Catatan Kuliah

Chemical Engineering Journal 400 (2020) 125744
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Chemical Engineering Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cej
Review
Two-dimensional electrocatalysts for alcohol oxidation: A critical review T

a b c a,b,⁎ a a b,⁎
Xun Zhao , Qiming Liu , Qiaoxia Li , Lingyun Chen , Lei Mao , Huayu Wang , Shaowei Chen
a
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
b
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, United States
c
College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power, Shanghai 200090, China
H I GH L IG H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• DAFC represents an effective electro-

chemical energy technology in diverse
applications.
• Design and engineering of anode cat-
alysts plays a critical role in the de-
velopment of DAFC.
• 2D electrocatalysts exhibit unique
materials properties and electro-
catalytic performances.
• 2D anode catalysts include metals/al-
loys, metal oxides/hydroxides/car-
bides, and their nanocomposites.
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Direct alcohol fuel cell (DAFC) exhibits multiple unique advantages, such as high energy conversion efficiency,
Alcohol oxidation reaction low cost, ready availability of fuels, minimal environmental pollution, and ease of operation, and has found
Direct alcohol fuel cell diverse applications as a small, micro mobile power supply. A critical challenge for the development of DAFC is
Two-dimensional electrocatalyst the design and engineering of effective anode catalysts, where electrooxidation of alcohols occurs. Within this
Methanol
context, two-dimensional (2D) electrocatalysts represent a viable option, due to their unique materials prop-
Ethanol
erties, such as large surface area, ease of charge migration and mass transfer, and mechanical robustness during
electrochemical reactions. In this review, we summarize recent breakthroughs in the structural engineering of a
range of 2D functional nanomaterials, including noble metals and alloys, metal oxides/hydroxides, metal car-
bides, and precious metal-based nanocomposites, in the electrocatalytic oxidation of alcohols (primarily me-
thanol and ethanol), within the context of reaction mechanisms, and include a perspective highlighting the
promises and challenges in future research.
1. Introduction minimal impacts on the environment [4-6]. Among the many types of
fuel cells [7-10], direct alcohol fuel cell (DAFC) has been hailed as a
Development of environmentally friendly energy technologies is an promising clean energy technology, where alcohols (e.g., methanol and
effective strategy to mitigate the energy and environmental issues ethanol) are used as the chemical fuels. Alcohols are in general low-
caused by the consumption of fossil fuels, our primary source of energy cost, contain a high energy density, and are available from a wide range
so far [1-3]. Of these, fuel cells represent a viable option where che- of (sustainable) sources and safe and convenient in storage and trans-
mical energy is efficiently converted into electrical energy with portation [11-17]. Yet, critical challenges remain. For instance, for
⁎
Corresponding authors at: Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, United States.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Chen), [email protected] (S. Chen).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.125744
Received 28 April 2020; Received in revised form 28 May 2020; Accepted 1 June 2020
Available online 16 June 2020
1385-8947/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
X. Zhao, et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 400 (2020) 125744
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic presentation of a

proton-exchange membrane (PEMFC) and
an alkaline membrane fuel cell (AMFC),
fueled either with H2 gas or directly with
methanol (DMFC mode). Mechanisms of
MOR on the catalysts in (b) acidic and (c)
alkaline media. (d) Schematic illustration of
the bifunctional mechanism of Pt-based
catalysts. (a) Reproduced by permission
from Ref. [56]. Copyright (2015) Materials
Research Society. (b-d) Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright (2019)
Wiley-VCH.
direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), there remain two major issues that More recently, AOR electrocatalysts based on two-dimensional (2D)
limit the performance, the slow electron-transfer kinetics of anodic nanostructures have also been attracting a great deal of attention. A
methanol oxidation and methanol crossover. The former dictates the range of 2D nanostructures have indeed been examined rather ex-
rate of proton production and hence the efficiency of power generation, tensively in recent studies, such as noble metals and alloys, transition
whereas the latter is related to the catharsis ability of the electrolyte. metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), transition-metal carbides and nitrides
For DAFCs based on more complex alcohols, the overall performance is (MXenes), layered double hydroxides (LDHs), etc., because of their
generally limited due to the lack of efficient catalysts for the cleavage of large surface area, shortened charge migration distance, and abundant
the C − C bonds and complete oxidation of the alcohols to CO2 [18-20]. diffusion channels for ions and molecules [14-17,45]. Notably, the 2D
Thus far, platinum-based nanoparticles remain the leading catalysts for nanostructures can also effectively relieve the stress caused by the vo-
alcohol electrooxidation [21-23]. However, the low stability, easy CO lume change and impact damage of bubbles generated by reactions on
poisoning and high cost of Pt have severely hampered the practical the material structure, leading to satisfactory electrocatalytic activity
applications of DAFC [20,24,25]. and stability. A series of efficient strategies have been reported for the
Therefore, in recent decades, a wide range of strategies have been structural engineering of 2D noble metal-based electrocatalysts, such as
employed to improve the electrocatalytic performance of platinum to- the precise control of their morphology, thickness, size, porosity, defect,
wards alcohol oxidation reaction (AOR) and reduce the operational cost doping, crystal phase, and preferential growth of highly active lattice
of DAFC [26-28], for instance, by alloying with other (non)noble me- planes. Such efforts can be aided by theoretical/computational break-
tals, formation of nanocomposites with carbon derivatives, transition throughs for high-throughput material screening.
metal oxides/hydroxides, and transition metal carbides [19,29-33], and Thus, in this review, we will summarize recent research progress of
manipulation of the nanostructure morphologies [34-36]. Alternatively, 2D functional nanomaterials as effective electrocatalysts for AOR based
development of platinum-free AOR catalysts represents another effec- on noble metals and alloys, metal oxides/hydroxides, metal carbides,
tive strategy. Among these, one-dimensional (1D) electrocatalysts with and metal-based composites, within the context of reaction mechanism,
a highly anisotropic structure are found to facilitate electron transfer, performance evaluation and correlation of electrocatalytic activity with
high exposure of active lattice planes, and strong durability during material structure. We conclude the review with a perspective high-
long-term electrocatalytic operation, in comparison with the bulk and lighting the promises and challenges in future research of 2D functional
nanoparticle counterparts [34,37-39]. Three-dimensional (3D) assem- nanomaterials for AOR electrocatalysis.
blies of low-dimensional nanostructures are another class of AOR
electrocatalysts, which usually exhibit the combined properties of the
structural components, an open and porous structure, a large surface 2. Noble metals and alloys
area, good chemical and mechanical strength, resistance to aggregation,
and high flexibility [40-42]. In fact, 3D AOR electrocatalysts usually Up to now, noble metals and alloys remain the catalysts of choice
have the merits of a high utilization ratio of the active catalysts, towards AOR [18]. Electrocatalysts based on 2D nanostructures of
abundant active sites, accelerated mass/electron transfer kinetics, and noble metals are of particular interest [46], and alloying with another
high AOR activity and durability [43,44]. metal is a commonly employed strategy to improve the performance
and concurrently to reduce the cost [47]. For instance, Ru is often
2
selected as the second metal to alloy Pt, due to the strong activity in of the nanoparticles and thus minimized the loss of the active surface
water dissociation at low potentials, and the electronic effect that fa- area.
cilitates the removal of poisoning intermediates [48]. In another study, 2D ultrathin Pd nanosheets were facilely prepared
The complete oxidation of methanol to CO2 entails the release of 6 by one-pot reduction of Pd(acac)2 in formic acid with trioctylphosphine
electrons and the transfer of 6 OH−. As the procedures and mechanisms oxide (TOPO) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) at 30 °C
of methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) are widely known (Fig. 1), only for 24 h, and used for EOR electrocatalysis [65]. TEM study (Fig. 2b)
the simplified multi-step reactions on a Pt surface in acid media are clearly shows the formation of a planar nanostructure with some
listed below [49-52], wrinkles and curls, which possesses a large specific surface area. X−ray
diffraction (XRD) measurements (Fig. 2c) suggested that the formation
Pt + CH3OH → Pt−COads + 4H++4e− (1)
of nanosheets was due to the preferential growth of the 〈111〉 planes
where methanol is firstly adsorbed on the Pt surface, and dehy- with CO as the reducing agent; and voltammetric measurements
drogenation leads to the formation of Pt3−COH as the main inter- showed a markedly enhanced electrochemical surface area of the Pd
mediate; meanwhile oxidation of the produced Pt−H species to protons nanosheets (ECSA, 234 m2 g−1), as compared to that of commercial Pd
is a facile step. Note that the platinum surface is prone to CO poisoning black (68 m2 g−1). Notably, the electrocatalytic activity towards EOR
in the absence of active oxygen species (reaction 1). To minimize this was found to increase by about 1.8 folds, most likely due to the ex-
poisoning effect, alcohol is best oxidized when a large amount of posure of abundant surface atoms.
oxygen-containing species is adsorbed on the electrode surface. This In a separate study, Slabon and co-workers prepared 2D arrays of Au
can be facilitated by the incorporation of a second metal (M = Cu, Ni, nanocrystals (8.0 ± 1.0 nm in diameter) by one-pot reduction of gold
Ru, Sn, etc) [48,53-55], (III) acetate with OAm and 1,2-hexadecanediol at 30 °C for 24 h, and
observed excellent electrocatalytic activity towards MOR and EOR
M + H2O → M−OHads + H++e− (2) [66]. The oxidation peak current density was found to be 49 and 74 μA
where the generation of surface OH species boosts the further oxi- cm−2 in 0.1 and 1.0 M KOH along with 1.0 M methanol, respectively.
dation of CO to CO2, as manifested in the following reaction, The corresponding mass activity in the 1.0 M KOH + 1.0 M ethanol
solution was estimated to be 830 A g−1. Song et al. prepared 2D cir-
Pt−COads + M−OHads → CO2 + Pt + M + H++e− (3) cular Pt nanodendrites with a mean size of 138.8 ± 25.3 nm and
thickness of 13.4 ± 4.7 nm (Fig. 2d) by chemical reduction of pla-
with the total reaction of methanol oxidation on the anode as
tinum complexes with ascorbic acid in the presence of a P123 block
CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H++6e− (4) copolymer and preformed seeds, which exhibited a much larger ECSA
of 43.4 ± 0.2 m2 g−1 than commercial Pt black (23.5 ± 1.4 m2 g−1),
In alkaline media, methanol oxidation on Pt surfaces involves a
and the peak current density towards MOR was 1.4 times that of Pt
different reaction pathway [52,57,58],
black [67].
Pt + CH3OH + 3OH− → Pt−CHO + 3H2O + 3e− (5) In recent studies, Chen and coworkers also observed apparent
− −
electrocatalytic activities of 2D nanostructures of Rh towards MOR [68-
M + OH → M−OHads + e (6) 73]. Experimentally, ultrathin 2D hierarchical porous Rh nanosheets
Pt−CHO + M−OHads + 2OH− → Pt + M + CO2 + 2H2O + 2e−(7) were prepared by a facile hydrothermal method mediated by 1-hy-
droxyethylidene and 1,1-diphosphonic acid (HEDP) [68]. Owing to the
Specifically, dehydrogenation of methanol leads to the formation of coordination interaction between HEDP and Rh3+ and the water solu-
a series of carbon-containing reaction intermediates, which are then bility of HEDP, the as-prepared Rh nanosheets exhibited an ultralow
oxidized by oxygen-containing species to produce formate and carbon thickness of about 1.7 nm, abundant pores/edge atoms (Fig. 2e), and
dioxide. It is generally believed that the oxidation of the CHOads in- grain boundary atoms. These unique structural characteristics fa-
termediate to CO2 is the rate-limiting step (reaction 7). Thus, the rate of cilitated electron transport, mass transfer, and accessibility of active
methanol oxidation can be enhanced by an increase of the solution pH sites for MOR. Indeed, in comparison to commercial Rh black, the
as well as the incorporation of a second metal into the Pt catalysts, porous Rh nanosheets possessed a larger ECSA (73.13 m2 g−1 vs.
whereby further oxidation of CHOads is facilitated. 42.04 m2 g−1), a smaller charge transfer resistance (RCT, 10 Ω vs. 20 Ω),
The electrooxidation of more complicated alcohols, such as ethanol and a higher specific activity (333 A g−Rh1 vs. 99.5 A g−Rh1 ) (Fig. 2f).
[10,11,24,59,60], ethylene glycol [52,61,62], and glycerol [63], in- Consistent results were obtained in theoretical calculations, which
volves similar reaction pathways, as it is energetically challenging to showed a larger methanol adsorption energy and lower energy barrier
break the C−C bond. Understanding these reaction pathways provides in MOR by the Rh nanosheets.
a fundamental guideline for the efficient use of the fuels, where the In another study [69], Chen and coworkers prepared nanocompo-
selectivity is critical to obtain desired compounds. sites consisting of Rh nanosheets and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) as
effective electrocatalysts for MOR. In the synthetic process, poly-
2.1. Noble metals ethylenimine (PEI, Mw = 600) was used as the stabilizing and facet-
selective agent to facilitate the growth of sheet-like nanostructures, due
2D nanostructures of noble metals have emerged as high-perfor- to the strong adsorption of amine groups onto the Rh(111) facets
mance electrocatalysts for the efficient oxidation of alcohols [46]. For (Fig. 2g). The thickness of the Rh nanosheet-RGO nanocomposites was
instance, Slabon et al. synthesized 2D arrays of monodisperse Pd na- estimated to be ca. 3 nm by AFM measurements, where the RGO fa-
nocrystals by the reduction of Pd(acac)2 with oleylamine (OAm) and cilitated the formation and stabilization of the Rh nanosheets. In elec-
borane tributylamine (BTB) at 90 °C for 1 h as efficient electrocatalysts trochemical measurements, the Rh nanosheet-RGO nanocomposites
towards both MOR and ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) [64]. In were found to deliver a specific current density of 264 A g−Rh1 , as com-
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements (Fig. 2a), the pared to only 171 A g−Rh1 for Rh nanoparticle-RGO and 73 A g−Rh1 for Rh
spherical nanoparticles can be seen to exhibit an average diameter of nanoparticles alone. This was ascribed to the markedly increased
7.1 ± 1.1 nm. Electrochemical measurements in the alkaline solution number of active sites in the 2D nanostructures, as compared to the
containing 0.5 M NaOH and 1.0 M methanol or ethanol show that the nanoparticle form.
peak current density reached 1040 A g−1 (6.7 mA cm−2) for MOR and The activity can be further enhanced by a precise control of the
5500 A g−1 (35.7 mA cm−2) for EOR. This remarkable activity was morphology and porosity of the ultrathin 2D nanosheets. Recently,
ascribed to the formation of a 2D array that suppressed agglomeration Hong et al. fabricated 2D ultrathin Pd nanomeshes by oxidizing initially
3
Fig. 2. (a) TEM image of a self-assembled Pd nanocrystal array. (b) Representative TEM image of Pd nanosheets showing a flat morphology and, less frequently, a
curved shape (see inset). (c) XRD patterns of Pd nanosheets without any preferential orientation and oriented preferentially along the 〈111〉 direction. (d) TEM image
of Pt nanostructures prepared an in aqueous solution of 0.067 mM P123. (e) TEM image of hierarchical porous Rh nanosheets. (f) ECSA-normalized CV curves of
hierarchical porous Rh nanosheets and commercial Rh black recorded in N2-saturated 1 M KOH + 0.5 M methanol solution at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. (g)
Synthesis process of Rh nanosheets/RGO hybrids, Rh nanoparticles/RGO hybrids, and Rh nanoparticles. (h) Schematic representation of the formation process of Pd
nanomeshes. (i) CV curves of ultrathin Pd nanomeshes, ultrathin Pd nanosheets, and commercial Pd/C in 1 M KOH + 1 M ethanol at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. (a)
Reprinted from Ref. [64], Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier. (b, c) Reprinted from Ref. [65], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. (d)
Reprinted from Ref. [67], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. (e, f) Reprinted from Ref. [68], Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier. (g)
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [69]. Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society. (h, i) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [74], Copyright (2018) Wiley-
VCH.
solid Pd nanosheets with air or pure O2, where the porosity can be 2.2. Metal alloys
controlled by adjusting the oxidative etching intensity and time
(Fig. 2h) [74]. The obtained ultrathin mesoporous Pd nanomeshes ex- As mentioned above, the performance of alcohol electrooxidation
hibited an average thickness of about 3 nm and pore size of 11.4 nm. can be further enhanced by alloying noble metal catalysts with another
Thanks to the high fraction of exposed surface atoms and active sites, oxyphilic metal (e.g., Ru for MOR and Sn for EOR). This is primarily to
the Pd nanomeshes exhibited a large ECSA of 76.1 m2 g−1, and a high mitigate the issue of self-poisoning of the catalysts by the strongly ad-
peak current density of 5400 A g−Pd1 (7.09 mA cm−2), in comparison to sorbed COads−like intermediates [48,75]. A third co-catalyst has also
the pristine Pd nanosheets (1490 A g−Pd1, 3.42 mA cm−2) and commercial been added to deepen the oxidation of more complicated alcohols, such
Pd/C (670 A g−Pd1, 2.54 mA cm−2) (Fig. 2i). as W, Ni, Ir, and some rare-earth metals by taking advantage of their
In these studies, one can see that 2D noble metal nanostructures unique 4f electronic configurations to facilitate the cleavage of the C−C
display a superior electrocatalytic performance towards MOR/EOR, as bond, leading to enhanced electrocatalytic activity and durability
compared to the bulk and nanoparticle counterparts, due to preferential [75,76].
exposure of select crystalline planes, rich active sites on the surface, As shown in Fig. 3a, Gao et al. prepared an ensemble of ultrathin 2D
large active area, shortened electron/ion migration path, and good nanosheets of Pd−based binary alloys by a universal surfactant-free
structural stability. strategy and observed a high performance towards alcohol oxidation
[77]. A series of Pd−M (M = Ag, Pb, Au, Ga, Cu, Pt, etc.) alloy na-
nosheets were facilely obtained with a similar tremella-like morphology
4
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of 3D tremella-like Pd–M (M = Ag, Au, Pb, Ga, Cu, and Pt) nanosheets. (b) Representative SEM image of as-
prepared Pd7Ag nanosheets (inset is a photograph of real tremella). (c) TEM image of PtBi/Pt core/shell nanoplates. (d) ECSA-normalized CVs of PtBi nanoplate/C
and commercial Pt/C recorded in 0.1 M HClO4 + 0.1 M MeOH. (e) High-angle annular dark field-scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) image
of Pd2Cu nanoflowers. (f) CV curves of Pd2Cu, Pd1Cu, Pd4Cu nanoflowers, and Pd/C catalysts in 1 M KOH + 1 M ethylene glycol. (g) Schematic illustration of the
synthetic process of 3D PdCuM (M = Ru, Rh, Ir) alloy nanosheets. (h) CV curves of different electrocatalysts in 1 M KOH + 1 M CH3OH at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1.
(a, b) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [77]. Copyright (2020) Wiley-VCH. (c, d) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [78]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical
Society. (e, f) Reprinted from Ref. [79], Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier. (g, h) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [80]. Copyright (2019)
American Chemical Society.
(Fig. 3b). Among the samples, Pd7Ag nanosheets displayed the highest 0.430 mA cm−2 and 300 A g−1 for commercial Pt/C (Fig. 3d). The
electrocatalytic activity of 2180 A g−1 (4.4 mA cm−2) for MOR, 7080 A nanoplates also displayed markedly enhanced stability. This remark-
g−1 (14.3 mA cm−2) for EOR, and 7010 A g−1 (14.1 mA cm−2) for able performance was ascribed to the core–shell structure composed of
ethylene glycol oxidation reaction (EGOR) in a solution containing an intermetallic hcp PtBi core and an ultrathin fcc Pt shell, which also
0.5 M KOH and 1.0 M alcohol. In addition, the Pd7Ag nanosheets endowed high durability to the PtBi nanoplates.
showed the lowest activity decay with a 66.8% loss after 3600 s Separately, Du et al. fabricated 3D PdCu alloy nanoflowers con-
at + 0.8 V vs. RHE and a 45.8% loss after 500 successive cycles. sisting of ultrathin 2D nanosheets (Fig. 3e) by the reduction of
In another study [78], Guo et al. synthesized 2D hexagonal PtBi/Pt Na2PdCl4, CuCl2·2H2O, and W(CO)6 in a mixture of N,N-di-
core–shell nanoplates by reducing Pd(acac)2 and Bi(OAc)3 with L-as- methylformamide (DMF) and acetic acid at 150 °C for 3 h in an oil bath,
corbic acid and NH4Br in 1-octadecene and OAm at 160 °C for 5 h, and which exhibited apparent electrocatalytic activity towards EGOR [79].
observed exceptional bifunctional electrocatalytic activity towards both Among the series of alloys, the Pd2Cu nanoflowers delivered the highest
ORR and MOR. The thickness of the nanoplates could be controlled by mass activity of 4714.1 A g−1 for EGOR in 1 M KOH + 1 M ethylene
the reaction time, for instance, 9.5 nm at 30 min and 29.0 nm at 5 h glycol (Fig. 3f). In chronoamperometric (CA) test for 3600 s, the current
(Fig. 3c). The electrocatalytic performance was then tested by cyclic density remained much higher than those of other PdCu alloys and
voltammetric (CV) measurements in 0.1 M HClO4 + 0.1 M methanol. commercial Pd/C.
The PtBi/Pt core–shell nanoplates exhibited a high specific activity of In a similar procedure, Jin and coworkers synthesized PdCuM
3.18 mA cm−2 and mass activity of 1100 A g−1, as compared to (M = Ru, Rh, and Ir) ternary alloy nanosheets (Fig. 3g) by the
5
reduction of Na2PdCl4, CuCl2·2H2O, and W(CO)6 in a mixture of DMF to almost complete loss with Pt/C. The remarkable activity was as-
and acetic acid [80]. The thickness of the ultrathin nanosheets was cribed to the unique 2D porous architectures that featured plenty of
estimated to be as low as 2.8 nm. CV tests in 1 M KOH showed that the catalytically active sites for effective electron and mass transport. The
ECSA values of Pd59Cu33Ru8, Pd58Cu29Ru13, Pd58Cu29Ru18, PdCu, and AOR performances of these different 2D noble metals and alloys are
commercial Pd/C nanosheets were 35.3, 28.5, 31.2, 21.7, and 20.2 m2 summarized in Table 1.
g−1, respectively. Among these, Pd59Cu33Ru8 exhibited the highest
mass specific activity of 1660 A g−1 (4.7 mA cm−2) in 1 M KOH + 1 M 3. Metal oxides and hydroxides
methanol (Fig. 3h), in comparison to 1180 A g−1 for Pd63Cu29Rh8 and
1550 A g−1 for Pd57Cu34Ir9. This was accounted for by the abundant Due to their excellent physical and electrochemical properties,
channels for fast mass transport, and ligand effect of M on the PdCu transition metal oxides and hydroxides have emerged as viable sub-
electrocatalytic performance for MOR. stitutes for precious metals towards the electrocatalytic oxidation of
Cao et al. reported the synthesis of quasi-2D PdCu bimetallic tri- alcohols [84-87]. Several important parameters need to be considered,
gonal hierarchical nanoframes (THNFs) based on ascorbic acid reduc- such as high structural stability, high resistance against electrochemical
tion of Cu2+ and Cu seed-mediated growth of Pd [81]. Among the corrosion, good electrical and proton conductivity, and high specific
obtained binary alloys, Pd5.89Cu was found to deliver the highest mass surface area. Among these, 2D nanosheets of transition metal oxides
activity of 4520 A g−1, and Pd8.57Cu had the largest specific activity of and hydroxides, such as NiO, spinel nickel cobaltate (NiCo2O4), and
5.94 mA cm−2. The ECSA values of most of the THNFs were larger LDHs, have been attracting much attention. Generally, alkaline elec-
(108.6 m2·g−Pd1) than that of commercial Pd black, suggesting a high trolytes are preferred for transition metal oxides and hydroxides, be-
degree of Pd utilization. cause the catalysts are more stable in alkaline electrolyte than in acidic
Xu and coworkers prepared a heterostructure consisting of 2D NiZn media. The possible pathways of AOR on divalent metal oxides and
oxyphosphide nanosheets and 3D PdRu nanoflowers by a facile wet- hydroxides (such as cobalt- and nickel-based electrocatalysts) are listed
chemistry strategy using NaBH4 as the reducing agent and poly- below [88-90], in which the trivalent oxyhydroxide MOOH serves as
vinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as the protecting agent [54]. From the TEM the adsorption sites and oxidants for AOR,
image in Fig. 4a, one can see that the PdRu alloy nanoflowers consisted
of interconnected nanosheets grown on the NiZn oxyphosphide na- MO + OH− ↔ MOOH + e− (8)
nosheet surface. In 1 M KOH + 1 M methanol or ethanol, the hetero- − −
M(OH)2 + OH ↔ MOOH + H2O + e (9)
structure delivered a specific/mass activity of 4.5 mA cm−2/1739.5 A
g−1 for MOR (Fig. 4b) and 12.3 mA cm−2/4719.8 A g−1 for EOR MOOH + RCH2OH ↔ MOOH−(RCH2OH)ads (10)
(Fig. 4c), respectively. The incorporation of NiZn oxyphosphide na-
MOOH + MOOH−(RCH2OH)ads → M(OH)2 + MOOH−(RCH2O)ads
nosheets enhanced the cycling stability as well as electrocatalytic ac-
(11)
tivity, where the poisoning resistance resulted from its ability of water
dissolution that facilitated the recovery of poisoned electrocatalysts. MOOH + MOOH−(RCH2O)ads → M(OH)2 + MOOH−(RCHO)ads (12)
The retention rate of the specific/mass activities reached > 70% after
1000 successive cycles (Fig. 4d and 4e). MOOH + MOOH−(RCHO)ads → M(OH)2 + MOOH−(RCO)ads (13)
2D PtSn nanosheets (sub-1 nm thickness) were prepared by Tuan’s MOOH−(RCO)ads + OH −
→ M(OH)2 + RCOO −
(14)
group through a facile colloidal method and used as effective electro-
catalysts for both MOR and EOR [55]. AFM and high-resolution TEM
measurements showed that the thickness ranged from 0.6 to 0.9 nm. 3.1. Transition metal oxides
With surfactants controlling the growth of six facet directions, stacked
hexagonal nanostructures were formed, as evidenced in SEM mea- A range of transition metal oxides have been found to exhibit
surements (Fig. 4f). Electrochemically, the obtained PtSn nanosheets electrocatalytic activity towards AOR. For instance, NiO is an attractive
exhibited a mass activity towards MOR (871.6 A g−Pt1) 2.3 times (371 A candidate, where the main limiting factors are its poor electrical con-
g−Pt1) and 10.1 times (86.1 A g−Pt1) higher than that of commercial Pt/C ductivity and low utilization rate as electrode materials [91]. Pre-
and Pt black, respectively, and a mass activity towards EOR (673.6 A paration of 2D sheet-like nanostructures can improve the effective
g−Pt1) 5.3 and 2.3 times higher than those of commercial Pt/C (295 A g−Pt1) utilization of the active materials and at the same time create abundant
and Pt black (127.7 A g−Pt1), respectively. oxygen vacancies on their surfaces, leading to an increase of the defect
Lv et al. used a surfactant template, docosyltrimethylammonium states in the forbidden band and thus improved electrical conductivity.
chloride, to prepare ultrathin, free-standing trimetallic PdPtCu na- For instance, Luo et al. prepared 2D ultrathin NiO nanosheets with rich
nosheets with ascorbic acid as the reducing agent [82]. The surfactant oxygen vacancies (VO-rich ultrathin NiO nanosheets) through a facile
facilitated the formation of a lamellar nanostructure, which exhibited hydrothermal and calcination procedure [92]. For comparison, they
linear voids after the removal of the surfactant (Fig. 4g). From the CV also prepared NiO nanosheets poor in oxygen vacancies (VO-poor ul-
curves in Fig. 4h, the PdPtCu nanosheets were found to exhibit an ECSA trathin NiO nanosheets) by prolonged calcination, and bulk NiO by
of 46.3 m2 g−1, as compared to 20.9 m2 g−1 of PdPt nanosheets, direct high-temperature calcination of Ni(NO3)2·6H2O (Fig. 5a). The
30.1 m2 g−1 of PdCu nanosheets, and 19.4 m2 g−1 of monometallic Pd VO-rich nanosheets achieved a large current density of 85.3 mA cm−2
nanosheets, and apparent electrocatalytic activity towards the oxida- towards MOR, more than twice that (36.9 mA cm−2) of the VO-poor
tion of methanol, ethanol, glycerol, and glucose. counterpart and almost four times that (23.9 mA cm−2) of bulk NiO
Wang’s group used Ag triangular nanoplates to prepare 2D porous (Fig. 5b), along with improved catalytic stability. Results based on
PtAg alloy nanosheets through a galvanic replacement reaction [83]. density functional theory (DFT) calculations showed that the formation
Because ascorbic acid was used as the reducing agent, excessive oxi- of abundant oxygen vacancies indeed decreased the band gap and in-
dative corrosion of the Ag triangular nanoplates was avoided and the creased the electrical conductivity.
nanoplate morphologies were retained (Fig. 4i). In the solution of 1 M NiCo2O4 is another attractive material [93,94]. For instance, Xiao’s
KOH + 1 M methanol, the PtAg porous nanosheets achieved a specific group prepared NiCo2O4 nanospheres by the assembly of porous na-
anodic current density of 10.04 mA cm−2, which was 4.5 times that of nosheets [95]. From the TEM image in Fig. 5c, one can see that the
commercial Pt/C (2.24 mA cm−2). The PtAg nanosheets also exhibited NiCo2O4 nanospheres exhibited a wrinkled, porous structure consisting
remarkable stability, retaining 19.4% of the current density of numerous stacked nanoparticles. From nitrogen adsorption and
(1.95 mA cm−2) after continuous operation for 5000 s, in comparison desorption measurements, the BET specific surface area was estimated
6
Fig. 4. (a) TEM image of 3D−2D PdRu/NiZn oxyphosphide nanohybrids. CV curves of 3D−2D nanohybrids, 3D PdRu NFs, and Pd/C in (b) 1 M KOH + 1 M CH3OH,
and (c) 1 M KOH + 1 M CH3CH2OH at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. Long-term stability comparison of 3D−2D nanohybrids, 3D PdRu NFs, and Pd/C for 1000
potential cycles toward (d) MOR and (e) EOR. (f) SEM image of PtSn nanosheets. (g) High-magnification TEM image of the ultrathin PdPtCu nanosheets. (h) CV
curves of the trimetallic PdPtCu nanosheets, bimetallic PdPt and PdCu nanosheets, monometallic Pd nanosheets, PdPtCu nanoparticles, and commercial Pt and Pd
nanoparticles in 1.0 M KOH at 50 mV s−1. (i) Typical TEM image of porous PtAg nanosheets. (a-e) Reproduced from Ref. [54] with permission from The Royal
Society of Chemistry. (f) Reprinted from Ref. [55], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. (g, h) Reproduced from Ref. [82] with permission from The
Royal Society of Chemistry. (i) Reprinted from Ref. [83], Copyright (2018) Springer Nature.
to be 146.5 m2 g−1. The nickel foam-supported electrode (NiCo2O4/NF) 1.0 M ethanol, the oxidation current density of NiAl−LDHs nanosheets
exhibited a current density of 40.9 A g−1 in 1 M KOH + 0.5 M me- (543.33 A g−1) at + 0.58 V vs. Ag/AgCl was 39 times higher than that
thanol, about an order of magnitude higher than the background cur- of bulk NiAl−LDHs (13.65 A g−1) (Fig. 5e); and 91.6% and 81.8% of its
rent of 4.6 A g−1 in 1 M KOH. Furthermore, the NiCo2O4/NF electrode initial current density was retained after continuous operation
exhibited a negligible decrease in current density in long-term stability at + 0.58 V vs. Ag/AgCl for 2000 s and 10000 s, which is much better
and durability tests for MOR. than that of bulk NiAl−LDHs. The ultrathin LDH nanosheets allowed
for the exposure of a great number of active sites. More importantly,
exfoliation led to the formation of Ni(III) active species (NiOOH) on the
3.2. Transition metal hydroxides nanosheets, which played a critical role in determining the catalytic
activity towards EOR. The NiOOH also improved the electrical con-
Transition metal hydroxides, including layered single metal hydro- ductivity of the LDH nanosheets. These effects synergistically led to
xides and LDHs, have a typical open layered, 2D structure with an easily marked enhancement of the EOR activity, as compared to bulk
adjustable interlayer distance [96,97]. LDHs with the general formula NiAl−LDHs.
of M12−+x Mx3 + (OH )22 −Axn/−n ·mH2O and a diverse chemical composition have In another study [101], Hou’s group synthesized Mn−doped Ni
also been used in the electrocatalysis of AOR [16,98-100]. For instance, (OH)2 nanosheets by mixing Mn(OH)2 nanoplates with Ni2+ (Fig. 5f).
Chen et al. prepared 2D ultrathin NiAl−LDHs nanosheets by a simple As the solubility product of Ni(OH)2 is lower than that of Mn(OH)2, the
hydrothermal and mechanical liquid-exfoliation method [90]. AFM Mn(OH)2 templates were sacrificed to introduce Ni2+ as the dopant,
measurements (Fig. 5d) showed that the exfoliated nanosheets con- and the doped sample was found to exhibit a larger peak current density
sisted of single or double layers, with the thickness ranging from 0.75 to (Fig. 5g) and better cyclic stability than the pristine one toward EOR.
0.88 nm. In electrochemical measurements for EOR in 1.0 M NaOH and
7
X. Zhao, et al.
Table 1
Comparison of the alcohol oxidation performances with different 2D noble metals and alloys as electrocatalysts.
Electrocatalyst Electrolyte Peak current density from CV curves ECSA (m2 g−1) Ref.
−1 −2 −1 −1 −2 −1
Pd nanocrystal arrays Alkaline 0.5 M NaOH and 1.0 M 1040 mA mg , 6.7 mA cm at 50 mV s for MOR; 5500 mA mg , 35.7 mA cm at 50 mV s for 12.10 [64]
medium alcohol EOR
Pd nanosheets 0.1 M KOH and 0.5 M 150 mA g−1 vs. Pd-black (30 mA g−1) at 10 mV s−1 194 (53 for Pd-black) [65]
ethanol
Au nanocrystal arrays 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 48.3 mA mg−1 at 50 mV s−1 for MOR; 830 mA mg−1 at 50 mV s−1 for EOR 65.84 [66]
alcohol
Ultrathin porous Rh nanosheets 1.0 M KOH and 0.5 M 333 mA mg−1, 0.455 mA cm−2 vs. Rh balck (99.5 mA mg−1, 0.237 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 73.13 (42.04 for Rh-black) [68]
methanol
−1 −1 −1
Rh nanosheets/RGO hybrids 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 264 mA mg vs. Pt/C (73 mA mg ) at 50 mV s 48.66 (51.04 for Pt/C) [69]
methanol
Ultrathin Pd nanomeshes 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 5400 mA mg−1, 7.09 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/C (670 mA mg−1, 2.54 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 76.1 (26.4 for Pd/C) [74]
ethanol
Pd7Ag nanosheet 0.5 M KOH and 1.0 M 2180 mA mg−1, 4.4 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/C (410 mA mg−1, 1.0 mA cm−2) for MOR; 7080 mA mg−1, 49.6 (39.0 for Pd/C) [77]
alcohol 14.3 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/C (860 mA mg−1, 2.2 mA cm−2) for EOR; 7010 mA mg−1, 14.1 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/
8
C (960 mA mg−1, 2.4 mA cm−2) for EGOR
Pd2Cu nanosheets-constructed 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 4714.1 mA mg−1, 13.7 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/C (1066.8 mA mg−1, 2.0 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 34.6 (53.1 for Pd/C) [79]
nanoflowers ethylene glycol
Pd59Cu33Ru8 nanosheets 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 1660.8 mA mg−1, 4.7 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/C (338.9 mA mg−1, 1.68 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 35.3 (20.2 for Pd/C) [80]
methanol
Pd5.89Cu/Pd8.57Cu trigonal hierarchical 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 4520 mA mg−1, 5.94 mA cm−2 vs. Pd-black (660 mA mg−1, 0.61 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 104/76 (108.6 for Pd-balck) [81]
nanoframes ethanol
−1 −2 −1 −2 −1
PdRu nanosheets 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 1739.5 mA mg , 4.5 mA cm vs. Pd/C (209.3 mA mg , 0.5 mA cm ) at 50 mV s for MOR; 34.3 (42.6 for Pd/C) [54]
alcohol 4719.8 mA mg−1, 12.3 mA cm−2 vs. Pd/C (569.7 mA mg−1, 1.3 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 for EOR
−1 −2 −1 −2
PtSn ultrathin sheets 0.2 M KOH and 0.2 M 876.1 mA mg , 15.86 mA cm vs. Pt/C (371 mA mg , 4.04 mA cm ), Pt-black (86.1 mA mg−1, 66 (28.6 for Pt/C and 24.8 for [55]
alcohol 4.39 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 for MOR; 673.6 mA mg−1, 24.5 mA cm−2 vs. Pt/C (295 mA mg−1, Pt-black)
6.0 mA cm−2) , Pt-black (127.7 mA mg−1, 13.0 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 for EOR
Ultrathin PdPtCu nanosheets 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 2670 mA mg−1 vs. Pd nanoparticles (1430 mA mg−1), Pt nanoparticles (470 mA mg−1) at 50 mV s−1 46.3 (10.0 for PdPtCu [82]
methanol nanoparticles)
−1 −2 −1 −2 −1
PtAg porous nanosheets 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M 3990 mA mg , 10.04 mA cm vs. Pt/C (1490 mA mg , 2.24 mA cm ) at 50 mV s 39.8 (66.7 for Pt/C) [83]
methanol
−2 −2 −1
Circular Pt nanodendrites Acidic medium 0.5 M H2SO4 and 1.0 M ~28 mA cm vs. Pt-black (~20 mA cm ) at 20 mV s 43.4 (23.5 for Pt-balck) [67]
methanol
PtBi/Pt core–shell nanoplates 0.1 M HClO4 and 0.1 M 1100 mA mg−1, 3.18 mA cm−2 vs. Pt/C (300 mA mg−1, 0.43 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 33.9 (71.34 for Pt/C) [78]
methanol
Fig. 5. (a) Schematic illustration for the fabrication of VO-rich/poor ultrathin NiO nanosheets. (b) CV curves of the various NiO samples in 1 M KOH + 0.5 M CH3OH.
(c) TEM image of NiCo2O4. (d) AFM topograph of NiAl−LDH nanosheets. (e) CV curves of bulk NiAl−LDHs and NiAl−LDH nanosheets modified electrodes in 1.0 M
NaOH + 1.0 M ethanol at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. (f) TEM image of the hollow Mn-doped Ni(OH)2 nanostructures. (g) CVs of hollow Mn-doped Ni(OH)2
nanostructures and Ni(OH)2 nanosheets modified electrode in 1 M KOH + 0.5 M CH3OH at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. (h) XPS spectra of Ni 2p electrons of hollow
Mn-doped Ni(OH)2 nanostructures and Ni(OH)2 nanosheets. (i) CV curves in nitrogen-saturated 1 M KOH + 3 M CH3OH. (j) FESEM image of NiCo2O4/Ni(OH)2. (k)
CV curves of GCE (black), Co3O4/GCE (red), NiCo2O4/GCE (blue), and NiCo2O4/Ni(OH)2/GCE (magenta) in 1 M KOH + 0.5 M CH3OH at the scan rate of 10 mV s−1.
(a, b) Reprinted from Ref. [92], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. (c) Reprinted from Ref. [95], Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier. (d,
e) Reprinted from Ref. [90], Copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier. (f-h) Reprinted from Ref. [101], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. (i)
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [102]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society. (j, k) Reproduced from Ref. [103] with permission from The Royal Society
of Chemistry.
XPS studies (Fig. 5h) showed that the prepared sample exhibited a nanosheets decorated with nanoparticles by a facile microwave-assisted
higher binding energy of the Ni 2p3/2 electrons than that of undoped Ni hydrothermal route, which provided a loading platform for the further
(OH)2, which was beneficial to increase the number of nickel active growth of Ni(OH)2 nanoparticles [103]. The intertwined sheet-like
species and hence the electrocatalytic activity. nanostructures were evidenced in field-emission scanning electron mi-
croscopy (FESEM) measurements (Fig. 5j). The anodic oxidation cur-
rent density of the nanocomposites loaded on a glassy carbon electrode
3.3. Metal oxide − hydroxide hybrids
(NiCo2O4/Ni(OH)2/GCE) was estimated to be 92.3 A g−1, in compar-
ison to the negligible current density with the GCE alone. In addition,
Compared with transition metal oxides or hydroxides, 2D metal
the NiCo2O4/Ni(OH)2/GCE exhibited the best stability among the
oxide-hydroxide hybrids show enhanced electrochemical performance,
series, where 94.6% of the initial current density was retained after
due to their rich composition, synergistic effect between ions, and high
refreshing the electrolyte solution (Fig. 5k). The remarkable electro-
electrical conductivity. For instance, Chen and colleagues fabricated
catalytic activity was ascribed to the hierarchical morphology of
composites based on CuO nanoparticles supported on Co(OH)2 ultrathin
NiCo2O4 nanoflowers and the high activities of Ni(OH)2.
nanosheets as efficient electrocatalysts for MOR and investigated the
In summary, 2D transition metal oxides, hydroxides, and their
influence of the amount of Cu on the electrocatalytic performance
composites can be used as high-performance electrocatalysts for AOR,
[102]. The as-obtained sample at the Cu/Co molar ratio of 1:2 (sample
due to high electrochemical stability, good electrical and proton con-
3) delivered the best electrocatalytic performance among the series. At
ductivity, high specific surface area, as well as rich composition, and
the potential of +1.65 V vs. RHE, sample 3 exhibited the highest peak
synergistic interactions between the ions.
current density of 764 A g−1 (159 mA cm−2) in the electrolyte solution
of 1 M KOH + 3 M methanol (Fig. 5i). In addition, sample 3 exhibited
the largest turn-over frequency of 2.55 s−1, a lowest Tafel slope of 4. Metal carbides
92 mV dec−1, and best electrochemical stability (only 30% loss in 1000
cycles). The enhanced performance was attributed to the formation of Transition metal carbides (MxCy) [33], in particular, tungsten car-
[Co(OH)2]+ species that led to enhanced binding energy of Co and O. bide, display Pt−like catalytic behaviors, and are viewed as promising
Similarly, Wang et al. synthesized 3D hierarchical binary metal catalysts to replace precious metals in DAFC [40,104-106]. However,
oxide NiCo2O4 nanoflowers consisting of cross-linked 2D NiCo2O4 the high density results in a small specific surface area and low
9
Fig. 6. (a, b) TEM images of Pt/WO3−Ar hybrid nanostructures at different resolutions. (c) CV curves of Pt/WO3−Ar, Pt/WO3, and Pt/C in N2−saturated 0.5 M
H2SO4 + 1 M CH3OH at the sweep rate of 50 mV s−1. (d) TEM image of Pd/MXene. Scale bar is 200 nm. (e) CVs of Pd/MXene and Pd/C in a solution containing 1 M
KOH and 1 M CH3OH. (f) HRTEM image of Pt/Ti3C2 MXene. Inset is an image at higher magnification. (g) CV curves of Pt/Ti3C2 MXene and commercial Pt/C in 0.5 M
H2SO4 + 0.5 M CH3OH at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. (h) TEM image of porous Pt69Rh8Fe23 nanosheets/MXene hybrids. Inset is the size distribution histogram of the
porous trimetallic PtRhFe nanospheres. (i) CV curves of the as-prepared catalysts in N2-saturated 1.0 M KOH + 1.0 M ethanol solution at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1.
(a-c) Reproduced from Ref. [121] with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry. (d, e) Reprinted from Ref. [126]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical
Society. (f, g) Reproduced from Ref. [127], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. (h, i) Reproduced from Ref. [129], Copyright (2019), with permission
from Elsevier.
electrocatalytic activity, which hampers their applications in electro- surface hydroxyls [110,111]. Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that part of
catalysis. Such issues can be mitigated by using porous nanostructures the metal carbides (e.g., WC and TiC) [112,113] may become corroded
of the carbide materials, because of enhanced exposure of active sites, into the corresponding oxygenated species (WO3 and TiO2+), produ-
efficient mass transport, increased release of gas bubbles, suppressed cing OH at a relatively high potential that is critical for alcohol ad-
agglomeration of catalysts, and enlarged interfaces between different sorption and CO oxidation [114].
components. In alkaline electrolytes, the possible electrocatalytic me- For instance, Li et al. prepared a series of mesoporous WC nanoslices
chanisms of AOR on transition metal carbides are listed as follows [107- by an easy, two-step strategy that included a hydrothermal pretreat-
109], ment followed by a carburization reduction process [115]. The sample
prepared at 700 °C (WC700) exhibited a specific area of 31.7 m2 g−1,
MxCy + RCH2OH ↔ MxCy−(RCH2OH)ads (15)
pore size distribution in the range of 3–15 nm, and average aperture of
MxCy + OH −
↔ MxCy−(OH)ads + e −
(16) 6.2 nm, in comparison to 9.46 m2 g−1, 3–60 nm and 10.0 nm for WC750.
− −
The obtained WC nanoslices showed higher catalytic activity than both
MxCy−(RCH2OH)ads + 3OH → MxCy−(RCO)ads + 3H2O + 3e (17) 5% and 10% Pt/C towards MOR in acidic and alkaline media.
MxCy−(RCO)ads + MxCy−(OH)ads + OH− → 2MxCy + RCOO−+H2O Zheng et al. fabricated nanocrystalline WC thin films on graphite
(18) substrates by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition in a H2 and
Ar atmosphere, using WF6 and CH4 as the precursors [116]. The re-
where metal carbides provide the adsorption sites for alcohol mo- sulting film electrode exhibited an ECSA of 49.3 cm2, a peak current of
lecules, activation of water molecules, and formation of adsorbed 123.6 mA cm−2 in the solution of 0.5 M H2SO4 + 2 M methanol at
10
70 °C, and the oxidation peak potential of only +0.306 V vs. SCE. by the oxophilic nature of Fe2O3 that improved the adsorption of OH
species, leading to enhanced anti-poisoning.
5. Metal−based composites
5.2. Metal−metal carbide composites
To further enhance the electrocatalytic activity of single metal
oxides/hydroxides or metal carbides, a small amount of noble metals, In alkaline media, the electrocatalytic mechanism of AOR by me-
typically Pt, can be added to form a composite [33]. In these catalysts, tal–metal carbide composites is similar to that by metal–metal oxide
the 2D metal oxides and carbides usually serve as the co-catalyst and composites [111,123-125]. For instance, Lang et al. prepared Pd na-
substrate support for the dispersion of the noble metals, where the sy- noparticles loaded on 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene based on selective etching by
nergistic interactions lead to enhanced adsorption and dissociation of HF and chemical reduction by formic acid [126]. From the TEM image
alcohols. of Pt/MXene (Fig. 6d), one can see that a small number of Pd nano-
particles were uniformly dispersed on the ultrathin MXene nanosheets,
5.1. Metal-metal oxide composites which led to a high specific activity due to the relatively low mass
loading of Pd. In the alkaline electrolyte of 1 M KOH + 1 M methanol,
The (noble) metal domains in the heterogeneous metal–metal oxide Pt/MXene exhibited a higher peak current density (12.4 mA cm−2)
nanocomposites typically exhibit enhanced activity towards AOR, due than commercial Pd/C (7.6 mA cm−2) (Fig. 6e). Consistent results were
to the synergistic effects between the structural components, e.g., observed in the Tafel slopes and turnover frequencies of the catalysts,
electronic coupling and lattice strain effect. The electron donating/ suggesting that the support of MXene indeed accelerates the reaction
withdrawing effect from the metal oxide can alter the electron density kinetics and thus enhances the MOR activity. More importantly, based
around the metal sites, and thus affect their catalytic properties by on the results from XPS measurements and DFT calculations, it was
changing the adsorption energy of reactants on the metal surface, proposed that the introduction of 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene as the support
leading to enhanced electrocatalytic activity and anti-toxicity [117]. induced strong metal-support interactions (SMSI) with the Pd nano-
The mechanism of alcohol electrooxidation catalyzed by Pt/MxOy na- particles, where electron transfer from MXene to Pd optimized the
nocomposites in alkaline electrolytes is summarized below [118,119], electronic structure of Pd towards methanol adsorption and oxidation.
Additionally, the possible hydrogen bond formation between methanol
Pt + RCH2OH ↔ Pt−(RCH2OH)ads (19) and MXene also aided methanol adsorption and facilitated the oxida-
Pt−(RCH2OH)ads + 3OH− → Pt−(RCO)ads + 3H2O + 3e− (20) tion kinetics.
In an early study, Wang et al. prepared Pt nanoparticles-decorated
MxOy + OH− ↔ MxOy−(OH)ads + e− (21) Ti3C2 MXene and observed an enhanced electrocatalytic performance
MxOy−(OH)ads + Pt−(RCO)ads + OH −
→ towards MOR, as compared to commercial Pt/C [127]. From the TEM
MxOy + Pt + RCOO−+H2O (22) image of Ti3C2 MXene, one can see that the sample exhibited a layered
structure with an interlayer spacing of about 9.8 Å. This provided
where one can see that Pt serves as the anchoring and oxidation sites abundant sites for the growth of Pt nanoparticles (4–5 nm in diameter,
for alcohols, whereas MxOy facilitates the formation of hydroxyl species Fig. 6f). Electrochemical measurements showed that the ECSA of Pt/
that drives further oxidation of the Pt−adsorbed intermediates [120]. Ti3C2 MXene was 60.1 m2 g−1, much larger than that of Pt/C (30.2 m2
For instance, utilizing the Ar plasma exfoliation technique, Zhang g−1). From Fig. 6g, the MOR peak current density of Pt/Ti3C2 MXene
and colleagues prepared Pt nanoparticles-loaded ultrathin WO3 na- (1.137 mA cm−2) was almost three times that of Pt/C
nosheets, which exhibited enriched oxygen vacancies and increased (0.388 mA cm−2). Furthermore, 85.1% of the ECSA value was retained
electrical conductivity, as remarkable electrocatalysts towards MOR after 1000 potential cycles from + 0.05 to + 1.2 V, in comparison to
[121]. From Fig. 6a, the agglomerated Pt nanoparticles can be seen to only 53.2% for Pt/C.
exhibit an average particle size of 3.34 nm. After the exfoliation Chen et al. prepared a Pt/Mo2C electrocatalyst with optimized
treatment by Ar plasma of the as-prepared bulk WO3, oxygen-deficient Pt−Mo2C chemical bonding and evaluated the EOR activity [128]. The
WO3 nanosheets (denoted as WO3−Ar) were produced with the che- chemical bonding of Mo2C to Pt particles rendered exceptional EOR
mical formula of WO2.72 or W18O49, as confirmed by the 〈010〉 planes activity at low potentials, which was 15 and 2.5 times higher than those
in HRTEM measurements (Fig. 6b), which were favorable for the dis- of Pt/C and commercial 40% PtRu/C, respectively, at +0.6 V vs. RHE.
persion of Pt nanoparticles. Electrochemical measurements of Pt/ The stability of the Pt/Mo2C/C electrocatalyst was comparable to
WO3−Ar in N2−saturated 0.5 M H2SO4 showed that the reduction commercial 40% PtRu/C. CO stripping test demonstrated the formation
peak potential shifted positively, while the peak potential for CO of highly active sites for CO oxidation on Pt/Mo2C/C.
stripping showed a slightly negative shift. This suggests its bifunctional Porous trimetallic Pt69Rh8Fe23 nanospheres supported on 2D
roles of enhanced MOR activity and CO tolerance. The peak current Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheets as co-catalyst for EOR were also prepared
density of Pt/WO3−Ar in 0.5 M H2SO4 + 1 M methanol was measured via a one-step solvothermal route, where OAm was used as a mild re-
to be 2.27 mA cm−Pt2 or 1250 A g−Pt1, which is much higher than those of ducing agent and solvent and CTAB as the capping agent and etchant
pristine Pt/WO3 (1.44 mA cm−Pt2 or 480 A g−Pt1) and Pt/C (0.77 mA cm−Pt2 [129]. The introduction of Rh and Fe not only facilitated the splitting of
or 320 A g−Pt1) (Fig. 6c). the C−C bond and the generation of oxygen-containing species, but
In another study, Zhang and coworkers fabricated Pt−hematene also reduced the adsorption of CO−type intermediates. TEM studies
nanosheets by ultrasonic exfoliation followed by double-pulse electro- (Fig. 6h) showed that ternary Pt69Rh8Fe23 nanospheres of ca. 51.4 nm
deposition. The hematene nanosheets were facilely exfoliated by a two- in diameter were dispersed homogeneously on the surface of MXene
step ultrasonic treatment of hematite α−Fe2O3 powders [122]. TEM nanosheets, which delivered a peak current density of 3407.7 A g−1
measurements showed that the as-synthesized Pt−hematene na- and retention of 72.8% of the initial activity after 1000 successive cy-
nosheets consisted of Pt nanoparticles with the size ranging from 8 to cles, as compared to 805.3 A g−1 and 58% of Pt/C TKK (Fig. 6i). The
10 nm. In the electrolyte solution of 1 M KOH + 1 M methanol, the AOR performances of these different 2D metal oxides/hydroxides,
peak mass activity of Pt−hematene nanosheets was estimated to be metal carbides, and metal-based composites are also listed in Table 2.
181 mA mg−1, which is lower than that (563 mA mg−1) of commercial
40 wt% Pt/C but higher than those of relevant examples reported in the 6. Summary and perspectives
literature (57 mA mg−1 for Pt−CeO2(1.3:1)/C, 150 mA mg−1 for
Pt−NiO/C, and 125 mA mg−1 for Pt/PIN/GC). This was accounted for In this review, we summarized the preparation methods, unique
11
X. Zhao, et al.
Table 2
Comparison of the alcohol oxidation performances with different 2D metal oxides/hydroxides, metal carbides, and metal-based composites.
Electrocatalyst Electrolyte Peak current from CV curves Durability Ref.
Ultrathin NiO nanosheets Alkaline medium 1.0 M KOH and 0.5 M 85.3 mA cm−2 vs. bulk NiO (23.9 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 > 100% after 30,000 s at 0.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl [92]
methanol
Porous NiCo2O4 nanosheets-assembled 1.0 M KOH and 0.5 M 40.9 mA mg−1 at 10 mV s−1 ~100% after 1000 s at 0.6 V vs. Hg/HgO [95]
nanospheres methanol
−1 −2 −1
Ultrathin NiAl LDHs nanosheets 1.0 M NaOH and 1.0 M 543.33 mA mg , 45.80 mA cm vs. bulk NiAl LDHs (13.65 mA mg , 91.6% after 2000 s and 81.8% after 10,000 s at [90]
ethanol 1.17 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 0.58 V vs. Ag/AgCl
−1
Hierarchical hollow Mn-doped Ni(OH)2 1.0 M KOH and 0.5 M 16.4 mA mg vs. Ni(OH)2 nanosheets (9.6 mA mg−1) at 50 mV s−1 > 90% after 1000 cycles [101]
methanol
CuO/Co(OH)2 nanosheets 1.0 M KOH and 3.0 M 764 mA mg−1, 159 mA cm−2 at 50 mV s−1 ~70% after 1000 cycles [102]
methanol
Hierarchical NiCo2O4 nanoflowers-Ni(OH)2 1.0 M KOH and 0.5 M 92.3 mA mg−1, 132 mA cm−2 at 10 mV s−1 ~100% after 1000 s at 0.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl, 57.5% [103]
12
nanoparticles methanol after 500 cycles
−1 −1 −1
Pt nanoparticles-Fe2O3 nanosheets 1.0 M NaOH and 1.0 M 181 mA mg vs. Pt/C (563 mA mg ) at 50 mV s > 100% after 200 cycles [122]
methanol
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Pt nanoparticles-ultrathin WO3 nanosheets 0.5 M H2SO4 and 1.0 M 1250 mA mg−1, 2.27 mA cm−2 vs. Pt/C (320 mA mg−1, 0.77 mA cm−2) at ~80% after 1000 cycles [121]
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Pt nanoparticles-Ti3C2 nanosheets 0.5 M H2SO4 and 0.5 M 1.137 mA cm−2 vs. Pt/C (0.388 mA cm−2) at 50 mV s−1 0.04 mA cm−2 retained after 7200 s at 0.6 V vs. Hg/ [127]
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Chemical Engineering Journal 400 (2020) 125744

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemical Engineering Journal

Two-dimensional electrocatalysts for alcohol oxidation: A critical review T

• DAFC represents an eﬀective electro-

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic presentation of a

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