SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Year 2 Laboratories

PET
Petrol Engine Test

MECH217: Thermodynamics
Lecturer: Professor Robert J Poole
[email protected]

Demonstrator Name: Linsheng (“Lin”) Zhang

Demonstrator Email: [email protected]

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Table 1. Notation
Symbol Meaning Unit
A Cross sectional area m2
AFR Air to fuel ratio -
N Engine speed rpm
P Power W
m
Ø Volumetric flow rate
s
J
Q Calorific fuel value
kg
r Brake radius m
kg
SFC Specific fuel consumption
kWh
m
v Velocity
s
V Flow meter voltage V
V Fuel flask volume m

T ft.lb reading
Brake torque
Convert to Nm
kg
ṁ Fuel flow rate
s
kg
ṁ Air flow rate
s
Fuel specific gravity (=fuel
r -
density/water density)
∆t Time to empty flask s
η Efficiency -
kg
ρ Fuel density
m
kg
ρ Water density
m
rad
ω Angular speed
s

Table 2. Abbreviations
Abbreviations Meaning
BDC Bottom dead centre
EVC Exhaust valve closing
EVO Exhaust valve opening
IVC Inlet valve closing
IVO Inlet valve opening
TDC Top dead centre

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Before you start

Health and Safety – COVID safety and social distancing measures

A teaching assistant will go through the general safety procedures and will remind you the
COVID safety protocols in place. Social distancing measures are in place in this lab.
- You must wear your own face covering, please note that disposable face masks are
not available.
- A maximum of three students will be carrying out the experimental work in the PET
lab supervised by a member of the technical team.
- A maximum of four persons are allowed in the PET lab at any one time.
- Taped areas will be used to separate the different working areas to take
measurements from the engine.

Health and Safety – General Lab rules

Instructions by lab demonstrators must be followed diligently. Please note:

- Lab coats must always be worn during the experiment.

- Lab demonstrators will give you an induction regarding fire instructions and
evacuation routes in case of unscheduled alarm.

- If the lab requires steel capped boots then they must be worn or admittance into
the lab cannot be guaranteed.

- Ear plugs will be provided and must be worn to protect you from the noise
generated by the engine and the dynamometer. Please note that anyone who
refuses to wear them will be required to leave the lab for health and safety reasons
(in which case the student will be awarded a zero mark).

- Some components will become very hot during operation. Although they are
guarded from accidental contact, it is possible that some parts may still be hot and
may injure skin. Beware to only touch the parts of the equipment (as instructed)
that need to be operated to carry out the test.

- There will be components operating at high speed. There is potential for the
equipment itself (or any object that may fall on it) to be thrown off at high speeds.
Safety glasses must always be worn whilst the engine is running.
You are required by law to comply with the School’s basic rules of lab safety, as
outlined at the start of the first year.

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PET LAB

1. Introduction
MECH 217 lectures introduce you to different types of heat engines, the purpose of which is
to convert resources available in nature (heat from coal, fossil fuels, nuclear, and so on) into
work (mechanical energy of moving parts). For example: electric motors, reciprocating
engines or gas turbines. For any of these systems, engineers need to quantify the
performance and how it varies with different parameters (in terms of the power the system
produces, its operating range and the amount of fuel it uses). With this information, it is
possible to calculate the energy supply and resources needed to run the installation.
In this lab you will apply the concepts covered in lectures, as well as all the thermodynamic
concepts reviewed in weeks 1 to 4 (check learning resources in CANVAS). As discussed in
the opening lecture, this module relates to builds on previous modules (MECH109, and
MECH113 (all info in CANVAS)). Consult your notes from MECH109 for a better
understanding of PET and use the MECH113 learning resources in CANVAS for support with
excel.
This lab involves testing the performance of an automotive petrol engine against a water brake
(dynamometer, DYNOmite), which imposes a load on the crankshaft and as a consequence it
increases the torque and drops the speed of the engine. The test procedure is similar to that
used for other power plants.

1.1. Learning Outcomes

1. By the end of the lab, the student will be able to: identify the major parts of a Honda
GX160 (IC Engine, link to MECH109 year 1).
2. Identify the processes of the Otto cycle.
3. Perform an engine test over a range of speeds and for two different throttle settings.
4. Explain the effect of key engine parameters on performance: spark advance, speed,
load, valve timing and throttle setting.
5. Calculate basic performance measurements from collected data.
6. Analyse, plot and fit data (review MECH113 learning resources in CANVAS for
support).
7. Draw conclusions on engine performance from plotted data.

1.2. Fundamental concepts

There are many different types of internal combustion reciprocating engines (piston engine);
spark ignition (petrol) and compression ignition (diesel) are two types that have been (or will
be) introduced in MECH217 lectures. Using ideal thermodynamic cycles enables analysis of
the main stages within these engines. Assuming air standard conditions (i.e. closed system;
and considering only air within the cylinders - instead of air/fuel mixture - behaving as an ideal
gas) simplifies these analyses and provides a straightforward approach to understand the
effect of key parameters on the performance of the engine. The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle

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for petrol engines (spark ignition). For any reciprocating engine, a stroke is defined as the
movement of the piston between the top dead centre (TDC) and the bottom dead centre
(BDC) or vice versa (Figure 1). In a four-stroke engine, the four strokes correspond to two
revolutions of the crankshaft.

Figure 1. Scheme showing the 4 strokes in a petrol reciprocating engine: intake, compression, power
(expansion) and exhaust.

The full cycle consists of four strokes of the piston: intake, compression, combustion and
exhaust (Figures 1 and 2). In the ideal cycle, we consider that the intake and exhaust
(‘breathing of engine’) compensate each other (review lectures/textbooks for further
information), so it is possible to simplify the ideal cycle to 4 steps: isentropic compression,
heat addition, isentropic expansion and heat rejection.

The stages in a petrol engine can be

represented in different ways (Figures 1, 2 and
3). Figure 1 provides a visual schematic of the
stages.

PV (i.e. Pressure versus Volume) diagrams

provide a very useful tool to visualise
thermodynamic cycles (for example, Otto cycle
in Figure 2). The integration of one of the
segments on the PV diagram will provide the
energy transfer (work) in that stage. The work
done in a cycle can be calculated from the area
in between the curves in the PV diagram
(review the definition of boundary work in Figure 2 PV diagram of 4- stroke petrol
lecture slides). During the intake stroke (1 to 2)
the fuel is injected via the inlet valve (fuel
injector). Both valves are closed during the compression stroke (2 to 3). In this stage the
volume decreases, pressure increases and consequently the density of the air and fuel
mixture increases. The spark triggers the combustion (3 to 4). The flame front (illustrated in
Figure 1) propagates at high pressure pushing the piston down; this is the so-called “power

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stroke “(the combustion gases are generating the power of the engine).

The combustion reaction can be proposed as follows:

79 79
C H + 12.5O + 12.5N → 8CO + 9H O + 12.5N
21 21
When all fuel/air [fuel (primarily octane; C8H18)/(air (~21%O2, 79%N2))] mixture is burnt, the
piston moves from the BDC to the TDC (exhaust stroke, 4 to 1) while the exhaust valve is
open to let out the combustion gases (a mixture of CO2, H2O, N2 and often NOx).

It is also possible to correlate the cylinder

pressure with the crank angle and visualise
the four strokes of the engine in a different
way (Figure 3, where 180° corresponds to
one stroke of the piston). The top graph in
Figure 3 shows how the pressure changes
from slightly below atmospheric pressure
during intake (to draw air in), to high
pressure after compression (TDC); it then
drops again during the expansion to slightly
above atmospheric pressure during
Figure 3. Cylinder pressure changes with piston position
exhaust. There is an overlap (where the
(top). Piston displacement vs. crank shaft angle (bottom).
two valves are open, note IVO and EVC The displacement of the piston is sinusoidal (bottom graph):
near the top (at 0°), and bottom (at 180°) of a cycle the
points in top graph, Figure 3) in the intake
piston displacement per degree is at its smallest, while in the
stroke to allow the incoming air to help middle (at 90°) the displacement per crank angle is highest.
‘wash out’ the burnt products from the
previous combustion event. The bottom graph (Figure 3) shows that the piston displacement
vs crank angle follows a sinusoidal function.

Note that the fuel does not completely burn and expand instantly when the spark fires, the
combustion process requires some time. Therefore, the ignition timing is crucial to allow the
combustion process sufficient time to complete and optimise the power stroke. The spark
ignition advance enables the combustion process to start before the end of the
compression stroke (Figure 3 - top), to optimise the expansion (or power) stroke. During the
power stroke, the pressure drops as the gases expand and push the piston down transferring
power to the crankshaft.
The following concepts will help you understand the PET experiment and will provide you with
further knowledge to prepare your technical note and respond to the questions in section 3.

1.3. Engine Breathing and Performance

In this lab you will test how engine speed and throttle settings affect engine performance. Both
are related with the “breathing” of the engine (exhaust and intake strokes). The throttle setting
can go from fully open, partly open to fully closed. In the lab, you will test two different throttle
openings, which determine the amount of working fluid (air/fuel mixture) fed into the engine.
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‘Engine breathing’ takes place because of a pressure difference between the inside and the
outside of the cylinder; this difference is the driving motion for air movement (in a similar
manner as how we humans breathe air in and breathe CO 2 out due to pressure changes in
our lungs, our diaphragm does the same job as the piston creating a pressure difference with
its movement). The greater the pressure difference the greater the airflow rate into the engine.
During the intake the pressure in the cylinder must be below atmospheric pressure (i.e. below
approximately 1 bar) to draw air in.
Using your knowledge of fluid mechanics into this process will help you understand how
engine performance changes with engine speed. Fluid mechanics imposes a limit to how fast
the working fluid can get into the cylinder through the throttle. When the engine is working at
high speeds, there is insufficient time to get enough air into the cylinder, limiting the
combustion process and performance. This is especially important for partly open throttle
settings that impose more resistance to the fluid flow.

1.4. Fuel Injection vs. Carburettor

Air flow rate will also affect the mixing in the carburettor. The Honda GX160 engine used in
this lab operates with a butterfly carburettor, which has two jets for the fuel (a pilot (slow) jet
and the main jet)). In short, the speed of the engine will affect air flow, which will regulate
which jet is working (at low speeds the pilot and high speeds the main one). This system to
adjust air/fuel ratio can fluctuate, and therefore it will affect the combustion process and engine
performance.
The majority of modern engines do not use a carburettor but instead work with fuel injection.
Fuel injection has largely replaced carburettors in modern engines as they allow for greater
control over the flow of the fuel-air mixture resulting in improved reliability and extended engine
life. Fuel injection systems consist of a control system (software in the computer), oxygen
sensor, a set of fuel injectors and an electric fuel pump. The control system aims to keep
air/fuel ratio at just the right amount and can adjust the amount of fuel injected into the engine
if it detects that there is too much or too little fuel. If the engine is running lean (too little fuel/too
much air) then the control system adjusts the fuel injection by holding the injector open longer
to enrichen the fuel air mixture. If the engine is running rich (too much fuel/not enough air)
then the control system will shorten the time the injector is open.
Carburettors have no way of correcting lean or rich fuel mixtures, which can damage the
engine components and reduce engine efficiency resulting in higher fuel consumption. Modern
engines last longer because lean or rich fuel mixtures are automatically detected and adjusted.
This allows fuel injected engines to be more fuel efficient, reliable and more able to adjust to
changing power requirements.

1.5. Spark Timing and Advance

The timing of the spark is a very important parameter when running internal combustion
engines. It is the point within the cycle when the spark plug is triggered, and the combustion
event starts. It is important to get this timing correct, too soon or too late would result in a poor
engine performance.

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Combustion times within an engine may take approximately 20-40 o of crank angles to
complete (Figure 3). As the speed of the engine increases the time allowed for the combustion
to complete is reduced (there are more cycles per minute). Spark timing must be adjusted
accordingly in the cycle (spark should be triggered sooner and faster) as the speed of the
engine increases to allow complete combustion.

1.6. Engine Stall

The engine will stall (suddenly stop) at low speeds due mainly to two factors; either there is
not enough momentum within the fly wheel and piston to overcome the pressure during the
compression stage of the cycle; or there is not enough momentum being transferred to the
piston and flywheel, during the power stroke. As the speed drops (the lower the speed the
lower momentum) the momentum will also drop below a threshold value and the engine will
stall. Typically, the engine’s minimum speed is set a little above this threshold.

1.7. Turbochargers
A turbocharger uses the energy contained within the exhaust gases to drive a turbine with its
shaft connected to a compressor (as the simple gas turbines we will also discuss in this
module). The compressor increases the pressure of the air before it enters the cylinder, which
results in an air density increase. It counteracts the effects of engine breathing at high speeds,
by providing a greater mass flow rate for the same flow velocity (due to density increase). As
a result, it helps delivering greater power at the higher speed ranges.

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2. Experimental Procedure
There are many variables that can be altered on the engine which affect its performance.
These include throttle setting, engine speed, ignition timing and fuel mixture. In this experiment
the fuel mixture and ignition timing settings have been set close to optimum values by the
technician and should not be altered during the test.
The specifications of the engine are given in Table 3 and important values for the calculations
are in Table 4.

Table 3. Engine Specifications

Engine Type Single Cylinder, 4 Stroke, Petrol

Capacity 163 (cc)

Cylinder 68 (mm) Bore, 45 (mm) Stroke

Compression Ratio 8.5:1

Table 4. Fuel and water properties

Fuel Specific Gravity (rs = ) 0.738

Density of Water (ρ ) 1000 (kg/m3)
Calorific Value of Fuel, QCVF 44 (MJ/kg)

For each throttle setting (for example: partly-open, fully open, and so on) and for a range of
engine speeds, the following variables should be monitored (use tables in the Annexe to
record your data):
 Engine speed N (rpm)
 Brake torque (DYNOmite) T (ft.lb) convert to (Nm)
 Time to empty fuel flask (fuel flow) ∆t (s)
 Air flow meter output (hot film mass air flow (MAF) sensor) V (voltage, V)

In addition, the following constants should be recorded at the beginning of the experiment (you
will need them for the calculations):
 Fuel flask volume V
 Fuel specific gravity r

2.1. Calculations
This section provides the equations for the calculation of results for the Honda GX160.
Torque. A torque (rotational or twisting force) is a force multiplied by distance:
Torque = Force · Brake Radius

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𝑇 = 𝐹 · 𝑟 (N·m) (1)

Engine Power Output. Power is the rate of energy output over time. It can be calculated
given the torque and rotational speed (consult lecture slides for more detail).
P=T · ω
Expressing the angular velocity in terms of revolutions per second (rpm/60), we obtain the
equation to calculate the power output of the engine.

2𝜋 (2)
𝑃 = 𝑇 ·𝑁×
60
(W) or (J/s)

Fuel Flow Rate. The equation to calculate fuel flow rate is derived from the continuity
equation.
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 · 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 · 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
ṁ = ρ · A · v
ṁ = ρ · Ø
V
ṁ = ρ ·
∆t
ρ V
ṁ = ρ · ·
ρ ∆t

ṁ = ρ ·r · ∆
(kg/s) (3)

Where r is the fuel specific gravity.

Engine Specific Fuel Consumption. Specific fuel consumption is the amount of fuel burnt
per useful energy output by the engine and is expressed in
·

Amount of Fuel Burnt

SFC =
Power per hour
This is expressed in the equation below.
ṁ
SFC = · 3600
P
Combining this with equations (2) and (3):

·
SFC = ∆
· 3600 (kg/(kW·h)) (4)
· ·

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Engine Efficiency. Review the definition of efficiency for heat engines (consult lecture slides).
The efficiency is the ratio between the output of the engine (power) over the input (heat rate
in). Given the chemical energy content of the fuel (or Calorific Value, Q CVF, 44 MJ/kg in this
experiment) and determining the fuel flow rate being supplied to the engine, the input (heat
rate in) can be calculated as the mass flow rate multiplied by the calorific value:
Output
Efficiency =
Input
P
η=
ṁ · Q
Combined with equations (2) and (3):

2π
T ·N ·
60
η=
V (5)
ρ · r ∆t · Q

Air Flow Rate. The mass flow rate is a function of the voltage reading (custom-made sensor).
After an appropriate calibration, this equation was found to be:

.
ṁ = × [0.0103V ] (kg/s) (6)

Air to Fuel Ratio. This parameter is key to guarantee good combustion (i.e. enough air to
react with the fuel, see combustion reaction below).
Since the ratio of mass flow rates is the same as the ratio of masses and we have expressions
for both the fuel and fuel flow rate in equations (3) and (6) respectively, we can combine them
to obtain the air to fuel ratio:
m ṁ
AFR = ; 𝐴𝐹𝑅 =
m ṁ

1 .
3600 × [0.0103V ]
𝐴𝐹𝑅 =
𝑉 (7)
𝜌 · 𝑟 ·
∆𝑡

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Combustion reaction. The fuel for the petrol engine is primarily octane, C8H18. The
combustion reaction is:

79 79
C H + 12.5O + 12.5N → 8CO + 9H O + 12.5N (8)
21 21

Air consists of approximately 21% oxygen (O ) and 79% nitrogen (N ); although the nitrogen
does not take part in the reaction, it still passes through the engine. The reaction is balanced
assuming that the air and fuel are in the right proportions for complete combustion with neither
excess air nor fuel. This is known as the ‘Stoichiometric’ air to fuel ratio and is given by:

79
Mass of air 12.5(32 + 21 · 25) (9)
= ≈ 15
Mass of fuel 114

If the actual air to fuel ratio (AFR) is less than the stoichiometric value, then the engine is said
to run ‘rich’ and the exhaust gas products will contain unburnt hydrocarbons. If the actual AFR
is significantly higher than the stoichiometric ratio, then the engine is said to be running ‘lean’.
The actual air to fuel ratio can be determined in this experiment.

2.2. Graphs
From your calculated data plot the following graphs:
 Power [kW] vs speed [rpm]
 Fuel flow rate [kg/s] vs speed [rpm]
 Specific fuel consumption [kg/kW h] vs speed [rpm]
 Efficiency [%] vs speed [rpm]
 Air fuel ratio vs speed [rpm]

Data for both throttle settings should be included in the same graph. Each throttle setting must
be clearly distinguishable from one another on each graph. Ideally each measurement should
be repeated (if time allows). Discuss with the demonstrator the results you have obtained and
how you can use them to answer the questions in section 3.

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3. Technical Note Submission

3.1. Submission Instructions
Download the Technical Note Template for the Petrol Engine Test section of the Year 2 Labs
and Tutorials CANVAS site. Use this template for the cover of your technical note. You do
not need to insert all the text within the template. You can use your own formatting following
the guidance below. If you are having any difficulty, please contact the LTAs by email for help.
Use the following structure to report your data and observations:

1. Introduction. Briefly explain the theoretical concepts (i.e. Otto cycle)

2. Results. Organise your raw data in tables. Provide examples of the calculations.
Provide tables with calculated data. Plot data using excel (or any other software of
your choice (for example, Origin or Matlab)). Fit the data to a linear, exponential,
power (as appropriate for each graph) or explain any other trend that you may
observe. Add figure captions explaining the contents and observations for each
graph (what do the trends mean?).
3. Discussion. Estimate the uncertainties for the measured quantities. Describe the
relationships between the different parameters, and how they affect engine
performance. Discuss the effect of the speed and the effect of the throttle. In your
discussion include answers to the following questions:
a. Why does the power peak at mid-engine speeds?
b. Why are the part and full throttle characteristics similar at low engine speed
but differ at higher engine speed ranges?
c. How and why might the power characteristic alter if larger inlet valves or a
Turbocharger were fitted?
d. What is spark timing and why is it advanced in the cycle?
4. Conclusions. Summarise in at least 3 quantitative statements (use numbers) the
observations that you can extract from the graphs.

Rename the document to include the date that you were in the lab and your name before
submitting it – for example “PET Technical Note 21.11.20 John Smith.docx”.
NOTES
Deadline: before midnight 5 working days from the date of the lab, including the day of the lab. If you did the lab
on Friday the 2nd, the deadline would be at 23:59 on Thursday the 8th. The Turnitin submission link will become
available to you only after you have completed a short, anonymous survey about this lab. Please do provide
constructive and relevant feedback. The School of Engineering and the Lecturers responsible for MECH217 value
your opinion. Last year’s surveys have been crucial to update the lab this year.

3.2. Technical note assessment

The technical report will be marked on the following criteria:

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• Technical writing and presentation (10%)

• Introduction (10%)
• Results: raw and calculated data tables and examples of calculations (15%); graphs
and interpretation (25%)
• Discussion including estimates of uncertainties (25%)
• Conclusions (15%)

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ANNEXE

Use the following tables and blank spaces to record the data and observations while
you are in the lab.

Table 5. Raw data obtained using throttle setting 1.

(AIR) (FUEL)
Engine Speed Brake Torque
Flow meter Time to Empty
(rpm) (ft.lb)
Voltage (VFV) Flask (s)

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Table 6. Raw data obtained using throttle setting 2.

(AIR) (FUEL)
Engine Speed Brake Torque
Flow meter Time to Empty
(rpm) (ft.lb)
Voltage (VFV) Flask (s)

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