- The atoms of an element cannot be

Physical Science changed into another.

First Quarter Notes • 2022-2023
★ Billiard Ball Model
○ He also envisioned atoms as
solid, hard spheres like
.·:*¨༺ STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM ༻¨*:·.
billiard balls.

Ancient Ideas on the Nature of Matter: > John Joseph (JJ) Thomson
- He was the first scientist to show
> Thales (625-547 BC) the atom was made of even smaller
- All matter is made of what was things.
called “primal matter” and thought - He discovered the electron.
of as water, perhaps because water - He used Cathode Ray Tube to
is found everywhere. discover electrons.

> Anaximenes ★ Plum Pudding Atom Model

- Thought that air is the primal
matter.

> Heraclitus
- Had the idea that fire must be the
‘primal matter’ since it represents
the changing world.

> Aristotle
- Proposed that all substances are
composed of 4 elements - fire, air,
water, and earth. > Ernest Rutherford
- He demonstrated that Thomson’s
> Democritus (40 BC) model was defective.
- A Greek philosopher that suggested - He discovered the nucleus of a gold
that world was made of two things – atom with his gold foil experiment.
empty space and atomos
(uncuttable). ★ Gold Foil Experiment Results
○ Most alpha particles go
a. Atoms are the smallest possible straight through the gold
particle of matter. foil.
b. There are different types of atoms
for each material.

> Dalton’s Atomic Theory

- All matter is composed of atoms.
- Each element has an atom that is
different from the atom of another
element.

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Rutherford’s Conclusion:
.·:*¨༺ POLARITY ༻¨*:·.
- The atom is mostly empty space.
- There is a small dense center with a It is a physical property of
positive charge. compounds which relates other physical
properties such as melting and boiling
> Niels Bohr points, solubility, and intermolecular
- He improved Rutherford’s model. interactions between molecules.
- He stated that the electrons move
around the nucleus. A. Pure Covalent Bond/Nonpolar -
these neutral atoms that share
> James Chadwick electrons equally between them.
- He discovered neutrons.
- He bombarded Beryllium with alpha B. Polar Covalent Bond - these are
particles and an unknown radiation partially charged atoms that are
was produced. However, this being held together by unequally
radiation has no charge. shared electrons.

Compound Elements - 2 or more C. Ionic Bond - these are oppositely

elements. charged ions that are being held
together by electrostatic attraction.

Chemical Bond

.·:*¨༺ MACROMOLECULES ༻¨*:·.

- Intramolecular Force
- Force that hold atoms together to
make compounds or molecules What is Organic Chemistry?
The study of the structure,
A. Ionic Bond - Exists between a metal properties, composition, reactions, and
and a nonmetal. preparation of carbon-containing
B. Covalent Bond - two nonmetals. compounds.
Chemistry of Carbon

Electronegativity
Uniqueness of Carbon

- Is the ability of an element to be ★ Carbon’s tetravalency makes it

negative. versatile.
- The ability of an atom to attract ★ It can form long chains with itself.
electrons. ★ Carbon can form double and triple
bonds. Carbon compounds tend to
be solid.

Properties of Organic Compounds

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 ★ They have covalent bonds; It is the ease at which the electron
★ They have low melting and boiling distribution within a molecule can be
points; they burn vigorously; distorted.
★ They are soluble in nonpolar
solvents; and
Factors that affect LDF:
★ They form large molecules of
organic compounds. A. Molar Mass - LDF increases with
Molar Mass.
- Larger molecules have more
Functional Group
electrons.
This is a group of organic
compounds that display consistent B. Arrangement - linear structures are
function. stronger.
- More sites of interaction
exist.
Hydrocarbons
This is the simplest organic 2. Dipole Force - Permanent Dipoles -
compound. It is made up of C-H, or carbon Polar Molecules. This is stronger than LDF.
and hydrogen.
How to identify polar molecules?
Alkane – single bonded
Alkene – double bonded, unsaturated
hydrocarbons Lewis Structure and Molecular Geometry
Alkyne – triple bonded, saturated
hydrocarbons 3. Ion-Dipole Forces - this is the strongest
IMF.
a. Cation - positive charges
Biology Macromolecules
b. Anion - negative charges
● Lipids
● Carbohydrates 4. Hydrogen Bond - special type of dipole.
● Protein This is the strongest type of van der Waals
● Nucleic Acid Force.
- Hydrogen is bonded with Fluorine,
Oxygen or Nitrogen
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction - COOH, -OH, Amines, Amides
● London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
● Dipole – Dipole Forces Relative Strength
● Ion – Dipole Forces
1. London Dispersion Forces
● Hydrogen Bond
2. Dipole – Dipole Forces
3. Hydrogen Bonding
1. London Dispersion Force
4. Ion – Dipole Forces
- Weakest intermolecular force
- Exists on all molecules
- LDF arises as a result of dipole
moment.
What is Polarizability? Use of Some Common Materials that

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 Depends on their Properties
.·:*¨༺ BIOMOLECULES ༻¨*:·.
1. Medical implants and prosthetics -
Polymers are long-chain molecules formed What are Biomolecules?
from many repeating units of small carbon These are large or small molecules
molecules. In nature you can find many from pure or synthetic substances that are
polymers such as cellulose, rubber, silk, not living organisms per se but which
wool, starch, proteins, and DNA. Many contribute a lot to the living or metabolic
biological molecules are polymers because states of cells.
they are made up of many smaller
molecules called monomers that are linked
Types of Biomolecules
together to form polymers.

2. Sports Equipment - The plastic industry 1. Elements - refer to pure natural

has learned to produce synthetic polymers substances essential to maintaining the life
that are used to make polyesters such as of living organisms.
Dacron and plastics. Dacron polyester is
used to make permanent press fabrics, 7 major elements crucial to the life of
carpets, and clothes. cellular organisms:
● Oxygen
3. Electronic Devices - The most common ● Carbon
materials used in the production of ● Hydrogen
electronic devices are semiconductors. ● Nitrogen
Engineering technologies have imposed a ● Phosphorus
limit on how small such devices can be ● Sulfur
built. ● Calcium

4. Construction Supplies for Building and A. Carbon - it is the main ingredient in

Furniture - Synthetic rubber is used for the energy producing processes of
electrical installations in buildings and photosynthesis, glycolysis and
houses. Synthetic polymers are also used Kreb’s cycle wherein all of them
as carpeting materials, plastic covers, require carbon to generate glucose
plastic pipes, and fittings, flooring and ATP.
materials, for walling, and other finishing
supplies in building construction. Butanone B. Oxygen - it is needed for the
is used to remove paint. aerobic phase of cellular respiration
of man and animals which, in
5. Household Gadgets - Polyethylene is a combination with carbon, become
polymer used in the manufacture of plastic energy sources of ATP.
bottles, plastic dinnerware, and garden
hose. Teflon, a household brand which is C. Hydrogen’s ionized form H+ is
made of Tetrafluoroethylene, is a very good important to ATP energy production
insulator and used for nonstick pans or and other metabolic reactions.
cooking utensils. Polyacrylonitrile named D. Nitrogen forms the basic structure
Orlon is used as fiber for carpeting and of proteins, amino acids, and nucleic
clothing. acids that are vital for energy,

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 growth, tissue repair, and salts or ions that can conduct
replication of the genetic materials electricity.
of cells.
E. Carbon Dioxide is the product that
E. Calcium is the key component of results when carbon combines with
teeth and bone structure and thus two molecules of oxygen (CO2).
important for bone growth and
strength and also helps in muscle
Types of Organic Substances
nerve control.
A. Proteins are large macromolecules
F. Phosphorus is the P in ATP, the with amino acids as their basic unit.
main unit of energy for all cells. It is
also vital for bone growth and is one What is Protein?
of the structural components of These are composed of chains of
nucleic acids. amino acids. AMINO ACIDS contain an
amino group ( -NH2) and an acid group (-
G. Sulfur is one of the substances that COOH).
constitute proteins and nucleic
acids. It also helps cells to enhance They are believed to be the central
their use of oxygen. compound necessary for life, which is also
called life's building block.

2. Compounds - these are substances

formed from the union of two elements and
can either be inorganic (those with no
carbon) or organic (those having carbon in
their structure).

Types of Inorganic Substances

A. Water is the product that results

when two molecules of hydrogen
combine with oxygen (H2O).

B. Acids taste sour and are involved in

acid catalysis chemical reactions in
water solutions.

C. Bases taste bitter and are the

compounds responsible for
accepting ions in chemical
reactions.

D. Electrolytes have positive (cations)

or negative (anions) charges called

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 through the process called condensation
reaction.
- Examples are sucrose (table sugar)
which came from glucose and
fructose that we get from
sugarcane.

C. Polysaccharide - composed of at least 3

or more monosaccharide.
- Examples are starches, glycogen,
cellulose and chitin. Food sources
are starchy tubers, potatoes,
cassava, corn and cereals.
B. Carbohydrates - these are
a. Linear Polysaccharides - forms a
macromolecules that form from
rigid structure and is insoluble in
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
water.
bonds and are the principal sources
b. Branched polysaccharide - is
of energy for all organisms.
soluble in water.
What are Carbohydrates?
These are biomolecules believed to Types of Polysaccharide:
be the most abundant of all organic
I. Pectin - it can be found in apples,
compounds.
oranges, grapefruits, bananas,
These are produced by numerous
cabbage and carrots.
photosynthetic organisms daily through
photosynthesis.
II. Cellulose - an example of a
They have a CARBON, HYDROGEN,
structural polysaccharide, found in
and OXYGEN ratio 1:2:1.
the cell wall of plants it is
The term carbohydrates literally
considered as one of the most
means “hydrated carbon”
abundant organic molecules on
Earth.
Types and Function of Carbohydrates: - Cellulose are found in
commercially used plants such as
abaca, flax, cotton, and pineapple.
A. Monosaccharide - also called simple
sugar because they are the monomer (a
III. Chitin - it is found in the cell walls
chemical compound that can undergo
of fungi and the exoskeleton of
polymerization).
some animals such as shrimps, crab,
- These are one molecule sugars and
krill, scorpion, and many insects.
are instant sources of ATP energy
for the cells.
- Examples are glucose, dextrose
(blood sugar), and fructose (fruit
sugar).
C. Lipids are also formed from carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen bonds but
B. Disaccharide -they are composed of
are linked into chains by fatty acids
two monosaccharides joined together

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 (glycerol, triglycerides, cholesterol, ● CHOLESTEROL - brains and blood
etc.). vessels
● TESTOSTERONE - male sex
What are Lipids? hormone
These are biomolecules containing ● PROGESTERONE AND ESTROGEN -
chains of hydrocarbons ( hydrocarbons are female sex hormone
organic compounds that are made up of ● ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES -
carbon and hydrogen, and are insoluble in responding to stress, imbalances, or
water. when lipids are metabolized, they threats.
release large amount of energy, and they ● CORTISOL - helps in regulations
useful to organisms. and energy

Types of Lipids: D. Waxes - are esters. Which are

combined from certain alcohols and
A. Triglycerides - this contains a fatty acids. These are found
glycerol attached to three fatty everywhere in nature as these are
acids. Fatty acid is composed of a used by organisms, such as the thin
long chain of carbon atoms coating of leaves and stems.
connected to a carboxylic acid
(-COOH) Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA

Saturated Fats - contain only single bonds

in the fatty acid chain. Because of this, they
are normally solid at room temperature.
BAD FAT.

Unsaturated Fats - this contains one or

more double bonds in the fatty acid chain.
Because of this, they are normally liquid at
room temperature.

B. Phospholipids - this has a structure

similar to fats, but with additional
properties attached on one side of
glycerol backbone that are the
hydrophobic on non polar tails.

C. Sterols/Steroids - this has fused

carbon rings. Many steroids also
have the -OH functional group,
which puts them into alcohol
classification.

Types of Sterols:

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