Ecology

2.
ECOLOGY
1
Definition of terms. 4. Synecology is the study of

1. Ecology is the study of many/different species . It
interrelationships of organisms involves studying the
to each other and with their relationship of the species with
environment. both biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem.
2. Environment constitutes the
surroundings of the organisms 5. Habitat - this is a specific
both living (biotic ) and non- place/locality with a particular
living (abiotic or physical) set of conditions where an
organism lives. They are
3. Autecology is the study of single generally categorized as aquatic
species. It involves studying the (water) and terrestrial (land)
relationship of the species with habitats.
both biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystem. 6. Biosphere/ ecosphere- this is
the part of the earth and the
atmosphere inhabited by living
organisms.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

2
7. Ecological niche- this is the 10. Ecosystem- it is a natural unit

position/ physical space where the composed of abiotic and biotic
organism lives and the role it plays factors whose interactions lead to a
(feeding relationships and other self-sustaining system e.g. a pond.
interactions with other species). 11. Biomass- this is the total dry weight
8. Population- refers to all members of of living organisms at a particular
a particular species in a particular feeding/ trophic level e.g. total dry
habitat at a particular time e.g. weight of maize crop per hectare or
population of lions in Tsavo zebras in a park.
national park. 12. Carrying capacity- refers to
9. Community- refers to all organisms maximum number of organisms an
belonging to different species that area can comfortably support
interact in the same habitat. It without depletion of available
therefore consists of populations. resources e.g. maximum number of
cattle a paddock can hold without
getting overgrazed.

3
Application of knowledge gained from FACTORS IN AN ECOSYSYEM.

ecology
A. Abiotic/Physical/non-living factors.
i. Sustainable food production.
1. Light. It is obtained from the sun as
ii. Conservation of natural resources. the main source of energy. It is
iii. Pollution control. measured by a photographic light
iv. Control of pests and diseases. meter.
v. Prediction of climate change. Effects.
vi. Population control. i. It affects photosynthesis, flowering/

photoperiodism, germination (e.g. in
vii. Ecotourism- tourism to exotic or lettuce seeds), opening and closing of
threatened ecosystems to observe stomata; gaseous exchange in plants.
wildlife or help to conserve
nature. ii. It affects hibernation, synthesis of vitamin
D, migration, reproduction and vision in
animals.

4
3. Wind- this is moving air. Measured

2. Temperature- It is measured by use of
by a wind vane(for direction) and
thermometer.
wind sock (for strength).
Effects.
Effects.
i. It affects biochemical reactions
because they are controlled by i. It affects evaporation and
enzymes/ affects enzymatic transpiration.
activities. ii. It facilitates spore, fruit and seed
 Low temperature inactivate enzymes dispersal.
while high temperature denature the iii. It is an agent of pollination.
enzymes. iv. Strong wind may break/ uproot
ii. It affects the rate of transpiration; trees.
evaporation, sweating, v. Wind may blow away/ bring rain-
photosynthesis, hibernation/ bearing clouds.
aestivation.
5
vi. It influences migration of 4. Atmospheric pressure- this

animals. is the pressure exerted by the
vii. It influences predation air in the atmosphere. It is
through wafting of the measured by a barometer.
scent. Effects.
viii. It causes formation of waves i. Variation in atmospheric
in aquatic habitats pressure affects the amount
facilitating aeration. of oxygen available for
respiration and carbon (IV)
oxide in the atmosphere for
photosynthesis.
ii. Decreased atmospheric
pressure increases the rate
of transpiration.

6
5. Humidity- this is the volume of Effects of humidity

water vapor in the atmosphere. i. Affects the rate of evaporation,
sweating and transpiration hence
When humidity is high there is affecting their distribution.
much water vapor in the 6. pH (hydrogen ion concentration)-
atmosphere and when it is low, Refers to the degree of alkalinity or
there is less water vapor in the acidity in aquatic habitats/soil
solution. It is measured by use of
atmosphere. It is measured by: BDH universal indicator paper/pH
meter.
i. Paper hygrometer.
Effects.
ii. Blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride i. Affects the distribution plants and
paper which turns pink when animals in soil and fresh water
hydrated. It turns pink faster in ponds.
humid atmosphere than in ii. Affects the degree of soil fertility.
relatively dry atmosphere.

7
7. Salinity- refers to the degree  Influences the maintenance

of salt concentration in of osmotic pressure/
aquatic habitats/ water. osmoregulation in aquatic
 Based on salt concentration, animals hence distribution of
the aquatic environment is animals.
divided into:  It is determined by calculating
i. Fresh water habitats- have the percentage of salts in
no salt e.g. rivers, lakes, water or by acid base titration
ponds and wells. method.
ii. Marine habitats- have high
salt concentration e.g.
oceans.
iii. Estuarine habitats- with
fluctuating salt
concentration.
8
8. Rainfall/ water vii. It is an agent of pollination in

 The main source of water is rain and some aquatic plants.
the amount of rainfall is measured by viii. It is required for fertilization in
use of rain gauge. Pteridophytes and Bryophytes;
Effects 9. Topography-this is the slope of
i. It is required for germination. land;
ii. It is a raw material for i. It affects distribution of crops.
photosynthesis.  Wind ward side receives more
iii. It acts as universal solvent. rainfall hence more and healthy
crops/ plants grow.
iv. It acts as a medium of transport of
substances.  The leeward side receives less rainfall
hence fewer and stunted crops/
v. It provides turgidity to cells/ plants grow.
support in herbaceous plants.
ii. North facing slopes in the
vi. It is an agent of fruit and seed southern hemisphere have more
dispersal. plants.
iii. It affects the rate of soil erosion.

9
B. BIOTIC INTER- Adaptations of the prey.

RELATIONSHIPS/ i) They run faster/ have strong
INTERACTIONS. hind muscles (to escape the
1. PREDATION/ PREDATOR- predator).
PREY RELATIONSHIP/ ii) They camouflage with the
INTERACTION. environment (i.e. resemble
 A predator is an animal that the environment) hence not
hunts/ kills another (prey) for easily noticed by the
food e.g. a dog and a hare. predators.
 Preys have survival mechanisms iii) Some mimic the predators
in their habitats not to be eaten/ (i.e. they resemble the
killed. predators).
 Predators have survival
mechanisms to enable them
survive and reproduce/
propagate their lineage.
10
iv) Some emit some chemicals/ Adaptations of the predator.

smell that turn off i) They run faster so as to
predators. capture the prey.
v) Some have good sense of ii) They camouflage with the
smell and sight to detect environment hence not
predators. easily noticed by the prey.
vi) Some (e.g. porcupines) have iii) Some mimic the preys.
quills/ spines, others (e.g.
grasshoppers) have spikes to iv) They have sharp eyesight to
fight off predators. locate the prey.
vii) Some have a wider vision/
view to locate the predator.

11
v) They have strong sense of smell 2. Helps to control the

and sight to locate and identify population size of the predator
the prey. and prey e.g. an increase in the
vi) Some produce venom/ poison number of gazelles leads to an
that paralyze/ kill prey. increase in number of lions.
vii) Some have strong jaws/ claws/  As lion number increases,
sharp canines/ hawks (for hawks) they feed on the gazelles whose
to capture prey. members will decrease to such
a low level that the lions will
Effects/ economic importance of start to starve and die or
predation. migrate.
1. It brings about the biological
control especially to destroy
disadvantageous prey.
 Biological control- refers to the use
of natural enemies to regulate the
population of unwanted species.
12
2. PARASITISM (ANTAGONISTIC/ Differences between predation and

ANTIPATHETIC SYMBIOSIS)- this parasitism.
is a kind of interspecific relationship/ i. In predation the whole
association where one member/ organism/large parts are used as
organism (parasite) benefits while the food while in parasitism, tiny
other (the host) is harmed/ loses. parts/tissues are used as food.
 There are two types of parasites, endo/ ii. In predation the whole organism
internal parasites (found inside the body dies while in parasitism organism
of organism) e.g. liverfluke, roundworm, does not die.
tapeworm) and ecto/ external parasites
(found outside the body of organism) e.g. iii. In predation, one predator feeds on
ticks, fleas, mites). many preys while in parasitism many
parasites feed on one.
 For example a tick (parasite) sucks blood/
nutrients from a cow (host) causing the Similarities between predation and
cow to be anaemic, transmit diseases, parasitism.
destroying the skin, causing it to be i. In both, one organism uses another
malnourished. organism as food.
ii. In both, one benefits and the other
suffers.
13
3. SYMBIOSIS- this is a close b) The bacteria found in human

relationship between two digestive system/ gut/ colon- the
organisms of different species human beings provide shelter to
where the two mutually benefit bacteria while bacteria help to
from each other. synthesize/ manufacture vitamin K
 Examples include: and B12 (or ensures microbial
balance).
a) Bacteria in the rumen/ gut of
herbivores- the bacteria help thec) The nitrogen fixing bacteria
herbivores to digest cellulose (Rhizobium sp) on root nodules of
and herbivores provide shelter leguminous plants- plants provide
to the bacteria. food and shelter to bacteria while
bacteria convert/ fix atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrates/ ammonium
compounds which are absorbed by
plants.
14
d) Mycorrhiza (association between fungus and
roots of coniferous/ forest trees- Mycorrhiza Types of competition.
absorbs mineral salts for plant use while trees a. Intraspecific competition-
provide food/ organic materials to fungi) Competition among members
e) Lichen (association between blue green algae of the same species
and fungus)- blue green algae provides
nutrients/ carries out photosynthesis while Signs of intraspecific competition
the fungus absorbs water and provides a point in plants.
of attachment for algae. i. Thin and tall plants.
4. COMPETITION- This is an association ii. Yellow and pale green plants.
where two/ more organisms depend on the
same limited resources e.g. food, light, water, iii. Low yield.
mates and shelter.
 Example zebra and gazelle competing for grass.
 In competition organisms which are poorly
adapted die or migrate while the organisms
which are well adapted survive hence the species
increases competition can be interspecific; or
intraspecific.

15
b. Interspecific competition- Competition among Study question.

members/organisms of different species. Explain why the carrying capacity of
• If two different species occupy the same wild animals is higher than that of
ecological niche, sooner or later one will outdo/ cattle in a given area.
eliminate the other. This is called competition  Wild animals have different feeding
exclusion principle. habits e.g. some are grazers while
• The organism that outdoes/ eliminates the other others are browsers hence there is
has better structural and behavioral adaptations minimum competition for food and
e.g. high rate of multiplication. Organisms space.
without such adaptations migrate or die.  Cattle have the same feeding habits
• To avoid competition exclusion principle the (all are grazers) hence there is
organisms need to occupy different ecological competition for food hence fewer
niches. cattle can be supported in a given
• Competition helps to regulate/control area.
population size of organisms.
16
5. SAPROPHYTISM. iv) Are used in food processing industries for

production of yoghurt, cheese, vinegar.
 This is a relationship where organisms obtain
nutrients from dead organic matter causing v) Used in curing tea and tobacco and making
silage.
decomposition. These organisms are called
saprophytes e.g. bacteria and fungi. vi) Genetically engineered bacteria are used as a
source of proteins, for production of enzymes
 They release enzymes that digest the dead in detergents and for manufacture of
decaying matter and the products are directly hormones e.g. insulin.
absorbed into the tissue of the saprophyte. vii) Symbiotic bacteria in ruminants and rodents,
secrete cellulose enzyme that digests cellulose.
Importance/ role of saprophytism/ saprophytes/
Harmful effects
decomposers in the ecosystem.
i) They cause decay hence spoilage of food
Beneficial roles leading to food poisoning.
i) They break down dead organic matter ii) Parasitic bacteria e.g. Streptococcus sp,
facilitating recycling of nutrients/ improve soil Pneumoniae sp, Vibrio cholera cause plant and
animal diseases.
fertility.
iii) Denitrifying bacteria reduce soil nitrates to
ii) Some e.g. Rhizobium and Azotobacter are free nitrogen thus reducing soil fertility.
involved in nitrogen fixation/ convert
nitrogen to nitrates for plant use.
iii) Treatment of sewage and production of © Sam obare 10-Jan-21
biogas.
17
NITROGEN CYCLE. ii. Biological- Nitrogen fixation by non-

 This is the cycling of nitrogen and its symbiotic bacteria and free living micro-
compounds in nature. Nitrogen is used organisms found in the soil e.g. Azotobacter
in manufacture of proteins. sp, Clostridium sp, and some algae e.g.
Nostoc, blue green algae, chlorella,
Steps/cycle Anabaena (which fix nitrogen into
A. Nitrogen fixation- atmospheric ammonia which is then converted into
nitrogen converted into nitrates/ nitrates).
ammonia for plant use/absorption iii. Non- biological/ Lightning- During
through biological and non-biological thunderstorm the lightning energy combines
nitrogen fixation. atmospheric nitrogen with oxygen to form
i. Biological- Nitrogen fixation by Nitrogen (IV) oxide. Nitrogen (IV) oxide
symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium later dissolves in rain water to form weak
in the root nodules of the legumes nitric acid and nitrous acid. The nitric acid
(which convert nitrogen gas into combines with metal ions in the soil to form
ammonia which are then converted nitrates.
into ammonium compounds).

18
B. Absorption by plants- plants E. Nitrification- Ammonium

absorb nitrate ions or ammonium compounds are converted into
ions directly from the soil and nitrites by nitrifying bacteria
them to make amino acids/plant e.g. Nitrosomonas and
proteins through the process of Nitrococcus . Nitrites are then
photosynthesis (hence nitrogen is converted into nitrates by
incorporated into the plant nitrifying bacteria e.g.
protein). Nitrobacter. Nitrification
C. Feeding- by animals on plant enriches the soil with nutrients.
proteins and assimilate them to F. Denitrification- Nitrates in the
form animal proteins. soil are converted into nitrites,
D. Ammonification/petrification/d ammonia or free nitrogen gas by
eath and decay- When animal denitrifying bacteria e.g.
and plants die they and their Pseudomonas denitrificans and
wastes and droppings are acted Thiobacillus denitrificans.
upon by saprophytic bacteria and • Denitrification deprives soil of
fungi to form ammonium fixed nitrogen gas and releasing
compounds. free nitrogen into the air.
Free nitrogen in Fixation by free living micro-
the atmosphere. organisms e.g. Clostridium,
Denitrification
Azotobacter
by Fixation by symbiotic
pseudomonas, organisms e.g.
Thiobacillus Nitrogen fixation Rhizobium
by lighting.
Nitrates
(NO3) Absorption Plants Feeding Animals
Nitrification by
Nitrobacter
Death followed by decay by saprophytic

Nitrites
bacteria and fungi
(NO)
(ammonification/petrification)
Nitrification by
Nitrosomonas Ammonia
(NH3)
19 © Sam obare 10-Jan-21

20
Role of nitrogen cycle- Helps to ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM.

regulate the atmospheric nitrogen.  The sun is the main source of this
i. It acts as a source of energy for energy which is contained in food
decomposers. eaten.
ii. It allows free nitrogen in the  Energy flow is the flow of chemical
atmosphere to be incorporated energy in feeding relationship/from
into the tissues of organisms. one feeding level to the other.
 Plants absorb the light energy from
iii. It enriches the soil with nitrogen the sun and use it in manufacture of
for plant use. food for themselves and consumers
Role of decomposers/saprophytes in hence it is incorporated into the
nitrogen cycle. plant tissues hence plants are called
primary producers.
i. Their action results into release
of nutrients into the soil. N/B-The role of producers is to
manufacture food to be used by
themselves and all other organisms in
the ecosystem.

21
 Primary consumers obtain the energy  A small portions of energy is passed

from plants/primary producers e.g. from one trophic level to the next
plants, therefore the number of organisms in
 Secondary consumers e.g. herbivores a given trophic level must be more
obtain the energy from the primary than the succeeding trophic level.
consumers,  This is because some energy is lost
 Tertiary consumers e.g. leopard obtain through:
energy from the secondary consumer. i. Respiration,
 Quaternary consumers (scavengers) e.g. ii. Excretion,
vulture obtain energy from the iii. Excreation/defecation/egestion,
tertiary consumer.
iv. Decomposition,
 When living organisms die they are
broken down/decomposed by v. Unedible materials not
decomposers (saprophytes) e.g. consumed.
bacteria and fungi.
 The feeding level (producers to
consumers) is called feeding/trophic
level.

22
FOOD CHAINS Methods of determining the

 A food chain is a linear type of diet of organisms.
representation of the flow of a) Dissecting the organism
energy from the producers to and analyzing the
consumers and to the
contents of the digestive
decomposers.
system/gut.
 Examples include:
b) Observations as they
a) Grass Grasshopper Bird
feed.
b) Napier grass Goat Man
c) Examining the droppings.
 The arrow points to the eater.
d) Studying their
dentition/beaks.
23
FOOD WEBS a) a. Name the food

 A food web consists of relationship above.
many food chains.  Food web
Example 1 b) How many trophic levels
are shown in the diagram
above?
 Three

24
Example 2 a) Construct a food chain ending with

crocodile as a quaternary consumer.
 Microscopic plants mosquito
larvae small fish large fish
crocodiles
b) Name the organism in the food web that
has only one predator.
 Large fish
 Mosquito larvae

25
Example 3 a) Write down the food chains in which the

guinea fowls are secondary consumers.
 Grass → Grasshoppers → Guinea
fowls
 Grass → Termites → Guinea fowls
b) What would be the short term effects on the
ecosystem if lions invaded the area?
 Lions would compete with leopards for
food/prey
 Gazelle numbers would reduce
 Grass would increase
c) Name the organism through which energy
from the sun enters the food web.
 Grass

26
Example 4 a) Name the process through which energy

from the sun is incorporated into the
food web.
 Photosynthesis
b) State the mode of feeding of the fish in
the food web.
 Carnivorous
c) Name the two ecosystems in which the
organisms in the food web live.
 Terrestrial and aquatic

27
d) What would happen to the f) The biomass of producers in the

organisms in the food web if bird L ecosystem was found to be greater
migrated? than that of the primary
 The number of snails would consumers. Explain.
increase hence more food for bird N  So that the producers are able to
whose population would increase. support the primary consumers.
The number of algae and green This is because energy is lost
plants would reduce as they are through respiration.
eaten by the large number of snails.
e) From the information in the food
web, construct a food chain with
the large fish as the tertiary
consumer.
 Algae Insect larvae
Small fish large fish
 Algae zooplankton
Small fish large fish

28
Name the producers in the ecosystem.

Example 5
(i)
 Phytoplanktons
(ii) Name two organisms which are both
secondary and tertiary consumers.
 Hawk; and water snake
(iii) State two short term effects of
immigration of insects in the
ecosystem.
 Decrease in phytoplanktons
 Increase in population of small fish

29
(iv) Which organism has Example 6

the least Biomass in Given that:
the food web? Explain.
i. Small fish feed on planktonic crustaceans
 Hawk; and worms.
 Reason – it is a top ii. Insect larvae feed on planktonic algae.
predator. Amount of
energy decreases in iii. Large fish feed on small fish.
successive trophic levels iv. Birds feed on small fish, planktonic
or energy is lost through crustaceans and worms.
respiration; egestion/ v. Worms feed on insect larvae.
excreation,
vi. Planktonic crustaceans feed on
undigested/unconverted
planktonic algae.
food
a) Construct a food web from the above
information.
30
Large fish Birds

v
Insect Worms Planktonic

Small fish
larvae crustaceans
Planktonic algae

31
b) Name the organisms that d) Explain why primary

compete for food. productivity decreases with
 Small fish and birds. increase in depth in water
/aquatic habitat.
 Birds and large fish.
 Decrease in light intensity.
 Planktonic crustaceans, small
fish and insect larva.  Decrease in temperature.
c) How does man interferes
with the above
ecosystem?
 Carrying out fishing.
 Polluting the water body.
 Irrigating using the water
from the lake.

32
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS. Constructing pyramid of numbers

 A pyramid of number is a diagram i. Use data provided/collected.
which represents the total number of ii. From the data identify and draw
organisms at different feeding/trophic the most suitable food chain.
levels.
iii. Indicate the numbers at each
 It shows the relationship between the trophic level in the food chain.
number of organisms occupying the
trophic levels. iv. Choose a most suitable scale from
the data.
 Usually the greatest in number are
producers followed by consumers in v. Using the chosen scale, draw a
decreasing order. horizontal rectangular bar to
represent the number of
 At each trophic level energy is lost in producers as the base of the
respiration and thus fewer organisms pyramid.
can be supported at a succeeding
level. vi. Progressively draw horizontal bars
to represent other trophic levels.

33
Example. a) Construct a possible food chain

for the dam.
 The following table shows the
estimated number of Microscopic algae mosquito
larvae small fish large fish
organisms recorded in a farm.
crocodiles
 Small fish- 3,500
 Microscopic algae- 12, 000
 Crocodiles-100
 Large fish- 950
 Mosquito larvae- 8, 900

34
b) Construct a pyramid of numbers

from the given data.
Scale: 1cm represents 1000 organisms
Crocodiles
Large fish
Small fish
Mosquito larvae
Microscopic algae
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
35
c) Explain the shape of the pyramid Inverted/irregular pyramid of

obtained. numbers.
 The number of organisms decreases up  It is obtained when the number of
the trophic levels. organisms does not decrease in
 This is because energy is lost in form of succeeding trophic levels e.g.
respiration in succeeding trophic levels 1. Many caterpillars feeding on one
meaning that fewer numbers can be tree which in turn are fed on by
supported up the trophic levels. birds.
Limitations of pyramid of numbers. 2. Monkeys feeding on one mango
i. Producers vary in size yet they are tree which are in turn fed on by
given the same status. several fleas/parasites.
ii. It is difficult to draw the pyramid of
numbers to scale because the numbers
vary.
iii. It is difficult to determine the trophic
levels of some organisms because some
occupy more than one trophic level.

Example 1,partially inverted pyramid of numbers.
36
Birds
Caterpillars
One tree

Example 2, Fully/Completely inverted pyramid of numbers.
37
Fleas
Monkeys
1 mango tree

38
PYRAMID OF BIOMASS.  In a stable ecosystem, the biomass of

 This is a diagram drawn to represent any trophic level should become
the dry mass of organisms at different more than the successive level in
feeding/trophic levels. order to support the successive level.
 Primary producers/plants have largest  The ecosystem should be ecologically
biomass because they are producers i.e. balanced i.e. the components in the
obtain the energy directly from the sun ecosystem are available in a steady
and use it to manufacture food from manner such that there is no
which other organisms depend on depletion of any of them.
directly or indirectly.  In the aquatic ecosystem, the
 Tertiary/Quaternary consumers have pyramid of biomass is
the lowest biomass because they occupy partially/completely inverted because
the highest trophic levels. some aquatic organisms have
alternative preys.
 As the trophic levels are ascended, most
of biomass is lost in form of faeces,
urine and as heat during respiration.

39
Example
Secondary
consumers (100g)
Primary consumers (1000g)
Primary producers (5000g)

40
Example b) Construct a pyramid of biomass

from the given data.
 The table below gives
information about the Scale: 1cm represents 500 grams
aquarium which is ecologically
balanced.
 Insect larvae- 500g
 Fish -1, 200g
 Water plants- 5, 000g
 Bacteria – 10g
a) Construct a suitable food

chain.
Water plants insect
larvae fish
bacteria
41
c. Explain the shape of the d. State two roles of green plants

pyramid of biomass. in a fish aquarium other than
 It is partially inverted because providing food for fish.
although the insect larvae have i. Generate oxygen.
less biomass can sustain the fish ii. Remove carbon (IV) oxide.
due to the large number and
many eggs laid by the insects.
 Fish will also depend on
alternative prey.

42
POPULATION. Factors influencing population

 This is a group of organisms
growth rate.
belonging to the same species 1. Availability of food.
in a particular habitat e.g. a 2. Space.
population of buffalos in a
national park. 3. Diseases.
Characteristics of a population. 4. Predators
1. Population density- refers to 5. Pests.
the number of organisms per
unit area.
2. Population dispersion- refers
to the spread/distribution of
organisms.
3. Population growth rate-
refers to the rate of increase
in numbers.
43
Population growth.
 When population data is
plotted against time, a
sigmoid (s-shaped) curve is
formed.
 It is divided into 4
regions/phases namely:
A. -Lag phase
B. -Log/exponential phase
C. -Decelerating phase
D. -Plateau phase
44
Phases of sigmoid curve 2. B-log/exponential phase- There

1. Lag phase- The rate of is rapid/faster population
population growth is low/no growth rate because:
change in population because: i. The organisms have fully
i. The reproducing individuals adjusted to the environment.
are few/have not given birth. ii. The number of reproducing
ii. Organisms have not adjusted organisms is high/organisms
to the environment. have sexually matured..
iii. Organisms still maturing. iii. There are enough resources
e.g. food and space/no
competition.
iv. There are no diseases.
v. Birth rate higher than death
rate.

45
3. Decelerating phase- There is  At this point population stops

reduced growth rate because: growing and the habitat is said to
i. Competition as a result of have attained carrying capacity.
increase in Ways through which food regulates
population/overcrowding/space/ population growth.
food limiting.  More food causes population
ii. Accumulation of wastes. increase due to high rate of
iii. Disease outbreak reproduction and immigration
leading to competition for food
iv. Death rate higher than birth rate. causing death or emigration
4. D-plateau phase- There is no reducing the population.
increase/change in population
because:
i. Aged/old organisms.
ii. Death rate equal to birth rate.
iii. Limited resources.
46
METHODS OF POPULATION  Sampling methods include:

ESTIMATION. 1. Quadrat method.
Reasons for population estimation.
2. Line transect.
1. To help draw a pyramid of
numbers. 3. Belt transect.
2. To establish the 4. Capture-recapture method.
population/total number of
organisms of a particular
species.
 The methods include:
A. Direct counting/head
counting/census.
B. Aerial photography count.
C. Sampling methods.

47
1. QUADRAT METHOD.
 A quadrat is a square frame of
1m x 1m but can be subdivided
into smaller squares using a
string.
 The method is suitable when
estimating the population of
small plants e.g. grass, herbs and
small slow moving animals.

48
Procedure of using a quadrat.  1st -20 organisms

i. Select the area e.g. play  2nd -2 organisms
ground.  3rd – 100 organisms
ii. Estimate the size of the area  4th – 0 organisms
e.g. 5000m2 .
 5th – 50 organisms
iii. Throw the quadrat at random,
count the number of  6th – 8 organisms
organisms of the same species
within the quadrat and record
iv. Throw as many times as
possible and record.
v. Calculate the average number
of organisms in each quadrat.
vi. Use the average to estimate the
population in the field/area.

49
Average Limitations of quadrat method

20+2+100+0+50+8 =30 1. Randomness is not assured.
2. It is tedious/laborious and time
8 consuming if the area is large.
 Therefore: 3. Cannot be used on large plants
1m2 =30 organisms and most animals.
5000 m2 =?
= (5000 x 30)
organisms
=150,000
organisms

50
2. LINE TRANSECT v. Place the quadrat at the 1st

METHOD. station ensuring that the
 It involves the use of straight
line passes though the
line/rope and a quadrat. centre of the quadrat.
 It is suitable to estimate the
vi. Count the number of
population of small plants. organisms of the same
species in the quadrat and
Procedure record.
i. Identify the area/field to be vii. Repeat the procedure in all
studied. stations and record.
ii. Estimate the size in square viii. Calculate the average and
metres. estimate the population as
iii. Take a long rope/line and in quadrat method.
stretch across the area/field.
iv. Select equal stations along
the rope/line.
51
3. BELT TRANSECT iv. Count the number of

METHOD. organisms of the same species
 It involves the use of two parallel
between the ropes and record.
lines/ropes which are 1 m apart. v. Repeat the procedure several
 It is used to estimate the
times, record and calculate
population of herbs and shrubs. the average.
Procedure vi. Use the average to calculate
the total number of
i. Identify the area/field. organisms in the field.
ii. Estimate the size in square
metres e.g. 5000m2
iii. Stretch/lay down 2 ropes of
known length parallel to each
other but 1m apart.

52
Example - Therefore, 20m2=160 organisms

- If the length of the ropes/belts is 5000 m2 = ?
20m, then the area of the belts is (20 = 5000 x 160
x 1)= 20 square meters
20
- If the average number of organisms
is 160, then 20 square meters = 160 = 40,000
organisms organisms.

53
4. CAPTURE- RECAPTURE 4. Allow them to mix freely for

METHOD. 24 hours.
 The method involves capturing, 5. Recapture the organisms.
marking, recording, releasing them 6. Record the total number of
after marking them. organisms in the 2nd capture
 It is suitable in estimating the (SC) and the number of
population of highly marked organisms (SCM).
mobile/constantly moving organisms 7. Use the formula to calculate
e.g. crabs, birds, fish, grasshoppers. the total population/number
Procedure. of organisms in the habitat
1. Select the habitat. (TP).
2. Capture as many animals as
possible of the same species.
3. Count them, mark using
indelible ink and release them
(FCM).
54
FCM = SCM Materials used to capture the animals

TP SC 1. Mosquito nets.
TP x SCM =SC x FCM 2. Fish/seine nets.
TP = SC x FCM 3. Sweep nets.
SCM 4. Specimen bottles.
Where: Marking techniques/methods and tools
TP- Total population 1. Use of light colored paint that is
SC- Second capture quick to dry e.g. cellulose, colored
nail varnish.
FCM- First capture and marked
2. Use of tags.
SCM- Second capture but
marked 3. Tiny brush/ spot marker.
 The marking technique should not
harm the animal or alter its behavior.

55
Example - Population = FCM X SC

- A fish farmer wanted to know the
number of fish in a pond. He
collected 10 fish from the pond and
SCM
labeled each by a tag label on its fin TP = 10 X 50 = 500
and returned the ten fish to the
pond to mix with other fish. When
4 4
he later collected 50 fish from the = 125 fish
pond, he found only 4 of them had
labels. Estimate the total number of
fish in the pond (show your
working).

56
ASSUMPTIONS OF 4. There is no migration in and

CAPTURE-RECAPTURE out of the habitat/study area.
METHOD. 5. The marking technique does
1. The marked/released not affect the behavior of the
organisms mix freely with the organism.
rest of the population. 6. There is a uniform/random
2. The marked/released distribution of animals in the
organisms have enough time habitat/study area.
to mix freely with the rest.
3. There is no death/ variation/
reproduction in population
during the study period/ the
population does not vary
during the study period.

ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS TO
VARIOUS HABITATS.
57
A. XEROPHYTES. Adaptations.
 Xerophytes are plants with 1. They have small and narrow
adaptations to withstand dry leaves/needle-like leaves and
conditions e.g. those found spines to reduce the surface area
in arid and semi arid areas over which transpiration occurs
 These areas have the 2. The leaves have thick, waxy and
following features:
shiny cuticle to prevent
1. Low humidity. overheating/ reduce the distance
2. Unpredictable and poorly of light penetration.
distributed rain.
3. The leaves have sunken stomata
3. Very high temperatures. which accumulate moisture in
4. Strong winds. pits/depressions thus lowering
the diffusion gradient reducing
the rate of transpiration.
58
4. Some have folded leaves 7. Xerophytes leaves and stems

hence not exposing stomata are succulent due to the
to environmental factors presence of parenchyma cells
thus reducing the rate of to store water which is used
transpiration. during drought.
5. Some xerophytes show 8. They have few/ reduced
reversed stomatal rhythm number of stomata that
i.e. they open the stomata lower the rate of
during the night and close transpiration.
during the day to prevent 9. Have hairy leaves to trap
excessive water loss through moisture reducing
transpiration during the day. concentration gradient
6. Some xerophytes shed their hence reducing the rate of
leaves during drought to transpiration.
reduce the surface area
exposed to transpiration.
59
10. Some have deep roots to B. MESOPHYTES.

absorb water from deep in  These are plants that grow
the soil while some have under normal conditions of
superficial roots (roots well aerated soil and water
which grow horizontally supply.
close to the surface) to
absorb water after light or  The conditions in those areas
short showers of rain. include:
11. Some xerophytes have short i. Adequate rainfall.
life cycles to escape ii. Relatively high humidity.
drought, hence some iii. Moderate to high
survive as seeds or temperature.
underground storage
organs. iv. Less wind.
v. Shallow water table.

60
Adaptations 5. Their leaves have transparent

1. The leaves have thin cuticle to reduce cuticle and epidermal cells to
the distance travelled by gases/ for faster allow light penetration to the
diffusion of gases to the palisade cells and increase the
photosynthetic/palisade cells/ and rate of transpiration.
increase the rate of transpiration. 6. Their leaves have air spaces in
2. The leaves have broad lamina to spongy mesophyll for gases to
increase the surface area for absorption diffuse easily into the palisade
of light and carbon (IV) oxide and cells/ for efficient gaseous
transpiration. exchange.
3. They have mosaic arrangement of 7. Palisade cells contain
leaves to avoid overlapping and over numerous chloroplasts with
shadowing to increase the surface area chlorophyll next to the upper
for absorption of gases and light. epidermis to receive maximum
light for photosynthesis.
4. They have stomata on the upper and
lower leaf epidermis for efficient
gaseous exchange and transpiration.
61
C. HYDROPHYTES. Types of hydrophtytes

 They are plants found in fresh water,  There are three types of hydrophytes:
marshy/swampy areas. i. Floating hydrophytes- they float on
 They take up excess water and therefore the surface and the roots are freely
need to lose more water through hanging in water.
transpiration. ii. Emergent hydrophytes- the root
 Their habitats have the following system is anchored to the bottom
characteristics: of the pond but the leaves are
i. Low O2 concentration. above the surface of water.
ii. Low light intensity. iii. Submerged hydrophytes- they are
fully immersed in water.
iii. Low mineral salt concentration
content.
iv. A lot of water.
v. Waves and currents.

62
Adaptations of hydrophytes. 4. They have poorly developed roots

1. Emergent and floating hydrophytes that lack root hairs to reduce
have broad leaves with numerous absorption of water.
stomata on the upper surface to increase 5. They have aerenchyma tissue/ large
the surface area for transpiration and for air filled tissues for buoyancy and
efficient gaseous exchange. for gaseous exchange.
2. Submerged hydrophytes have highly 6. Flowers of emergent and floating
dissected leaves into thread-like straws hydrophytes are raised above the
to increase surface area for absorption of water to allow pollination.
maximum light and carbon (IV) oxide 7. The leaves of submerged hydrophytes
for photosynthesis and gaseous have numerous and sensitive
exchange. chloroplasts that photosynthesize
3. Floating hydrophytes have long fibrous under low light intensities.
roots to absorb mineral salts. 8. Leaf lamina is thin for faster diffusion
of gases.
9. Leaves lack cuticle to allow for water
loss.

63
D. HALOPHYTES. How do halophytes suffer from

 They are plants that are able to physiological drought?
tolerate and grow in very salty soils  The surrounding soil/water
or water. Their habitats are medium is hypertonic (contains
characterized by: high salt concentration) as
i. High concentration of mineral compared to the cell sap of the
salts. halophytes. This prevents the
absorption of water through
ii. Low concentration of dissolved
osmosis thus plants suffer from
gases.
physiological drought.
iii. Low light intensity.
iv. Currents and waves.

64
5. Some hydrophytes e.g.

Adaptations of halophytes.
mangrove have
1. Their root cells have high salt pneumatophores (breathing
concentration to absorb water by roots) for gaseous exchange.
osmosis.
6. They have tissues which are
2. They have water storage tissues/ tolerant to dehydration.
succulent tissues that store water to
7. Submerged halophytes have
dilute the cell cytoplasm.
sensitive chloroplasts which
3. Some have salt glands on the leaves carry out photosynthesis under
to get rid/ remove excess salts. low light intensity.
4. They have large air spaces/
aerenchyma tissue in their leaves,
stems and fruits to provide buoyancy
and for gaseous exchange.
65
Example Identify with reasons the habitats of

The table below shows stomatal the plant from which the leaves were
distribution on leaves A and B and obtained:
their surface area. Use the a) Leaf A
information to answer the questions Habitat- Aquatic
that follow.
Reasons:
i. Stomata are located on the
upper surface ( to increase the
rate of transpiration).
ii. The leaf has a large surface
area (to provide a large surface
area for transpiration).

66
b) Leaf B. POLLUTION
Habitat- Terrestrial/ normal dry - It refers to release of substances
land. of forms of energy into the
Reasons. environment by human activities
in such quantities whose effects
i. More stomata on the lower
are either harmful or unpleasant
surface/ fewer stomata on the
to human and other living
upper surface.
organisms.
ii. Smaller surface area (to reduce - Those substances are called
the surface area for pollutants. A pollutant is a
transpiration). substance/ a waste that
contaminates air, water and soil.

67
A. AIR POLLUTION. ii) Sulphur (IV) oxide causes

 Refers to release of substances to the respiratory infections e.g.
air in amounts that destroy the bronchitis, Pneumonia and
environment and are harmful to heart failure.
human health and other organisms. iii) Nitrogen (IV) oxide is
Causes and effects. carcinogenic thus causes
1. Release of chemical substances cancer.
containing Sulphur (IV) oxide, iv) They interfere with gaseous
hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen (IV) exchange in animals.
oxide from volcanic activities- v) Hydrogen sulphide is
i) They cause acid rain which; poisonous when inhaled hence
 Alters/ changes/ lowers the soil it causes death.
pH thus affecting plants and other
living organisms in the soil.
 Causes leaching of minerals/
nutrients.
68
2. Carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II) 3. Smoke and fumes from
oxide from the combustion of factories and engines
garbage and organic fuels- they  They reduce visibility on the
cause green house effect/ global roads.
warming which raises the ocean
levels resulting in the flooding of  They block the stomata of leaves
lowlands/ interfering with weather affecting photosynthesis and
patterns/ excessive evaporation transpiration.
from water bodies leading to  They cause eye irritation,
unexpected heavy rains. headaches and breathing
 Carbon (II) oxide causes respiratory difficulties.
poisoning / suffocation because it  Thy contain carbon (IV) oxide
combines with haemoglobin to form which is a respiratory poison.
stable compound
carboxyhaemoglobin which does not
dissociate easily reducing the capacity
of haemoglobin from carrying
oxygen.
69
4. Dust from cement and lime factories, 6. Lead from combustion/ burning
quarries and road construction- it of leaded petrol by motor vehicles.
blocks the stomata of leaves hence  It enters the blood stream thus
affecting photosynthesis and damaging the body organs e.g. brain,
transpiration. liver and kidneys.
 It can cause respiratory diseases/ affects  It affects the nervous system causing
respiratory system. mental disorders/ poor mental
 It reduces visibility and irritates the eyes. development.
5. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from  It blocks the stomata hindering
aerosols (e.g. pesticides, herbicides, gaseous exchange and photosynthesis
dry cleaning agents)-they cause causing death of the plant.
irritation to respiratory organs and
poisoning of water plants.
 They also deplete ozone layer leading to
more penetration of ultraviolet (UV) rays
which cause skin cancer and affect crops.

70
7. Aerosols e.g. pesticides, insecticides, Control of air pollution

fungicides, perfumes, air freshener and 1. Use of CFC free aerosols, perfumes
spray paints. and appliances.
 The main pollutants of aerosols are copper, 2. Use of unleaded fuels in vehicles.
lead and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
3. Use of ear muffs in factories and
 Copper causes irritation of respiratory industries.
organs and poisoning of water plants and
fish. 4. Use of renewable sources of energy
e.g. biogas and electricity.
 Chlorofluorocarbons deplete ozone layer
leading to increased penetration of ultra 5. Use of biological methods instead of
violet (UV) rays that cause skin cancer in using pesticides and herbicides.
humans. 6. Legislation i.e. enforcement of laws
8. Noise from vehicles, machines in on environmental pollution.
factories, aeroplanes. 7. Factories to be constructed away
 It interferes with hearing in animals. from residential areas
 It causes stress, headache and abortion.
71
8. Exhaust pipes should have filters to B. WATER POLLUTION.

remove impurities/ solid particles Refers to release of substances to water
from the released gas. source in levels that are harmful to
organisms.
9. Educating the public on the need
of and how to control air Causes and effects
pollution. 1. Release of untreated sewage into
water bodies- it contains faeces and
10. Scrubbing/ filtration of the gases
nitrogenous wastes.
emitted from factories to remove
acidic gases e.g. nitrogen (IV) oxide  Sewage contains pathogens that cause
water borne diseases e.g. cholera,
and Sulphur (IV) oxide.
Typhoid, amoebic dysentery.
11. Ban smoking in public places.  Sewage contains nitrogenous wastes/
nitrates that cause eutrophication
which reduces oxygen in water thus
causing death of aquatic organisms
© Sam obare through suffocation.
10-Jan-21
72
Eutrophication. 2. Release of domestic and industrial

 This is the enrichment of water bodies by wastes into water bodies- they contain
nutrients e.g. phosphates and nitrates from poisonous substances/ chemicals that
inorganic fertilizers, organic manure and kill the aquatic organisms and enter the
untreated sewage. food chain and accumulate to toxic
levels.
 This promotes excessive growth of algae/
algal bloom. 3. Hot water -from industries discharged
into water bodies.
 The algal growth leads to reduction of light
penetration into the water thus affecting Effects.
primary productivity causing death of a) Heat reduces the amount of dissolved
aquatic plants/ autotrophs. gases e.g. oxygen and carbon (IV)
 As the aquatic plants and algae die, they oxide killing the organisms due to lack
further increase organic matter increasing of oxygen or lack of photosynthesis.
the action of decomposers. b) Heat raises the respiratory rate to
 The decomposers deplete oxygen from water, abnormal levels causing
causing the death of aquatic organisms. malfunctioning in the organisms.
c) Hot water may kill the living
organisms by denaturing enzymes.

© Sam obare
10-Jan-21
73
4. Oil spillage in water bodies from oil iii. Oil layer leads to reduced light
tankers and offshore oil refineries penetration thus affecting
from oil tanker accidents, offshore oil photosynthesis.
wells and damaged warships. iv. Oil also stick together feathers of
Effects of oil aquatic birds making it difficult for
i. Oil spreads on the surface of water the birds to fly.
reducing oxygen supply into the water v. Oil clogs the respiratory surfaces of
leading to suffocation and death of aquatic animals killing them.
aquatic organisms.
ii. Oil also blocks the stomata thus
affecting photosynthesis and gaseous
exchange of phytoplanktons thus killing
them.
74
5. Agro-chemicals- e.g. fertilizers, b) The heavy metals accumulate in

herbicides, pesticides washed into bodies of organisms and affect
water bodies through erosion. functioning of body organs e.g. brain,
Fertilizers contain nitrates and kidney and liver.
phosphates while pesticides contain
c) The heavy metals enter the food
heavy metals e.g. mercury and
chains and accumulate along the
copper and Chlorofluorocarbon
chains becoming poisonous at higher
which is not easily broken down/
trophic levels.
non biodegradable.
d) Nitrates and phosphates in fertilizers
Effects.
cause eutrophication and change in
a) The heavy metals affect respiratory water pH.
activities of aquatic organisms.
75
6. Lead from pipes and tanks in Control of water pollution.

domestic water supply systems. 1. Treatment and proper disposal of
 Lead affects the physiological sewage.
functioning of body organs.
2. Treatment of industrial waste
 It also damages the nervous system
resulting in mental problems. before disposal and cooling of hot
water from the industries before
7. Soil erosion.
discharging it into water bodies.
 It causes siltation of water bodies
making water unfit for human 3. Caution when transporting oil in
consumption and unsuitable habitation ships and when mining petroleum
for certain animals. found in ocean deposits.
 Silt/ soil particles clog the respiratory 4. Biological and cultural control of
surfaces of plants and animals thus weeds, pests and diseases.
affecting gaseous exchange.
 Soil particles/ silt reduce light 5. Use of organic manure instead of
penetration thus reducing the rate of inorganic fertilizers.
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
76
6. Prevent soil erosion through Study question.

terracing, construction of Sewage contains saprophytic
gabions and reaforestation. organisms and organic materials. The
7. Disposal of litter/ garbage in graph below shows changes occurring
designated places but not/ away in a river for some distance
from water bodies. downstream, from a point of
8. Use of biodegradable herbicides untreated sewage discharge.
and pesticides.
9. Educate farmers on the use of
correct amounts of agro
chemicals.
10. Banning the use of phosphate –
based detergents.
11. Replacing lead pipes with plastic
pipes.
77
Point of discharge of untreated sewage
20
Amount/quantity
15
Oxygen concentration
10
Fish
5 Organic material
5 10 15
Distance downstream (km)

78
1) Suggest the reasons for the 3) Explain why there was a

increase in oxygen after 10 km gradual fall in the amount of
downstream. (2mks) organic matter released into the
 Removal of bacteria by river river shortly after the point of
flow increased plant growth discharge of untreated sewage
that released more oxygen. into the river. (2mks)
2) Account the relationship  Saprophytes decompose organic
between oxygen and fish. (2mks) matter for food hence they drop.
 As the concentration of 4) Ammonia is produced by the
oxygen decreases, the process taking place in the
population of fish also sewage treatment works and
decreases and vice versa. should be removed before
released into the river. Explain
 This is because fish require why this is important. (2mks)
oxygen for respiration without
which they suffocate and die.  Ammonia is highly toxic and
alkaline which can interfere
with the pH.
79
C. SOIL POLLUTION. 3. Solid wastes e.g. plastics, glass, rubber,

 Refers to release of substances into soil metals and non-biodegradable
in levels that are harmful to organisms materials-
Causes and effects  They form breeding grounds for
mosquitoes, rats and flies which are
1. Acid rain-increases the soil pH thus disease vectors.
affecting plants and other organisms
in the soil.  They limit soil aeration and microbial
activity thus making soil infertile.
 It causes leaching leading to loss of
soil fertility.  Some e.g. glass bottles can injury to
animals.
2. Aerosols- they contain heavy metals
(e.g. lead and mercury).  They also destroy the aesthetic value of
land.
 The chemicals kill micro organisms in
the soil thus reducing soil fertility; 4. Inorganic fertilizers- they reduce the
pH of soil thus affecting plants and soil
 The heavy metals enter the food chain organisms thus reducing microbial
and accumulate to high levels causing activity reducing soil fertility.
death.
80
5. Oil from overturned oil tankers, Control of soil pollution

burst oil pipelines, garages and oil
refineries. 1. Famers to use organic manures
 It covers the ground thus affecting instead of inorganic fertilizers.
soil aeration thus reducing the 2. Use of biological methods to
microbial activities.
control pests and diseases.
6. Chemicals e.g. acids and strong
bases/ alkalis- they cause changes 3. Recycling of solid wastes e.g.
in soil pH thus affecting plants and plastics.
soil micro-organisms which thus
lowers rate of decomposition/ 4. Biodegradable wastes e.g. plant
fertility. materials and food remains should
 They also cause leaching of be disposed in a compost pit.
nutrients/ mineral salts thus
lowering fertility. 5. Transporting petroleum products
using pipeline to prevent spillage.
7. Radioactive emissions- they cause
cancer, mutations and death. 6. Enactment of laws on land
pollution.

81
7. Proper handling and HUMAN DISEASES

deposition of non-  A disease is a disorder in a tissue, organ,
biodegradable wastes e.g. organ system during which its functions are
controlled burning, burying not carried out normally.
deep in the soil. A. BACTERIAL DISEASES
8. Wastes e.g. clothes and papers  They include:
should be burned in 1. Cholera.
incinerators. 2. Typhoid.
9. Control of radioactive 1. Cholera.
emissions.
 It is caused by Salmonella typhi.
Mode of transmission .
 Ingestion of water or food contaminated
with faeces/urine of infected people.
 Incubation period- 2 weeks
82
Symptoms. iv. Proper treatment of sewage.

i. Fever and headache. v. Personal and environmental hygiene.
ii. Diarrhoea. vi. Washing of fruits before eating them.
iii. Abdominal pain. vii. Treatment of infected people.
iv. Vomiting. viii. Vaccination.
v. Loss of appetite Study questioin
vi. Dry cough and dehydration. Why is flooding likely to lead to cholera
Prevention and treatment outbreak?
i. Proper disposal of urine and faeces.  Flood water may mix with human waste
contaminated with cholera bacteria Vibrio
ii. Treatment/chlorination/boiling of cholerae . The flood water may then
drinking water. contaminate food and water and the
iii. Proper storage and cooking of food. contaminated water/food is ingested
causing cholera infection.
83
B. PROTOZOAN DISEASES Incubation period- 7-10 days.

 They include: Symptoms
1. Malaria. i. High fevers.
2. Amoebic dysentery. ii. Profuse sweating.
1. MALARIA iii. Frequent chills and shivers.
 It is caused by plasmodium. iv. Headache, muscle and joint pains.
 There are 4 species of plasmodium and v. Lack of appetite.
each cause different type of malaria. They vi. Vomiting.
include:
vii. Anaemia.
i. Plasmodium vivax
viii. Convulsions and death in severe
ii. Plasmodium ovale cases.
iii. Plasmodium falciparum
Mode of transmission- Plasmodium is
transmitted from infected person through a
vector called female anopheles mosquito. © Sam obare 10-Jan-21
84
Prevention/control and treatment.
Reasons why it is difficult to eradicate
i. Taking prevention medicine before
travelling to malaria prone areas. malaria.
ii. Sleeping under treated mosquito nets. i. The plasmodium parasite and Anopheles
iii. Use of mosquito repellants e.g. mosquito can undergo mutation and
creams and mosquito coils and with time develop resistance to the drugs
insecticides.
and insecticides.
iv. Draining of stagnant water to destroy
the breeding grounds of mosquitoes. ii. The warm tropical conditions provide
v. Clearing bushes around the houses extremely suitable breeding conditions
where mosquitoes hide.
for multiplication of mosquito.
vi. Pouring of oil on stagnant water to
prevent oxygen penetration hence iii. There are large reservoirs of parasites
killing mosquito larvae. present in other animals/hosts e.g. birds
vii. Use of biological method e.g. using and monkeys.
fish to feed on mosquito larvae.
viii. Treatment by use of malaria drugs. iv. Individual countries face financial
ix. Destruction of plastic containers that constraints.
hold water. 10-Jan-21
© Sam obare
85
2. AMOEBIC DYSENTERY Control/prevention

 It is caused by Entamoeba histolytica. i. Personal and
Mode of transmission. environmental hygiene.
 Through ingestion of contaminated
ii. Proper disposal of faeces.
water and food. iii. Drinking water should be
Symptoms treated/ chlorinated/
boiled.
i. Formation of ulcers by producing a
tissue dissolving enzyme hystolysin iv. Proper treatment using
in the colon leading to diarrhoea. amoebicides.
ii. Faeces contain blood.
iii. Dehydration.
iv. Abdominal pain.
v. Severe pain when passing stool.
vi. Fever.

86
C. PARASITIC WORMS. Symptoms/effects of parasite on

They include: host
1. Round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides). i. General malnourishment of
the host.
2. Schistosoma.
ii. They feed on blood causing
1. Round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides)- It anaemia.
infects the small intestines in pigs and man. iii. Heavy infestation can cause
 It causes ascariasis disease. intestinal blockage.
Mode of transmission. iv. Interference with digestion by
 The adult lays eggs in the small intestines entering the bile duct,
of the pigs and human beings that are pancreatic duct and appendix
passed out with faeces and may be v. Abdominal discomfort.
swallowed by a new host through vi. They may cause irritation in
contaminated water and food. the trachea and may damage
 Also direct infection from faeces to the lungs.
mouth in children.

87
Adaptive characteristics of round C. Structural adaptations of Ascaris

worms (Ascaris lumbricoides). lumbricoides.
A. Physiological adaptations of 1. They have a thick elastic cuticle to
Ascaris lumbricoides. protect them against digestion by
digestive enzymes of the host
1. It has two hosts (i.e. pigs and enabling them survive in the
human beings) hence increasing alimentary canal.
the chances of survival.
2. They have muscular pharynx
2. They have tissues tolerant to low through which they suck digested
oxygen concentration food from the host’s intestines.
characteristics in the gut.
B. Reproductive adaptations of
Ascaris lumbricoides.
1. They produce large number of eggs
to increase the chances of survival
even when some are destroyed.
2. The eggs have a protective shell to
survive harsh environmental
conditions.
88
Prevention/control and treatment of 2. Schistosoma.

round worm.  This is a parasitic flat worm and
i. Proper sewage disposal. causes schistosomiasis disease.

 It is found in fresh water e.g.
ii. Personal and environmental
lakes, rivers, dams and rice
hygiene e.g. washing hands after growing fields.
visiting the toilet.
 Snails are vectors for schistosoma
iii. Treatment/chlorination/boiling
Mode of transmission.
of drinking water.
 Ingestion of water containing the
iv. Proper cooking of food. larvae/ infective stage called
v. Treatment by use of drugs. cercaria.
 The parasite can also penetrate
through the skin into the blood
stream where it goes to the liver
where it matures to an adult
worm.
89
Effects on the host. Adaptive characteristics of schistosoma

i. Damage and irritation to the skin 1. The parasite has suckers for
as it penetrates causing itching. attachment onto the host hence not
ii. Once in blood the adult releases a easily dislodged.
chemical which cause fever. 2. Has two hosts (i.e. snail as secondary
iii. Adult worms have spines which host and man as final host) to increase
tear the blood vessels, intestines chances of transfer to different hosts.
and urinary bladder causing blood 3. The cercaria larvae and eggs have
to appear on urine/faeces and glands that secrete lytic enzymes which
finally leading to anaemia. soften the tissue to allow for
iv. Damage to the liver and kidney. penetration into the hosts.
v. Abdominal pain and Diarrhoea. 4. Some larval forms e.g. cercaria are
encysted and can remain dormant and
vi. Death if untreated. viable until they come into contact
with human beings.

90
5. The parasite reproduces through Prevention/control and treatment of

larval forms (i.e. miracidia, cercaria, schistosoma.
and rediae in snails) making it i. Proper disposal of faeces and urine
difficult to eradicate the parasite in latrines/ flush toilets (but not
and also increases the chances of into rivers, dams and water bodies).
transmission and survival.
6. The adult worm in blood ii. Chemically treating/ boiled
producers a chemical substances drinking water to kill eggs and
which protect it against the host’s larval forms.
defense mechanism. iii. Avoid swimming, bathing in water
infested with snails.
7. The male forms a groove/canal/
gynecophoric canal in which it iv. People should wear protective shoes
carries the female. This ensures and clothes and avoid waking bare
that the eggs produced by females footed in swampy areas.
are fertilized before they are shed v. Spray fresh water bodies with
into blood vessels. molluscides to kill snails.
vi. Proper treatment using de-wormers.

Ecology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ecology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ecology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2.

Definition of terms. 4. Synecology is the study of

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

7. Ecological niche- this is the 10. Ecosystem- it is a natural unit

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Application of knowledge gained from FACTORS IN AN ECOSYSYEM.

v. Prediction of climate change. Effects.

vi. Population control. i. It affects photosynthesis, flowering/

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

3. Wind- this is moving air. Measured

vi. It influences migration of 4. Atmospheric pressure- this

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

5. Humidity- this is the volume of Effects of humidity

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

7. Salinity- refers to the degree  Influences the maintenance

8. Rainfall/ water vii. It is an agent of pollination in

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

B. BIOTIC INTER- Adaptations of the prey.

iv) Some emit some chemicals/ Adaptations of the predator.

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

v) They have strong sense of smell 2. Helps to control the

2. PARASITISM (ANTAGONISTIC/ Differences between predation and

3. SYMBIOSIS- this is a close b) The bacteria found in human

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

b. Interspecific competition- Competition among Study question.

5. SAPROPHYTISM. iv) Are used in food processing industries for

NITROGEN CYCLE. ii. Biological- Nitrogen fixation by non-

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

B. Absorption by plants- plants E. Nitrification- Ammonium

Death followed by decay by saprophytic

19 © Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Role of nitrogen cycle- Helps to ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM.

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

 Primary consumers obtain the energy  A small portions of energy is passed

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

FOOD CHAINS Methods of determining the

FOOD WEBS a) a. Name the food

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Example 2 a) Construct a food chain ending with

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Example 3 a) Write down the food chains in which the

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Example 4 a) Name the process through which energy

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

d) What would happen to the f) The biomass of producers in the

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Name the producers in the ecosystem.

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

(iv) Which organism has Example 6

Large fish Birds

Insect Worms Planktonic

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

b) Name the organisms that d) Explain why primary

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS. Constructing pyramid of numbers

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

Example. a) Construct a possible food chain

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

b) Construct a pyramid of numbers