PH8103 Presentation 5

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Unit II: Nuclear Models

Nuclear Shell Model

• A model of the atomic nucleus which uses the Pauli exclusion


principle to describe the structure of the nucleus in terms of energy
levels.
• When adding N (n or p) to a nucleus, there are certain points
where binding energy of the next N is significantly less than the
last one. This observation, that there are certain magic numbers of
nucleons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 which are more tightly bound
than the next higher number is the origin of shell model.
• It is based on the single particle approximation.

−V0
V(r) = r−R
(1)
1+e a
Fig. 1:
Nuclear Shell Model (Independent Particle Model)

• In this model, it is assumed that the nucleons in the nucleus move


independently in a mean potential. Two cases, infinite square-well
and Harmonic oscillator potentials, are considered in order to
understand some of the properties of nuclei including the magic
numbers.
• The addition of the spin-orbit potential eliminates some of the
difficulties experienced within the above two potentials.
• It is found that the nuclear shell model can explain many nuclear
properties such as spin, magnetic moment, nuclear isomerism and
stripping reaction.

Valid generally for A < 150 and 190 < A < 220.
• The square well has an infinitely sharp edge whereas the
harmonic oscillator potential diminishes steadily at the edge. The
nuclear potential is expected to be in between these two
extremes and we desire to arrive at the correct single-particle
quantum states by interpolating between these two. Such a
potential intermediate between the two and also having an
experimental basis is the Woods-Saxon potential (obtained by
fitting the data on nucleon-nucleus scattering).

• This potential is flat at the centre and falls off smoothly to zero at
the edge of the nucleus.
There is evidence which suggests that nuclei with certain numbers
of n & p are particularly stable.

The number of stable isotopes for Z = 20 and 50 is larger than


average as is the number of stable isotones with N = 50 and 82.

Experimental values of B/A deviate most notably from the


SEMF curve for certain values of N and Z.

The energy required to remove a n or a p from a nucleus shows


variations from a smooth trend at values of N or Z = 2, 8, 20, 28,
50, 82 and 126.

* In 1949, it was shown by Mayer, & by Haxel, Jensen & Suess


that the proper spacing of levels with the observed shell closings
could be obtained by adding a spin-orbit term to the nuclear
potential.
1
A single nucleon has s = , so the possible values of the total angular
2
1 1
momentum quantum number are j = l + or j = l − (except when l
2 2
1
= 0, only j = is allowed).
2
1
j = ( l ⃗ + s ⃗) ⟹ l ⃗ . s ⃗ = ( j 2⃗ − l 2⃗ − s 2⃗ )
2⃗ 2
2
Putting in the expectation value gives
1
⟨ ⟩ 2[ ]
l ⃗ . s ⃗ = j( j + 1) − l(l + 1) − s(s + 1) ℏ2 (2)

1 1
⟨ ⟩ 2
l ⃗. s ⃗ = l for j=l+
2
1 1
= − (l + 1) for j=l− (3)
2 2
Special features of magic nuclei

1. The n (p) separation energies peak if N (Z) is equal to a magic


number.
2. There are more stable isotopes if Z is a magic number, and
more stable isotones if N is a magic number.
3. If N is a magic number, then the cross section for neutron
absorption is much lower than for other nuclides.
4. The energies of the excited states are much higher than the
ground state if either N or Z or both are magic numbers.
5. Elements with Z equal to a magic number have a larger
natural abundance than those of nearby elements.
Spin and Parity of nuclear ground states

1. Even-even nuclides (both Z & A even) have zero intrinsic spin


and even parity.
2. Odd A nuclei have one unpaired nucleon. The spin of the nucleus
is equal to the j-value of that unpaired nucleon and the parity is
(−1)l, where l is the orbital angular momentum of the unpaired
nucleon.

15 17
Ex.: Consider the filling of levels needed to produce 8 O and 8 O.
15
* In O, the unpaired n is in p1/2 shell ⟹ prediction that its ground
state has spin 1/2 and odd parity.

* The ground state of 17O should be characteristic of a d5/2 n with


spin 5/2 and even parity.
3. Odd-odd nuclei: In this case, there is an unpaired proton whose
total angular momentum is j1 and an unpaired neutron whose total
angular momentum is j2.

Total spin of the nucleus = sum of these angular momenta and


can take values between | j1 − j2 | and | j1 + j2 | .

(l1+l2)
Parity = (−1) , where l1 and l2 are the orbital angular
momenta of the unpaired p & n respectively.
• Most of the excited states decay so rapidly that their lifetimes
cannot be measured. There are some excited states which are
metastable because they cannot decay without violating the
selection rules. These excited states are known as isomers and
their lifetimes can be measured.

• The shell model predicts that all even-even nuclei will have 0+
(spin 0, even parity) ground states, because all of the nucleons are
paired.

• The calculated levels of the nuclear shell model are based on the
assumption that the nuclear potential is spherical. In the spherical
case, the energy levels of each single particle state have a
degeneracy of (2j + 1).
The Collective Nuclear Model

• It generalises the result of the Shell Model by considering the effect


of a non-spherically symmetric potential, which leads to substantial
deformation for large nuclei and consequently large electric
quadrupole moments.

• One of the most striking consequences of the Collective model is the


explanation of low-lying excited states of heavy nuclei. These are of
two types:

1. Rotational states
A nucleus whose nucleon density distributions are specially
symmetric cannot have rotational excitations.

2. Vibrational states/Shape oscillations


An observed sequence of equally spaced energy levels within
the spectrum of a nuclide is interpreted as a manifestation of
shape oscillations.
Q. A certain odd parity shell model state has total and orbital
angular momentum quantum numbers j and l respectively. If the
state can hold upto 16 nucleons, what are the values of l and j?

Q. Based on shell model, find the ground state spin and parity of
the nuclei 3Li 7 and 19K 39.

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