DEFOMATION OF SOLIDS (ELASTISITY)

Deformation.
 When a force is applied to a material, we say that a stress has been applied to it.
 This can result in a change in shape which we call deformation.
 How a material acts under stress depends upon its properties

Deforming materials results in a change in shape.

Elasticity
 When materials are stretched, initially they will return to their original shape.
 As long as the stress applied to a material remains within its elastic limit, it will always return to
its original shape.
 Elastic bands are of course the best example of elastic materials.
 They can be stretched a great deal without being permanently deformed.
 We call this elastic deformation.
 If stretched beyond its elastic limit a material will change shape permanently or plastically
deform.
 Ductile and malleable materials can be deformed greatly while brittle materials will break.

Elastic bands are made of a tangle of chain-like molecules

 They are so elastic because these molecules can straighten out when stretched without changing
the actual structure or breaking.
Elasticity in other materials

 Elasticity in other materials relies on the bonds between molecules behaving a little like springs,
but such materials are often not very elastic and will soon snap as the bonds break.
 Their strength depends upon the bond strength and the structure,

Hooke's law
 When studying springs and elasticity, the 17ᵗʰ century physicist Robert Hooke noticed that the
force against extension curve for many materials has a linear region.
 So, Hooke states that:
“ The extension of a material is directly proportional to force within the limit of proportionality.”
 This is known as Hooke's law and commonly written:

F = −kx
where,
 F is the force,
 x is the length of extension/compression
 k is a constant of proportionality known as the spring constant / force
constant/stiffness
 SI unit ; Nm-1
Hooke’s law graphs
Graph – 1 Graph - 2
  Graph – 1
Gradient = spring constant(k)
 Graph - 2
Gradient = 1/spring constant(k)
Elastic deformation
 When the stress is removed the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was
applied.
 The deformation is reversible, non-permanent.
Plastic deformation
 This occurs when a large stress is applied to a material.
 The stress is so large that when removed, the material does not spring back to its previous
dimension.
 There is a permanent, irreversible deformation.
 The minimal value of the stress which produces plastic deformation is known as the elastic limit
for the material.
What is Stress?
 Stress is defined as a force applied per unit area.
 It is given by the formula

Where
 σ is the stress applied (Nm-2 or Pa)
 F is the force applied (N)
 A is the area of force application(m2)
 Stress applied to a material can be of two types. They are:
Tensile Stress:
 It is the force applied per unit area which results in the increase in length (or area) of
a body.
 Objects under tensile stress become thinner and longer.
Compressive Stress:
 It is the force applied per unit area which results in the decrease in length (or area) of
a body.
 The object under compressive stress becomes thicker and shorter.
What is Strain?
 Definition;
It is defined as the ratio between extension and original length.

where,
ϵ is the strain due to stress applied
x is the change in length
l is the original length of the material.
 The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape.
 Depending on stress application, strain experienced in a body can be of two types.
 They are:
 Tensile Strain:
It is the change in length (or area) of a body due to the application of tensile stress
 Compressive Strain:
It is the change in length (or area) of a body due to the application of compressive
strain.
 When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information regarding their elastic
properties is most important.
 These can be obtained by studying the stress-strain relationships, under different loads, in these
materials.
Stress-Strain Curve
 The stress-strain relationship for materials is given by the material’s stress-strain curve.
 Under different loads, the stress and corresponding strain values are plotted.
 An example of a stress-strain curve is given below.
Explaining Stress-Strain Graph
The stress-strain graph has different points or regions as follows:
 Proportional limit
 Elastic limit
 Yield point
 Ultimate stress point
 Fracture or breaking point
(i) Proportional Limit
 It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law.
 In this limit, the ratio of stress with strain gives us proportionality constant known as
young’s modulus.
 The point OA in the graph is called the proportional limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit
 It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the
load acting on it is completely removed.
  Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position and a plastic
deformation starts to appear in it.
(iii) Yield Point
 The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically.
 After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.
 There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
 It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before
failure.
 Beyond this point, failure occurs.
(v) Fracture or Breaking Point
 It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.
Young Modulus
 Although Young's modulus is named after the 19th-century British scientist Thomas Young, the
concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler.
 This is a measure of the stiffness of the material. Greater the stiffness , higher the young modulus
would be.
Definition
Young modulus is the ratio between stress and strain.

Typical Exam question

1. As a part of a quality control cheek, a manufacturer of washing line subjects a sample to a tensile
test. The sample of washing line is 12m long and of constant circular cross section of diameter
5.0mm.The manufacturer measures an extension of 42 mm under stretching load of 72N. The
manufacturer also breaks the line under a load of 240N.
(a) Calculate the Young modulus of the washing line.
(b) Calculate the breaking stress of the line.
2. Consider the following graph. State which material is
(a) stiffer
(b) stronger
Definitions of properties of materials
 Elastic limit
This is the maximum load which a body can experience and still regain its original size and
shape once the load has been removed. (The elastic limit sometimes coincides with the limit of
proportionality.)
 Yield point
If the stress is increased beyond the elastic limit, a point is reached at which there is a marked
increase in extension. This is the yield point. The material is said to be showing plastic
behaviour.
 Strength
This relates to the maximum force which can be applied to a material without it breaking.
 Breaking stress
This is also called ultimate tensile strength and is the maximum stress which can be applied to a
material.
 Stiffness
This relates to the resistance which a material offers to having its size and/or shape changed.
 Ductility
A ductile material is one which can be permanently stretched.
 Toughness
This is the ability of the material to absorb energy and deform plastically without breaking.
 Hardness
This is the ability of the material to resist indentation and abrasion.
 Brittleness
A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant deformation.
Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength.
Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound.
THE WORK DONE IN STRETCHING A WIRE (STRAIN ENERGY)
 Consider a wire whose extension is x when the force on it is F.
 If the extension is increased by 𝞓x, where 𝞓x is so small that F can be considered constant, then
the work done, 𝞓W, is given by
𝞓W = F. 𝞓x
 The total work done in increasing the extension from 0 to x, i.e. the elastic potential energy
stored in the wire (the strain energy) when its extension is x, is given by W, where
𝞓W = ½F. 𝞓x
 Area under a force - extension graph represents strain energy.

 If the wire obeys Hooke's law, we may put F = kx where k is a constant, and therefore by
W =½ k𝞓 x × 𝞓x
W =½ k (𝞓 x)2
Strain energy per unit volume ( Energy density)
 This is defined as the strain energy per unit volume.

Exercise
Using the equation for young modulus show that energy density can be given by the following
expression.
Elastic hysteresis
 The following figure shows force – extension curve of a sample of rubber for both loading and
unloading.

 The extension due to any given force is greater during unloading than during loading, i.e. the
unloading extension lags behind the loading extension.
 The effect is called elastic hysteresis, and the region enclosed by the two curves is called a
hysteresis loop.
 Metals also exhibit hysteresis, but to a much smaller extent.
 When rubber is stretched it becomes warmer.
 When the stress is released its temperature falls but it remains a little warmer than it was
initially.
 The net increase in the heat content of the sample during the cycle is equal to the area of the
hysteresis loop.
Some properties of rubber.
 Rubber does not obey Hooke's law.
 Energy supplied on loading is greater than energy released on unloading.
 This behaviour is called hysteresis.
 The difference in energy represents the increase in internal energy of rubber molecule.
 As a result, the temperature of rubber increases.
  The greater is the area of hysteresis loop, the greater the increase in internal energy.
Advantage of hysteresis
 Rubber is used as a shock absorber material and it converts mechanical energy into
thermal energy.
 As a resul,t the oscillation is lightly damped.
Disadvantage
 In car tyres, during compression energy stored as internal energy.
 This internal energy is lost as heat energy.
 This increases the temperature of the tire causing high wear and tear and also increases
high petrol consumption as mechanical energy is converted to heat energy.
Resilience
 This is the ability of a material to withstand hysteresis.
 A highly resilient material can be repeatedly stretched without losing its strength.
Vulcanization
 For car tyres, sulphur is added in a process called vulcanization.
 This will strengthen rubber.
Spring combinations
1. Series combination

 Two springs with different spring constants, K1 and K2 are connected in series as shown
above.
 Effective spring constant can be obtained from the following formula.
2. Parallel combination

 Two springs with different spring constants, K1 and K2 are connected in parallel as shown
above.
 Effective spring constant can be obtained from the following formula.

Athula Ratnayake
( M.Sc [PERADENIYA] , B.Sc [ COLOMBO], PGDE [COLOMBO] , Dip. in E.L.T. )
Foreign experience – Canada and Maldives
Contact : 077-7718611 / 075- 6855125
No. 71/15 , Anderson Road , Negombo.