4.

1 Cells

1. Cells are the basic unit of living things.

2. Animals cells contain a cell membrane, a nucleus and cytoplasm.

cell membrane

nucleus
cytoplasm

3. Plants cells contain a cell membrane, a nucleus, cytoplasm, a rigid cell wall and
a large vacuole. Some cells in green plants also contain chloroplasts.

cell membrane cell wall

chloroplast
vacuole

nucleus
cytoplasm

4. The table below lists the functions of the basic structures of cells.
Structure Function
Controls the movement of substances into and out
Cell membrane
of the cell
Contains genetic materials which control the
Nucleus
activities of the cell
Cytoplasm The medium where chemical reactions take place

Cell wall Protects, supports and gives shape to a plant cell

Contains mainly water and stores dissolved
Vacuole
minerals
Site where photosynthesis takes place in order to
Chloroplast
make food

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5. We use a microscope to observe cells.

eyepiece coarse adjustment knob

the lens closest to our eye when used for making large
we look through the microscope; adjustments in focusing
magnifies the image of the object
fine adjustment knob
objective used for making small
adjustments in focusing
the lens nearest to the object;
magnifies the image of the object
arm
the part we use to carry
clip
the microscope from
holds the object (slide)
one place to another
on the stage
stage
diaphragm
the place where the
adjusts the amount of light object is held for
entering the microscope viewing

mirror base
reflects light onto the the bottom stand of
object the microscope

6. A microscope has different eyepieces and objectives. Each of them has a

magnification marked on its body.

7. The magnification of a microscope can be calculated as follows:

Magnification of Magnification of Magnification of

= ´
a microscope the eyepiece the objective

Eyepiece Objective Total magnification

5X 4X ´ 20
10X 10X ´ 100
15X 40X ´ 600

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8. Below are the key steps in using a microscope:

(a) Place the microscope near a light source.
(b) Use a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective.
(c) Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness.
(d) Place the slide on the stage and hold it in place using the clips.
(e) Turn the coarse adjustment knob until the objective is just above the slide.
(f) Turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite direction until you see a
clear image.
(g) Turn the fine adjustment knob to obtain the sharpest image.

9. The image observed under the microscope is magnified and inverted.

10. When we make biological drawings of the cells, we should remember the
following tips:
þ Different parts of the drawing should be in correct proportion.
þ Use a sharp HB pencil to draw and erase with a rubber. Never draw in pen.
þ Leave enough space to label all features. Draw label lines with a ruler. Make
sure the lines do not cross each other.

þ Use single solid lines. The lines

should be smooth and clear.
cell membrane

nucleus þ DO NOT shade the diagram. Use

dots that are close together to
cytoplasm
represent an area darker in colour.

An ox eye cell (´ 100) þ Give a title to the drawing and write

the magnification (e.g. ´ 100).

11. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is the genetic material inside the
nucleus.

12. Chromosomes are thread-like structures inside the nucleus of a cell. They are
made up of DNA coiling around some proteins.

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13. Cells can undergo cell division to form new cells.

cell membrane
1 Before cell division, the genetic
nucleus
cytoplasm materials in the nucleus make an
identical copy of themselves.

2 The nucleus divides into two.

3 The cytoplasm divides into two.

4 Two daughter cells are formed,

each containing a nucleus.

5 The daughter cells absorb

nutrients and grow bigger.

14. Living things grow by increasing the number and size of cells.

4.2 How are cells organized in living things?

15. Stem cells can differentiate into different types of cells. Each type is specialized
to perform a particular function. The process of cells becoming specialized is
called cell differentiation.

stem cells

cell differentiation

nerve cells

muscle cells
red blood cells

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E 16. The levels of organization of multicellular organisms include:

Cell

A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together.

Examples:
• muscle tissue (in humans)
Tissue • vascular tissue (in plants)

An organ is a group of tissues that work together.

Examples:

Organ • heart (contains heart muscle tissue, blood tissue

and nerve tissue)
• stem in plant (contains vascular tissue and
epidermal tissue)

A system is a group of organs that work together.

System
Examples:
• digestive system (includes stomach, intestines and
liver)
• circulatory system
Organism

E 17. An example of levels of organization in humans is shown below.

cell tissue organ system organism

heart muscle heart muscle heart circulatory the human

cell tissue system body

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4.3 Human reproduction

18. Human reproduction involves the fusion of a sperm (a male sex cell) and an
ovum (a female sex cell). A sperm and an ovum each carries 23 chromosomes.

19. The table below lists the differences between a sperm and an ovum.

Sperm Ovum

head cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus tail nucleus

jelly coat

Smaller in size Larger in size

Can move by its tail Cannot move by itself

Without a food store With a food store

20. The table below summarizes the number of chromosomes in human body cells
and sex cells.

Male Female
Sex cell Sex cell
Body cell Body cell
(sperm) (ovum)
46 46
No. of chromosomes 23 23
(in 23 pairs) (in 23 pairs)

No. of autosomes 44 22 44 22

half in number: X
Sex chromosomes XY XX X
half in number: Y

21. Sperms and ova are produced in the male and female reproductive systems
respectively.

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22. The following figure shows the front view of the male reproductive system.

sex glands
produce a fluid which contains urethra
nutrients for the sperms carries semen and urine
out of the body
sperm duct
carries sperms from the penis

testes to the urethra ejects semen to the female

reproductive system
during sexual intercourse
testis
produces sperms and
scrotum
sex hormones
a bag of skin which
holds the testes

23. The following figure shows the front view of the female reproductive system.

oviduct
carries the ovum from uterus
the ovary to the uterus the place where a foetus grows
and develops before its birth
ovary
produces ova and vagina
sex hormones receives the penis during sexual
intercourse; a baby passes
through here at birth

24. The following figure summarizes the process of human reproduction.

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Father Mother

1 1
Testes produce sperms Ovaries produce ova
(23 chromosomes). (23 chromosomes).

2
2
During ovulation, an ovum
During sexual intercourse,
is released into the oviduct.
semen containing sperms
is ejected into the vagina. 3
Sperms swim up to the Fertilization
oviducts. One of the sperms fuses with the ovum
to form a zygote (46 chromosomes).

4
Implantation
The zygote undergoes cell division to
form an embryo which implants to the
uterine lining.

5
After implantation, the embryo
begins to develop in the uterus.

6
About 8 weeks after fertilization,
the embryo develops into a foetus.

7
About 38 weeks after fertilization,
the foetus is ready to be born.

25. At puberty, secondary sexual characteristics appear.

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Males
• Beards grow
• Larynx becomes larger and voice becomes deeper
• Shoulders become wider and the body becomes more muscular
• Hair grows in pubic area and armpits

Females
• Breasts develop
• Hair grows in pubic area and armpits
• Hips become wider

26. At puberty, boys may experience wet dream and girls start to have
menstruation. Both of these are signs of sexual maturity.

4.4 Being parents

27. The pregnancy period lasts about 38 weeks. The signs of pregnancy include:
• absence of menstruation • swollen breasts
• nausea • frequent urination
• feeling tired easily • constipation

E 28. Married couples can practise birth control to reach their goals of family planning.
The table below shows different birth control methods and the basic principles.

Birth control method Basic principle

• Condom*
• Diaphragm Preventing sperms from reaching
• Rhythm method the ovum
• Sterilization
Birth control pills Preventing ovulation
* can help prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
4.5 Heredity and variation

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29. Heredity is the passing of traits from one generation to the next, as a result of
the transmission of genetic information.

30. By analysing a ‘genetic traits tree’, we can study the passing of traits through
each generation in a family.

31. Variations are the differences in features among individuals of a species. There
are two types of variations, continuous variation and discontinuous variation.

32. The table below shows the differences between continuous variation and
discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

A continuous range
Definition Clear-cut differences
of differences

• Height • With or without ear lobes

• Body mass • Curved or straight thumbs
Example
• Hand span • Blood group
• IQ • Gender

Method for presenting

the data of the Draw a histogram Draw a bar chart
variation

A histogram A bar chart

Distribution of heights of a group of students Number of students with different blood groups in a class
Number of students

20
Number of students

20
15
15
10

10
5

0 5
139.5 142.5 145.5 148.5 151.5 154.5 157.5 160.5 163.5 166.5 169.5

Height (cm) 0
A B AB O

Blood group

33. Variations are determined by heredity and the environment.

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34. There are two types of twins, identical twins and non-identical twins. The table
below shows the differences between identical twins and non-identical twins.

Identical twins Non-identical twins

Result from a single zygote Result from two different zygotes

Have the same genetic materials Have different genetic materials

Of the same gender and look like each May not be of the same gender and
other may look different from each other

35. Variations between identical twins are due to the differences in their living habits
and the environment.

E 36. DNA consists of two strands twisted around one another to form a double helix.
On the strands, there are four different kinds of bases: A, T, C and G for short. A
always pairs with T. C always pairs with G.

chromosome
cell

A with T
nucleus C with G

strands of DNA twisted

around one another to
DNA
form a double helix

E 37. Instructions encoded on DNA depend on the sequence of bases on the DNA.

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