reactions that occurs in the cathode and anode.
What you need:

Pen and paper
What to do: Analyze Figure 6 to answer the

following questions. Write your answers on
a separate sheet.
1. What ions are present in this reaction?
2. Which one will move towards the
cathode?
3. Which one will move towards the
anode?
4. Write the anode half-reaction.
5. Write the cathode half-reaction. Figure 6. Movement of electrons in the molten
6. Write the complete redox reaction. sodium chloride(NaCl) electrolysis
Source: http://www.chemunlimited.com/Electrolysis.pdf

4
7. In an electrolytic cell the electrode at which the electrons enter the solution is called the
______ ; the chemical change that occurs at this electrode is called _______.
Activity 2. How We Do the Move!
Learning Objective:
Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes.
What you need:

Pen and paper
What to do: Analyze Figure 7 that has a spoon and is dipped in a

silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution for it to be plated with silver (Ag).
Write your answers on a separate sheet.
Guide Questions:
1. Which is the anode? cathode?
2. Write an equation for the reaction taking place in the
cathode and the anode. Indicate whether it undergoes
reduction or oxidation.
3. What electrolyte is used in the set-up? Figure 7. Electroplating
4. Trace the flow of ions in the electrodes. silver onto a spoon
Source:https://chem.libretexts.org.
Reflection
Electrolysis of water or water splitting uses electric current to split water (H2O) to
hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2). Although oxygen dissolves naturally when water comes in
contact with air, it becomes a problem with polluted waters because dissolved oxygen is depleted
there. This is the time where supply of dissolved oxygen from electrolysis would be of great help.
On the other hand, hydrogen gas obtained from water splitting can be used as an alternative
source of clean fuel. Since electrolysis uses electricity, do you think the extraction of hydrogen
gas from water can be sustained? Yes or no? Why?
Rubrics:
Brown, T., LeMay, H.E., Bursten, B., Murphy, C. & Woodward, P. (2009).Chemistry the Central
Science (12th ed., pp.860-870). Philippines: Pearson Education South Asia PTE. LTD.
Chang, Raymond. (2007). Chemistry (9th ed., pp. 434-485). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hein, M., Pattison, S., Arena, S.,(2012). Introduction to General Organic and Biochemistry (10th
ed., pp. 64-66). USA. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Science.uwaterloo.ca. (2016). Electrolysis. Retrieved 15 April 2021, from
http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/heating.html
Whitten, K. (2007). Chemistry (8th ed., pp. 124-128). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

5
Internet Sources:
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/Matter/Electrolysishtm. Retrieved . April 16, 2021
https://www.helpteaching.com/lessons/69/electrolysis. Retrieved April. 16, 2021
https://study.com/academy/lesson/Electrolysis.html Date Accessed: Apr. 17, 2021
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook2.0/section/13.18/primary/lesson/
Electrolysis Date Accessed: Apr. 15, 2021
http://www.chemunlimited.com/Electrolysis.pdf Date Accessed: April 20, 2021
https://chem.libretexts.org/Electrolysis.pdf Date Accessed: April 19, 2021
Answer Key

6

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COPYRIGHT PAGE FOR UNIFIED LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS

General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

First Edition, 2021

Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets

Writer Emely M. Tragua

Division Team Jane C. Basul

Printed in the Philippines by:

Author: Emely M. Tragua

The Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids

Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________

Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC)

Learning Objectives: The learners will be able to:

Time Allotment: 1 hour

Figure 1. Comparison of gases, liquids, and solids at the Molecular level

❖ Three Assumptions of KMT:

Author: Emely M. Tragua

❖ Temperature = measure of K.E. (how fast molecules travel)

❖ Temperature is directly proportional with K.E.

Kelvin (K) = temperature scale

Conversion between ◦C and K:

Figure 2. Comparison of Temperature scales

❖ Kinetic Theory Description of the Liquid State

❖ Kinetic-Theory Description of the Solid State

Author: Emely M. Tragua

Figure 3. Examples of Solids and Liquids

Activity 1. Properties of Liquids and Solids!

What you need: pen and paper

Properties of Matter Molecular Behavior

1. Differentiate the distances between molecules in the liquid and solid.

What you need: pen and paper

Author: Emely M. Tragua

CRSD.ORG.“Liquids and Solids” Accessed January 11, 2021.

Author: Emely M. Tragua

General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

First Edition, 2021

Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets

Writer Mylene B. Zaballero

Editors: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña

Division Team Jane C. Basul

Printed in the Philippines by:

Author: MYLENE B. ZABALLERO

Name: ___________________________________________ Grade/Sec: ____________________

Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC)

Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces. (GC11IMF IIIa-c100)

1. Define intermolecular forces.

Time Allotment: 1 hour

Author: MYLENE B. ZABALLERO

1. Dispersion Force (London Force)

Figure 1. The Dispersion forces of two neighboring molecules

2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (Van Der Waals Attraction)

Author: MYLENE B. ZABALLERO

Some hydrogen-containing compounds, such as hydrogen fluoride (HF), water (H 2O),

Figure 3. Hydrogen bonds in HF.

Types of Intermolecular Forces and Relatives Strengths:

Activity 1. What’s the Word? That’s the word!

Learning Objective: Define intermolecular forces.

INTERMOLECULAR 1. ______ 2. _____

Author: MYLENE B. ZABALLERO

What you need: Answer sheets, and pen,

Author: MYLENE B. ZABALLERO

Name: _______________________ Section:

Name: _______________________ Grade/Sec:

INTERMOLECULAR 1. __ 2. _

Name: Section: _

Name: _______________________ Section: