Module 1: Human Organism Growth

• can increase in size

Anatomy
Development
• investigates body structure
• changes in form and size, changes in cell
• means “to dissect”
structure and function from generalized to
Physiology
specialized— differentiation
• investigates processes and functions
Reproduction
Human Physiology
• formation of new cells or new organisms
• studies the human organism
Homeostasis
Systemic Physiology
• maintenance of constant internal
• studies body organ-systems
environment in the environment,
Cellular Physiology
adaptation
• studies body cells
Variables
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
• measures of body properties that may
Understand how the body:
change in value
• responds to stimuli
• Body Temperature
• environmental changes
• Heart Rate
• environmental cues
• Blood Pressure
• diseases
• Blood Sugar Level
• injury
• Blood Cell Count
Types of Anatomy
• Respiratory Rate
Systemic
Normal range
• studies body organ-systems
• normal extent of increase or decrease
Regional
around a set point
• studies body regions Surface
Set point
• studies external features (bone
• normal, or average value of a variable
projections) Anatomical Imaging
• over time, body temperature fluctuates
• using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound,
around a set point
MRI)
Negative Feedback
Structural and Functional Organization
• main mechanism used in homeostatic
Six levels from chemical to organism:
regulation
• Chemical
• Detection: of deviation away from set
• Cellular
point
• Tissues
• Correction: reversal of deviation toward
• Organs
set point and normal range
• Organ-System
The components of feedback
• Organism
Receptor
Characteristics of Life
• detects changes in variable
Organization
Control center
• functional interrelationships between
• receives receptor signal
parts
• establishes set point
Metabolism
• sends signal to effector
• all chemical and physical changes sustaining an
Effector
organism, uses energy
• directly causes change in variable
Responsiveness
Positive Feedback
• ability to sense and respond to environmental
• initial stimulus further stimulates the response
changes, internal and external environments
 • system response causes progressive deviation • contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus,
away from trachea
• not directly used for homeostasis Abdominal Cavity
• occurs under normal conditions like childbirth • space between diaphragm and pelvis
• generally associated with injury, disease • contains mostly the digestive system
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to Pelvic Cavity
maintain homeostasis • space within pelvis
Anatomical Position • contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs
• person standing erect with face and palms Serous Membrane
forward • cover organs in the ventral body cavity
Directional Terms • visceral serous membrane: covers organs
• Superior: Above • parietal serous membrane: lines the walls
• Inferior: Below • cavity: a fluid-filled space between the
• Anterior/Ventral: Front membranes
• Posterior/Dorsal: Back Pericardium
• Medial: close to midline • visceral pericardium: covers heart
• Lateral: away from midline • parietal pericardium: outermost
• Proximal: close to point of attachment • pericardial cavity: reduces friction, contains
• Distal: far from point of attachment fluid
• Superficial: structure close to the surface Pleura
• Deep: structure toward the interior of the body • visceral pleura: covers lungs
Body Planes • parietal pleura: outermost
• Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and • pleural cavity: reduces friction, contains fluid
left parts Peritoneum
• Median plane: equal • visceral peritoneum: covers organs, double
• Parasagittal: unequal layers called mesenteries, retro=back
• Transverse plane: separates the body into • parietal peritoneum: outermost
superior and inferior parts. • peritoneal cavity: reduces friction, contains fluid
• Frontal/Coronal plane: separates the body into
anterior and posterior parts.
Body Cavities
Dorsal Body Cavity
• contains the organs of the nervous
system
• Cranial Cavity: contains the brain
• Vertebral Canal: contains the spinal
cord
Ventral Body Cavity
• contains the majority of internal organs
• Thoracic Cavity: chest area
• Abdominopelvic cavity: abdominal and pelvic
area
Thoracic Cavity
• space within chest wall and diaphragm
Mediastinum
• space between lungs
Module 2: Chemical Basis Polar Molecules
Matter • asymmetrical electrical charge
• anything that occupies space and has mass Nonpolar Molecules
(solid, liquid, gas) • symmetrical electrical charge, electrons are
Mass shared equally
• amount of matter in an object Molecule
Weight • 2 or more atoms chemically combine
• gravitational force acting on object • example: water (H2O)
Element Compound
• simplest form of matter • chemical combination of 2 or more different
• C, H, O, N, P, Ca, K, Na, Cl types of atoms
Atom • example: NaCl
• smallest particle of an element Intermolecular Forces
• contains protons, electrons, and neutrons • Weak charge attractions between separate
Subatomic Particles molecules or between ions and molecules:
• Proton: positive charged particle, inside the • No exchange of electrons is involved
nucleus • due to attractions between oppositely
• Neutron: neutral charged particle, inside the charged regions of molecules
nucleus • example: hydrogen bond
• Electron: negative charged particle, outside the Hydrogen Bond
nucleus • positive end of one polar molecule is attracted
Atomic Number to the negative end of another polar molecule
• the number of protons in each atom Dissociation
Mass Number • positively charged ions are attracted to the
• the number of protons and neutrons in atom negative ends of the water molecules.
Chemical Bonds • negatively charged ions are attracted to the
• valence shell electrons are transferred or positive ends of the water molecules
shared between atoms Electrolytes
Types of Chemical Bonds • conduct an electrical current
• Ionic Chemical Reactions
• Covalent • require or release energy
• Hydrogen • formation or breaking of chemical bonds
Ion • Reactants: two or more substances
• a charged atom formed because of a donation • Product: result from the reaction
or gain of an electron(s) Types of Chemical Reactions
Ionic Bonding Synthesis Reaction
• attraction between two oppositely charged ions • build a new molecule
• example: Na++ Cl− → NaCl • energy-requiring
Covalent Bonding • example: ADP + P → ATP
• occurs when atoms share one or more pairs of Decomposition Reaction
electrons • break down molecule
• example: hydrogen molecule (H2) • energy-releasing
Polar Covalent Bonds • example: ATP → ADP + P
• unequal sharing of electrons between atoms of Exchange Reaction
the bond • combination of synthesis and decomposition
• example: water (H2O) reactions
 • example: AB + CD → AC + BD • a proton H+ acceptor
Reversible Reactions • pH above 7
• reaction can run in the opposite direction, then • example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
the products are converted back to the original Inorganic Chemistry
reactants. • deals with those substances that do not contain
• example: CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3 carbon
Equilibrium Organic Chemistry
• when the rate of product formation equals the • the study of carbon-containing substances
rate of reactant formation Exception
Energy • some carbon containing compounds are not
• capacity to do work. organic in that they do not also contain
Work hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)
• movement of matter. Oxygen
Kinetic Energy • small, nonpolar, inorganic molecule.
• energy in motion • essential for most living organisms
Potential Energy Carbon dioxide
• stored energy • an inorganic molecule composed one carbon
Chemical Energy atom bound to two oxygen atoms
• form of potential energy stored in chemical • produced when food molecules are
bonds metabolized
• potential energy < products = energy input is Water
needed. • a polar molecule composed of two hydrogen
• potential energy > products = energy input is atoms bound to an oxygen atom by polar
released. covalent bonds.
Rate of Chemical Reactions • attracted to other polar molecules
• a chemical reaction proceeds is influenced by • Hydrophilic: attracted to water
several factors: • Hydrophobic: not attracted to water
• catalyst • stabilizes body temperature
• concentration of the reactants • required for many chemical reactions
• temperature Organic Molecules
Catalyst Carbohydrates
• increases the rate of a reaction • contains C H O
Enzyme • broken down to provide energy
• a protein catalyst that increases the rate of • Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose
reactions within the human body • Disaccharides: sucrose, lactose
• increase the rate of reactions by lowering the • Polysaccharide: starch, glycogen, etc.
activation energy needed to start the reaction Glycogen
Concentration • main storage form of glucose in humans
• the higher the concentration of reactants the • broken down by cells to make ATP
faster the rate Lipids
Temperature • contains C H O
• the higher the temperature the faster the rate • Saturated: single covalent bonds (animal)
Acid • Unsaturated: single/double covalent bonds
• a proton H+ donor (plants)
• pH below 7 • long term energy storage
• example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) Base: • insulates against heat loss
 • protective cushion for organs Module 3: Cell Structure
Phospholipids
Cell Structure
• Polar region (hydrophilic): contains phosphate
• Organelles
• Nonpolar region (hydrophobic): contains fatty
• Cytoplasm
acids
• Cell membrane/plasma membrane
Proteins
Functions of the Cell
• contains C, H, O, N
• smallest units of life
• Amino acids are the building blocks
• cell metabolism and energy use
• 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
• synthesis of molecules
• Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and
• communication
carboxyl group
• reproduction and inheritance
• Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is
Cell Membrane
required
• outermost component of a cell.
• used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
• boundary between material inside and outside
• part of the hemoglobin molecule
the cell.
• act as enzymes
• Intracellular: materials inside
• immune system functions
• Extracellular: materials outside
• muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
• acts as a selective barrier
• part of the cell membrane
• fluid-mosaic model
Protein Denaturation
• contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins,
• hydrogen bonds that maintain the shape are
and carbohydrates
broken and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
Phospholipids
• causes of denaturation are: high temperatures
• form a bilayer
and/or improper pH
• contain 2 regions, polar and nonpolar
Nucleic Acids
• polar region is exposed to water around the
• Composed of C, H, O, N, P
membrane
• Nucleotides are the building blocks
• nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
• Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base,
membrane
phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar
Cell Membrane Passage
• examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
• the route of transport depends on the size,
(ribonucleic acid)
shape, and charge of the substance
Adenosine Triphosphate
• some substances require carrier molecules to
• energy currency, capable of both storing and
transport them across the cell membrane
providing energy
• some substances require a vesicular transport
across the membrane
Passive membrane transport
• does not require energy/ATP
• diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion
• high to low concentration
Active membrane transport
• does require energy/ATP
• active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis
• low to high concentration
Diffusion • cotransport: same direction
• involves movement of substances in a solution, • countertransport: opposite direction
Concentration Gradient Endocytosis
• solution = solute + solvent • brings materials into cell using vesicles
• solute: “tinutunaw” • Receptor-mediated endocytosis: specific
• solvent: “taga-tunaw” substance binds to the receptor
Concentration Gradient • Phagocytosis: “cell eating”
• concentration of particles is higher in one area • Pinocytosis: “cell drinking”
than another Exocytosis
Osmosis • use of membrane-bound sacs called secretory
• diffusion of water vesicles
• exerts a pressure, osmotic pressure • vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse,
Osmotic Pressure ultimately releasing the material
• prevent movement of water Organelles
Hypotonic • specialized structures that perform certain
• cell swelling functions
• it can rupture, known as lysis Cell Nucleus
Isotonic • usually located near the center of the cell
• neither shrink nor swell • bounded by a nuclear envelope
Hypertonic • contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
• cell shrinkage or crenation • chromosomes: loosely coiled and collectively
Facilitated Diffusion called chromatin
• diffuse by passing through cell membrane • XX: female
channels or through carrier molecules • XY: male
Channels • there are usually one to several nucleoli within
• Leak Channels: constantly allow ions to pass the nucleus
through • ribosomal components exit the nucleus through
• Gated Channels: limit the movement of ions by nuclear pores
opening and closing Ribosomes
Carrier Molecules • produces protein
• proteins involved in facilitated diffusion • may be attached to other organelles
• only specific molecules are transported by the • those are not attached to any other organelle
carriers are called free ribosomes
Active Transport Endoplasmic Reticulum
• accumulate necessary substances on one side of • forming sacs and tubules that extends from the
the cell membrane at concentrations many outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
times • rough ER: produces protein with ribosomes
greater than those on the other side • smooth ER: produces lipids
• example: Sodium-Potassium Pump Golgi Apparatus
Secondary Active Transport • modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and
• uses the energy provided by a concentration lipids
gradient established by the active transport of • forms vesicles
one substance Lysosomes
• no additional energy is required above the • digest stored proteins and fats
energy provided by the initial active transport • destroys viruses and bacteria that attack the
pump cell
Peroxisomes Transcription
• break down fatty acids, amino acids, and  takes place in the nucleus of the cell
hydrogen peroxide  involves copying DNA into messenger RNA
• removes toxins (Hydrogen peroxide)
Mitochondria
• “powerhouse” of the cell
• muscular cell is a cell with the greatest number
of mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
• Internal framework of the cell Translation
Microtubules • mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
• support the cytoplasm nuclear pores
• assisting in cell division • mRNA attaches to a ribosome
• essential components of cilia and flagella • codons = mRNA
Microfilaments • anticodons = tRNA (transfer RNA)
• involved with cell movement Cell Cycle
• in muscle cells, enable the cells to shorten, or • cell divisions involves a cell cycle
contract • non-dividing phase: interphase
Intermediate Filaments • cell dividing phase: mitosis
• provide mechanical support to the cell Interphase
Centrioles • a cell spends most of its life cycle in
• small, cylindrical organelle composed of interphase
microtubules • G1 phase: cell carries out normal
• involved in the process of mitosis metabolic activity
Cilia • S phase: DNA is replicated
• responsible for the movement of materials • G2 phase: during which the cell
• extend from the cell prepares to divide
Flagella Tumors
• similar to cilia but much longer • abnormal proliferations of cells
• one per cell • some are benign and some are malignant
Microvilli • metastasis: spreading of tumors
• do not actively move as cilia and flagella do Differentiation
• abundant on areas in which absorption is an • cells develop with structures and functions
important function Apoptosis
Whole Cell Activity • programmed cell death
• cell’s characteristics are determined by the type Mitosis
of proteins produced • also known as cell division
• proteins produced are in turn determined by
the genetic information in the nucleus
DNA
• contains the information that directs protein
synthesis; a process called gene expression
• consists of nucleotides
Gene Expression
• protein synthesis
 • secreting and absorbing substances
• contain exocrine and endocrine glands
Epithelial Tissue Characteristics
• covers body surfaces
• has an exposed surface
• attaches at the basal surface
• specialized cell connections and matrix
attachments
• avascular: lack of blood vessels
• capable of regeneration
Classification of Epithelia
Number of Layers
• simple: single-layered
• stratified: multiple-layered
• pseudostratified: falsely stratified
Shape
• Squamous: flat
• cuboidal: cube-shaped
• columnar: tall than wide
Simple Squamous Epithelium
• single layer of thin, flat cells
• some protection against friction
• some secretion
• in the lungs, allows gas exchange, diffusion
• in the kidneys, helps filter wastes from the
blood
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• single layer of cube-like cells
• carry out active transport, facilitated diffusion,
Module 4: Tissues or secretion
Tissue • greater secretory capacity than simple
• group of cells with similar structure and squamous epithelial cells
function • found in kidney tubules, choroid of the brain,
• Histology: study of tissues lining of terminal bronchioles, and ovaries
Types of Tissues Simple Columnar Epithelium
Epithelial • single layer of tall, thin cells
• covering or lining tissue • perform complex functions, such as secretion
Connective • in the small intestines, produces and secretes
• makes up part of every organ in the body mucus and digestive enzymes
Muscle Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• contracts or shortens, making movement • secretes mucus, which covers its free surface
possible Nervous • cilia in the airways move the mucus and debris
• responsible for coordinating and controlling toward the throat
many bodily activities Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Epithelial Tissues • forms a thick epithelium
• covers and protects surfaces, both outside and • capable of dividing and producing new cells
inside the body
 • two types: keratinized and nonkeratinized Simple Glands
Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium • multicellular and have a single, nonbranched
• outer layer of the skin is comprised of duct
• reduces the loss of water from the body Compound glands
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium • multicellular and have several branched ducts
• provides protection against abrasion and acts as Simple Glands
a mechanical barrier There are several types of simple glands:
Transitional Epithelium Simple Tubular
• shape of the cells changes as it is stretched • straight tube, branching of the secretory
• in the urinary bladder, can expand greatly and portion
protects underlying structures Simple Branched Tubular
Free Surface Modifications • several tubular secretory portions branching
• most epithelia have a free surface that is not in from the single duct
contact with other cells Simple Acinar
• smooth or lined with microvilli or cilia • single sac-like secretory portion
• cilia move materials over the top of the cell Simple Branched Acinar
• microvilli increase surface area • several acinar secretory portions branching
Desmosomes from the single duct
• mechanical links that bind cells together Compound Glands
Hemidesmosomes There are several types of compound glands:
• half desmosomes that anchor cells to the Compound Tubular
basement membrane • multiple ducts, each with a narrow tubular
Tight Junctions secretory portion
• form barriers and anchor cells to each other Compound Acinar
• found in the lining of the intestines • multiple ducts, each with a several sac-like
Adhesion Belts secretory portions
• found just below the tight junctions Compound Tubuloacinar
• help tight junctions anchor epithelial cells to • multiple ducts, each with several tubular and
each other acinar secretory portions
Gap Junctions Merocrine Secretion
• small channels that allow materials to pass from • release of secretory products by exocytosis
one epithelial cell to another Apocrine Secretion
Glands • release of secretory products as pinched-off
• secretory organs that secrete substances fragments of the gland cells
• glands with ducts: exocrine glands Holocrine Secretion
• glands without ducts: endocrine glands • shedding of entire cells
Exocrine Glands Connective Tissue
• tube that transports the secreted material to • makes up part of every organ in the body
the free surface is called a duct • abundant extracellular matrix
• secretory regions shaped as tubules are called • comprised of cells, protein fibers, and an
tubular, shaped in saclike structures are called extracellular matrix
acinar or alveolar Functions of Connective Tissue
Unicellular Glands • enclose and separate other tissues
• composed of only a single cell • connecting tissues to one another
• supporting and moving parts of the body
• storing compounds
 • cushioning and insulating Reticular Tissue
• transporting • forms the framework of lymphatic tissue, as
• protecting well as in bone marrow and the liver
Connective Tissue Cells Dense Connective Tissue
• Osteoblasts: form bone, osteocytes maintain it, • large number of protein fiber
and osteoclasts break it down • fill nearly all of the extracellular space
• Fibroblasts: are cells that form fibrous • Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue:
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it consisting mostly of collagen fibers
• Chondroblasts: form cartilage and chondrocytes • Dense Elastic Connective Tissue: abundant
maintain it elastic fibers
Macrophages Cartilage
• moving about and ingesting foreign substances • composed of chondrocytes, located in spaces
Mast Cells called lacunae
• nonmotile cells that release chemicals that • collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility
promote inflammation and strength
Extracellular Matrix • resilient because proteoglycans trap water
• three major components: protein fibers, ground • provides support
substance, and fluid • three types of cartilage: hyaline, fibrocartilage,
Matrix Protein Fibers and elastic cartilage
• Collagen Fibers: resemble microscopic ropes, Hyaline Cartilage
very flexible but resist stretching • most abundant type of cartilage
• Reticular Fibers: very fine, short collagen fibers, • covering the ends of bones
branch to form a supporting network • forms the cartilage rings of the respiratory tract,
• Elastic Fibers: ability to return to their original the nasal cartilages, and the costal cartilages
shape after being stretched or compressed Fibrocartilage
Proteoglycans • more collagen than does hyaline cartilage
• traps water between polysaccharides • able to withstand compression and resist
• allows them to return to their original shape tearing
when compressed or deformed • found in the disks between the vertebrae and in
Embryonic Connective Tissue some joints
• 0-8 weeks Elastic Cartilage
Adult Connective Tissue • contains elastic fibers in addition to collagen
• 8+ weeks and proteoglycans
• coiled fibers among bundles of collagen fibers
Types of Connective Tissues • recoil to its original shape when bent
Loose Connective Tissue Bone
• few protein fibers that form a lacy network • consists of living cells and a mineralized matrix
• numerous spaces filled with ground substance • Osteocytes are located within lacunae
and fluid • two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone and
Areolar Connective Tissue compact bone
• consists of collagen fibers and a few elastic Spongy Bone
fibers • spaces between trabeculae, resembles a sponge
Adipose Tissue Compact Bone
• consists of adipocytes/fat cells, contain large • more solid
amounts of lipid for energy storage • no space between thin layers of mineralized
matrix
Blood • made up of only connective tissue
• liquid connective tissue • produce synovial fluid, makes the joint very
• liquid matrix, termed the plasma slippery
• formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, and Tissue Inflammation
platelets • occurs when tissues are damaged
• transport of materials • five major symptoms: redness, heat, swelling,
Muscle pain, and disturbance of function
• to contract, or shorten, making movement Tissue Repair
possible • involves substitution of dead cells for viable
• three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, cells
and smooth • occur by regeneration or replacement
Skeletal Muscle Regeneration
• attaches to the skeleton, enables body to move • restores identical cells
• striated and voluntary Replacement
Cardiac Muscle • new type of tissue develops
• responsible for pumping blood • produces a scar, loss of some tissue function
• striated and involuntary
Smooth Muscle
• forms the walls of hollow organs Module 5: Integumentary System
• not striated and involuntary Integumentary System
Nervous Tissue • consists of the skin and accessory structures:
• forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves hair, glands, and nails
• responsible for coordinating and controlling • integument means covering
many bodily activities • appearance can indicate physiological
• consists of neurons and glial cells imbalances in the body
• responsible for conducting electrical signals Functions of the Integumentary System
• three parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an axon • Protection
Tissue Membranes • Sensation
• thin layer of tissue that covers a structure • Vitamin D production
• consist of epithelium and the connective tissue • Temperature regulation
• four tissue membranes in the body: cutaneous, • Excretion
mucous, serous, and synovial Parts of the Skin
Mucous Membranes • Epidermis
• line cavities that open to the outside of the • Dermis
body • Subcutaneous tissue is not part of the skin
• found in digestive, respiratory, and Epidermis
reproductive tracts • prevents water loss and resists abrasion
• consist of epithelial cells and a thick layer of • lining of the skin, keratinized stratified
loose connective tissue squamous epithelium
• not all, mucous membranes secrete mucus • composed of distinct layers called strata
• protection, absorption, and secretion Strata of the Epidermis
Serous Membranes • Stratum Corneum
• do not open to the exterior of the body • Stratum Lucidum
• do not contain glands, but secrete serous fluid • Stratum Granulosum
Synovial Membranes • Stratum Spinosum
• line the cavities of freely movable joints • Stratum Basale
 • Cells of the deepest strata perform mitosis • genetic factors are responsible for the amounts
• As new cells form, they push older cells to the of melanin produced in different races
surface, where they slough or flake off • exposure to ultraviolet light stimulates
Dandruff melanocytes to increase melanin production
• excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells Albinism
from the surface of the scalp • prevent the production of melanin
Callus Cyanosis
• due to friction, the layers in the stratum • decrease in the blood O2 content produces a
corneum greatly increases, producing a bluish color of the skin
thickened area Skin Cancer
Corn • most common cancer
• over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum • mainly caused by UV light exposure
can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure • fair-skinned people more prone
Dermis • prevented by limiting sun exposure and using
• composed of dense collagenous connective sunscreens
tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and • UVA rays cause tan and is associated with
macrophages malignant melanomas
• nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, • UVB rays cause sunburns
and lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis • sunscreens should block UVA and UVB rays
Cleavage lines Types of Skin Cancer
• resistant to stretch Basal Cell Carcinoma
• An incision made parallel with these lines tends • cells in stratum basale affected
to gap less and produce less scar tissue • cancer removed by surgery
Dermal Papillae Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• projections toward the epidermis found in the • cells above stratum basale affected
upper part of the dermis • can cause death
• contain many blood vessels Malignant Melanoma
• in the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, • arises from melanocytes in a mole
and the tips of the digits are arranged in • rare type
parallel, curving ridges that shape the overlying • can cause death
epidermis into fingerprints and footprints Subcutaneous Tissue
Melanin • not part of the skin
• pigments responsible for skin, hair, and eye • sometimes called hypodermis
color • a loose connective tissue
• provides protection against ultraviolet light • contains about half the body’s stored lipids
• produced by melanocytes Adipose Tissue
• large amounts form freckles or moles • amount and location vary with age, sex, and
• production is determined by genetic factors, diet
exposure to light, and hormones • functions as padding and insulation
Carotene • used to estimate total body fat
• yellow pigment found in plants such as carrots • body fat, 21- 30% = females, 13-25% = males
Skin Color Hair
• more melanin, the darker the skin • found everywhere on the skin, except on the
• determined by genetic factors, exposure to palms
light, and hormones • A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a
softer center, the medulla
 • cortex is covered by the cuticle, holds the hair in • open in the armpits and genitalia
the hair follicle • become active at puberty because of sex
Hair Follicle hormones
• extends deep into the dermis • odorless, but with bacteria, gives body odor
Hair Shaft Nails
• above the surface of the skin • layers of dead stratum corneum cells
Hair Root • contain a very hard type of keratin
• below the surface Cuticle
Hair Bulb • stratum corneum that extends onto the nail
• expanded base of the root body
• hair is produced here Nail Root
Hair Papilla • extends distally from the nail matrix
• extension of the dermis that protrudes into the Nail Matrix and Bed
hair bulb • are epithelial tissue with a stratum basale that
• contains blood vessels gives rise to the cells that form the nail
Growth Stage • Cell production within the nail matrix causes the
• hair is formed by mitosis of epithelial cells nail to grow continuously
within the hair bulb Lunula
• these cells divide and undergo keratinization • whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base of the
Resting Stage nail
• growth stops and the hair is held in the hair Integumentary System Protection
follicle • reduction in water loss
• next growth stage begins, new hair is formed, • acts as a barrier, prevents microorganisms
old hair falls out • protects underlying structures against abrasion
Growth Duration • melanin absorbs UV light and protects
• eyelashes grow for 30 days, rest for 105 days • hair on the head acts as a heat insulator
• scalp hairs grow for 3 years, rest for 1 to 2 years • eyebrows keep sweat out of the eyes
Hair Color • eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign objects
• determined by varying amounts and types of • nose hair and in the ears prevents entry of dust
melanin • nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes
• With age, the amount of melanin in hair can from damage
decrease, causing the hair color to fade Sensory Receptor
Arrector Pili Muscle • many are associated with the skin
• smooth muscle where hair follicles are attached • detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure
• contracts and cause hair to become • sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
perpendicular to the skin’s surface detect the movement of a hair
Eccrine Sweat Glands Vitamin D Production
• located in almost every part of the skin • UV light → Blood → Liver (enzymatically
• most numerous in the palms and soles converted) → Kidneys = Vitamin D
• secretion that is mostly water with a few salts • stimulates small intestine to absorb calcium and
• for thermal regulation phosphate
• sweat is also released because of emotional Temperature Regulation
stress • exercise, fever, and increase in environmental
Apocrine Sweat Glands temperature tend to raise body temperature
• produce a thick secretion rich in organic • to maintain homeostasis, body must rid of
substances excess heat
 • sweat assists in loss of heat through Module 6: Skeletal System
evaporative cooling Components of Skeletal System
• smaller amounts of warm blood flowing • Bones
through the skin, skin temperature decreases • Cartilages
Excretion • Tendons
• plays a minor role in excretion • Ligaments
• sweat glands do not play a significant role in Functions of the Skeletal System
excretion of waste products • Body support
Diagnostic Aid • Organ protection
• Jaundice: yellowish color, liver damaged • Body movement
• Cyanosis: Blueish Color, low oxygen • Mineral storage
• rashes and lesions in the skin can be symptoms • Blood cell production
Burns Bone Histology
First-Degree Burn • bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments are all
• red and painful connective tissues
• slight edema, or swelling, may be present • matrix contains collagen, ground substance, and
• caused by sunburn or brief exposure to very hot other organic molecules
or very cold objects • collagen provides flexibility but resists pulling
• heal without scarring, 1 week • 35% organic and 65% inorganic
Second-Degree Burn • organic material is collagen and proteoglycans
• damage both the epidermis and the dermis • inorganic material is hydroxyapatite
• If dermal damage is minimal, symptoms are Osteoblasts
redness, pain, edema, and blisters • formation, repair, and remodeling of bone
• heal without scarring, 2 weeks • produce collagen and proteoglycans
• if the burn goes deep into the dermis, the • ossification: formation of new bone
wound appears red, tan, white; Osteocytes
• heal with scar, 1+ month/s • maintain bone matrix
Third-Degree Burn • lacunae: spaces in bone matrix
• damage the complete epidermis and dermis • canaliculi: cell extensions housed in narrow,
• usually, painless long spaces
• appear white, tan, brown, black, deep cherry Osteoclasts
red • bone-destroying cells
Treatment of Burns • contribute to repairing and remodeling by
• split skin graft: part of dermis is removed from removing existing bone, called bone
another part of body and placed over the burn reabsorption
• when, not possible, physicians use artificial skin • As bone is broken down, Ca2+ goes into the
or grafts from human cadavers/corpses blood
Aging and the Integument Lamellar Bone
• Blood flow decreases • mature bone
• skin becomes thinner due to decreased Spongy Bone
amounts of collagen • less bone matrix and more space
• Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat • consists of interconnecting plates of bone called
glands make temperature regulation more trabeculae
difficult • between trabeculae are spaces, filled with bone
• Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and marrow and blood vessels
wrinkle
Compact Bone
• solid, outer layer surrounding each bone Bone Growth in Width
Osteon • occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae
• functional unit of compact bone onto existing bone
• composed of rings of matrix surrounding central • growth in length of a bone, which is the major
canal, lined with endosteum, contain blood source of increased height
vessels, nerves, and loose connective tissue • appositional growth: osteoblasts deposit new
Lamellae bone matrix on the surface of bones
• thin, concentric layers • chondrocytes increase in number on the
Structure of a Long Bone epiphyseal plate, enlarge then die
Diaphysis Bone Remodeling
• center portion of the bone, composed of • removal of existing bone by osteoclasts
compact bone • deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
Medullary Cavity • responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
• the hollow center repair, and calcium ion regulation
• some spongy bone tissue lines the cavity Bone Repair
Epiphyses • broken bone causes bleeding and hematoma
• ends of a long bone forms
• mostly spongy bone, outer layer of compact • callus forms between and around the bone
bone fragments
Articular Cartilage • woven, spongy bone replaces the callus
• end of a long bone is covered with hyaline • compact bone replaces the spongy bone
cartilage Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
Epiphyseal Plate • movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
• located between the epiphysis and the determine blood levels of calcium
diaphysis • calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts, moves
• growth in bone length occurs here out of bone as osteoclasts
Epiphyseal Line • maintained by parathyroid hormone and
• when bone stops growing, epiphyseal plate calcitonin
becomes ossified Parathyroid Hormone
Bone Marrow • secreted by the parathyroid gland
• soft tissue filled in cavities in diaphysis • increases formation and activation of
• red marrow: location of blood forming cells osteoclasts
• yellow marrow: mostly fat Calcitonin
Periosteum • secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when
• outer surface of a bone, covered by a blood Ca2+ levels are too high
connective tissue membrane • rapidly lowers blood Ca2+ levels by inhibiting
Endosteum osteoclast activity
• lines internal surfaces of the cavities within Skeletal Anatomy Overview
bones • average adult has 206 bones
Bone Formation • axial skeleton: middle
Intramembranous Ossification • appendicular skeleton: limbs, left and right
• starts within embryonic connective tissue bones
membranes Bone Shapes
Endochondral Ossification Long
• starts with a cartilage model • longer than they are wide
 • examples: upper and lower limb bones Types of Movement
Short • Flexion: bending
• wide as they are long • Extension: straightening
• examples: wrist (carpal) and ankle (tarsal) • Abduction: movement away from midline
Flat • Adduction: movement toward the midline
• relatively thin, flattened shape • Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms
• examples: skull and sternum down
Irregular bones • Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms
• shapes that do not fit into the other 3 up
categories • Rotation: movement of a structure about the
• examples: vertebrae and facial bones long axis
Skeletal Terminology Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints
Foramen • Decreased Collagen Production
• hole • Loss of Bone Density
Fossa • Degenerative Changes
• depression
Process
• projection Module 7: Muscular System
Condyle Types of Muscles
• smooth, rounded end Skeletal
Meatus/Canal • attached to bones
• canal-like passageway • striated
Tubercle/Tuberosity • voluntarily controlled
• lump of bone Cardiac
Cranial Sutures • located in the heart
• coronal • striated
• sagittal • involuntarily controlled
• lambdoid Smooth
• squamous • Located in blood vessels, hollow organs
Functional Classification of Joints • Non-striated
Synarthrosis • involuntarily controlled
• non-movable joint Functions
• example: skull bone articulations • Movement
Amphiarthrosis • Maintain posture
• slightly movable joint • Respiration
• Example: between vertebrae • Production of body heat
Diarthrosis • Communication
• freely movable joint • Constrictions of organs and vessels
• Example: knee, elbow, and wrist articulations • Contraction of the heart
Synovial Joint Functional Properties of Muscles
• surrounded by fluid filled joint cavity Contractility
• hold the bones together while still allowing for • the ability of muscle to shorten forcefully, or
movement contract
• consists of two layers: an outer fibrous capsule Excitability
and an inner synovial membrane • the capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus
Extensibility • T tubules occur at regular intervals along the
• the ability to be stretched beyond its normal muscle fiber and extend into the center of
resting length and still be able to contract the muscle fiber.
Elasticity • The T tubules are associated with enlarged
• the ability of the muscle to recoil to its original portions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
resting length after it has been stretched called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy • The enlarged portions are called terminal
• Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with its cisternae.
associated connective tissue, constitutes • Two terminal cisternae and their associated T
approximately 40% of body weight. o tubule form a muscle triad.
• Skeletal muscle is so named because many of • The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively high
the muscles are attached to the skeletal system. concentration of Ca2+, which plays a major role
• Some skeletal muscles attach to the skin or in muscle contraction.
connective tissue sheets. • The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the
• Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle sarcoplasm, which contains many bundles of
because transverse bands, or striations, can be protein filaments.
seen in the muscle under the microscope. Mechanical Component Structures
• Individual skeletal muscles, such as the biceps • Bundles of protein filaments are called
brachii, are complete organs, as a result of myofibrils.
being comprised of several tissues: muscle, • Myofibrils consist of two types of
nerve, and connective tissue. myofilaments, actin (thin filaments)
Connective Tissue Coverings and myosin (thick filaments).
• Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a • Actin and myosin are arranged into
connective tissue sheath called the epimysium. repeating units called sarcomeres.
• The myofilaments in the sarcomere provide
• A skeletal muscle is subdivided into groups of for the mechanical aspect of muscle
muscle cells, termed fascicles. contraction.
• Each fascicle is surrounded by a connective The Sarcomere
tissue covering, termed the perimysium. • The sarcomere is the basic structural and
• Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is surrounded functional unit of skeletal muscle.
by a connective tissue covering, termed the • Sarcomeres join end to end to create
endomysium myofibrils.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy • Z disks are network of protein fibers that
• A muscle fiber is a large cell, with several serve as an anchor for actin myofilaments and
hundred nuclei located at its periphery. separate one sarcomere from the next.
• Muscle fibers range in length 1 mm to 30 cm. • A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the
• Alternating light and dark bands give muscle next Z disk.
fibers a striated appearance. • The organization of actin and myosin
• The number of muscle fibers remains constant myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its striated
after birth so enlargement of muscles results appearance and gives it the ability to
from an increase in the size of muscle fibers, contract.
not an increase in fiber number. • The myofilaments slide past each other,
Electrical Component Structures causing the sarcomeres to shorten.
• The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has many • Each sarcomere consists of two light-staining
tubelike inward folds, called transverse bands separated by a dark-staining band.
tubules, or T tubules.
 • Light bands, consist only of actin, and are Sliding Filament Model
called I bands. They extend from the Z disc, • When a muscle contracts, the actin and myosin
• toward the center of the sarcomere, to the myofilaments in the sarcomere slide past one
ends of the myosin myofilaments. another and shorten the sarcomere.
• Dark staining bands are called A bands. They • When sarcomeres shorten, myofibrils, muscle
extend the length of the myosin fibers, muscle fascicles, and muscles all shorten
myofilaments. to produce muscle contraction.
• Actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for • During muscle relaxation, sarcomeres lengthen.
some distance on both ends of the A band; Excitability of Muscle Fibers
this overlap causes the contraction • Muscle fibers are electrically excitable.
Myofilament Structure • Electrically excitable cells are polarized.
• Actin myofilaments are made up of three • The inside of the cell membrane is negatively
components: actin, troponin, and tropomyosin. charged compared with the outside.
• Troponin molecules have binding sites for Ca2+ • A voltage difference, or electrical charge
and tropomyosin filaments block the myosin difference, exists across each cell membrane.
myofilament binding sites on the actin • The charge difference is due to differences in
myofilaments. concentrations of ions on either side of the
• Myosin myofilaments, or thick myofilaments, membrane
resemble bundles of tiny golf clubs. Ion Channels
• Myosin heads have ATP binding sites, ATPase • The phospholipid bilayer is impermeable to
and attachment spots for actin. ions.
Neuromuscular Junction Structure • Two types of membrane proteins, called ion
• A motor neuron is a nerve cell that stimulates channels, permit ions to pass through the
muscle cells. membrane.
• A neuromuscular junction is a synapse where a • Leak channels allow the slow leak of ions down
neuron connects with a muscle fiber. their concentration gradient.
• A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell junction • Gated channels may open or close in response
between a nerve cell and either another nerve to various types of stimuli.
cell or an effector cell, such as in a muscle or a Resting Membrane Potential
gland. • The electrical charge difference across the cell
• A motor unit is a group of muscle fibers that a membrane of an unstimulated cell is called the
single motor neuron stimulates. resting membrane potential.
• A presynaptic terminal is the end of a neuron cell • Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting membrane
axon fiber. potential but can also perform action
• A synaptic cleft is the space between the potentials.
presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic • The resting membrane potential is due to the
membrane. inside of the membrane being negatively
• The postsynaptic membrane is the muscle fiber charged in comparison to the outside of the
membrane (sarcolemma). membrane which is positively charged.
• A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the presynaptic • Action potentials are due to the membrane
terminal that stores and releases having gated channels.
neurotransmitter chemicals.
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals that stimulate The resting membrane potential exists because of:
or inhibit postsynaptic cells. • The concentration of K+ being higher on the
• Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that inside of the cell membrane and the
stimulates skeletal muscles.
 concentration of Na+ being higher on the • Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from the
outside cell.
• The presence of many negatively charged • The outward diffusion of K+ returns the cell to
molecules, such as proteins, inside the cell that its resting membrane conditions and the action
are too large to exit the cell potential ends.
• The presence of leak channels in the membrane • In a muscle fiber, an action potential results in
that are more permeable to K+ than they are to muscle contraction.
Na+ Depolarization
• change in charges inside becomes more + and
• Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+ tends
to diffuse out. outside more – Na+ channels open
• In order to maintain the resting membrane Repolarization
potential, the sodium-potassium pump • Na+ channels close change back to resting
recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by potential
Function of the Neuromuscular Junction
pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the
• Each muscle fiber is innervated by a branch of a
cell.
motor neuron at a neuromuscular junction
Action Potentials
• Contact between the axon terminal and the
• An action potential reverses the resting
sarcolemma results in an action potential in the
membrane potential so that the inside of the
muscle fiber which, in turn, stimulates the fiber
cell becomes positive and the outside negative.
to contract.
• Occurs because gated ion channels open when
• The action potential is stimulated by the release
the cell is stimulated.
of acetylcholine from the motor neuron
• The diffusion of ions through these channels
Muscle Contraction
changes the charge across the cell membrane
• An action potential travels down the motor
and produces an action potential.
neuron to the presynaptic terminal.
• Action potential lasts for 1 to 3 milliseconds.
• The action potential causes Ca2+ channels to
• The entry of Na+ causes the inside of the cell
membrane to become more positive than when open and Ca2+ to enter the terminal.
the cell is at resting membrane potential. • Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release
• This increase in positive charge inside the cell acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
membrane is called depolarization. • Acetylcholine opens Na+ channels in the
• If the depolarization changes the membrane sarcolemma and causes an action potential.
potential to a value called threshold, an action • The action potential travels along the entire
potential is triggered. sarcolemma
• An action potential is a rapid change in charge • The action potential moves down T tubules.
across the cell membrane.
• Action potentials open gated Ca2+ channels in
• The action potential travels across the
the sarcoplasmic reticulum which releases
sarcolemma.
stored calcium.
• Near the end of depolarization, the positive
• Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to
charge causes gated Na+ channels to close and
actin causing tropomyosin to move exposing
gated K+ channels to open. attachment sites for myosin. Myosin heads bind
• Opening of gated K+ channels starts to actin. Muscles contract when cross bridges
repolarization of the cell membrane. move.
 • The heads of the myosin myofilaments bend, • The isometric contraction has an increase in
causing the actin to slide past the myosin. As muscle tension, but no change in length.
long as Ca2+ is present, the cycle repeats. • The isotonic contraction increases the tension
Cross Bridge Movement in a muscle and decreases the length.
• The mechanical component of muscle Summation and Recruitment
contraction is called cross-bridge cycling. The strength of muscle contraction strength
• The energy from one ATP molecule is required depends on two factors:
for one cross bridge cycle. • The amount of force in an individual muscle
ATP and Muscle Contractions fiber, called summation
• Energy for muscle contractions is supplied by • The amount of force in a whole muscle, called
ATP. recruitment.
• Energy is released as ATP → ADP + Pi and Motor Unit
energy from ATP is stored in myosin heads. • A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron
• A new ATP must bind to myosin before cross- and all the muscle fibers it innervates.
bridge is released. • An action potential in the neuron of a motor
• Rigor mortis will occur when a person dies and unit causes contraction of all the muscle fibers
no ATP is available to release cross-bridges in that unit.
Muscle Relaxation • Small, delicate muscles have very few fibers per
• Muscle relaxation occurs when acetylcholine is motor unit.
no longer released at the neuromuscular • Large, powerful, less precise muscles have
junction. fewer, larger motor units.
• Action potentials to the sarcoplasmic reticulum Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers
stop. • Individual muscle fibers can generate different
• Ca2+ is actively transported back into the amounts of force.
sarcoplasmic reticulum using energy supplied • The amount of force generated depends upon
by ATP. the number of cross-bridges formed.
• More cross-bridges creates more force.
• Ca2+ diffuses away from the troponin
• One factor that influences the number of cross-
molecules and tropomyosin again blocks the
bridges formed is the frequency of stimulation.
attachment sites on the actin molecules.
• A low frequency of stimuli allows a muscle fiber
• The cross-bridge cycle stops and the muscle
to undergo twitches that contract then fully
relaxes.
relax.
Muscle Twitch
• If the frequency of stimuli increases, the muscle
• A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a
fiber is unable to relax completely between
muscle fiber in response to a stimulus.
twitches, more cross bridges form and
• A muscle twitch has three phases: latent phase,
summation occurs. The tension generated by
contraction phase, and relaxation phase.
the muscle increases.
• The latent phase is the time between the
Summation and Recruitment 2
application of a stimulus and the beginning of
• Incomplete Tetanus occurs when the frequency
contraction.
of stimulation only allows for partial relaxation
• The contraction phase is the time during which
of the muscle fiber.
the muscle contracts and the relaxation phase is
• Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs
the time during which the muscle relaxes.
when the frequency of stimulation is so rapid
Types of Contractions
that no relaxation occurs.
• There are two types of muscle contractions:
• Recruitment is the stimulation of several motor
isometric and isotonic.
units.
Muscle Tone • The Ca2+ pump in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Muscle tone is the constant tension produced
by body muscles over long periods of time. Muscle fibers store enough ATP to contract for
• Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the back about 5–6 seconds. If contraction is to continue
and legs straight, the head in an upright beyond this time, more ATP must be produced.
position, and the abdomen from bulging.
• Muscle tone depends on a small percentage of ATP is derived from four processes in skeletal
all the motor units in a muscle being stimulated muscle.
at any point in time, causing their muscle fibers • Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one
to contract tetanically and out of phase with adenosine monophosphate (AMP) by the
one another. enzyme adenylate kinase
Types of Isotonic Contractions • Transfer of a phosphate from a molecule called
• Concentric contractions are isotonic creatine (krē′a-tēn) phosphate by the enzyme
contractions in which muscle tension increases creatine kinase from ADP to form ATP
as the muscle shortens. • Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive
• Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions short-term exercise
in which tension is maintained in a muscle, but • Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise
the opposing resistance causes the muscle to and normal conditions
lengthen. ATP Production as Exercise Progresses
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types • Muscle fibers store enough ATP for about 5 to 6
Slow twitch fibers seconds of contraction.
• contract slowly • Next, ATP production by adenylate kinase and
• fatigue slowly creatine kinase occurs. This is depleted after
• have a considerable amount of myoglobin about 15 seconds.
• use aerobic respiration • When a muscle fiber is working too strenuously
• are dark in color used by long distance runners for ATP stores and creatine phosphate to be
Fast twitch fibers able to provide enough ATP, anaerobic
• contract quickly respiration predominates.
• fatigue quickly • Fast-twitch muscle fibers are the primary
• use anaerobic respiration anaerobic muscle fibers.
• energy from glycogen • Slow-twitch fibers utilize aerobic pathways.
• light color used by sprinters • The lactate produced by anaerobic fast-twitch
• Most human muscles have a blend of fast fibers is used as a starting point for aerobic ATP
twitch and slow twitch fibers. The amount of production in slow-twitch fibers.
each type varies for each muscle. Muscle Fatigue
• The large postural muscles of the back and • Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced work
lower limbs contain more slow-twitch fibers. capacity.
• The muscles of the upper limbs contain more • Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be worked
fast-twitch muscle fibers. to the point of structural damage to them and
their supportive tissues.
Mechanisms of fatigue include:
Energy for Muscle Contractions • Acidosis and ATP depletion due to
Muscle fibers have three ATP dependent proteins: either an increased ATP consumption or a
• The myosin head decreased ATP production
• The Na+/K+ ATPase to maintain resting • Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the
membrane potential buildup of excess reactive
 • oxygen species (ROS; free radicals) Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
• Local inflammatory reactions • A tendon connects skeletal muscle to bone.
Muscle Soreness • Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike tendons.
• Following vigorous exercise, people sometimes • A retinaculum is a band of connective tissue
experience muscle pain, which can last for that holds down the tendons at each wrist and
several days. ankle.
• The pain is related to the effects of • Skeletal muscle attachments have an origin and
inflammatory chemicals on the muscle fibers. an insertion, with the origin being the
• Exercise schedules that alternate exercise with attachment at the least mobile location.
periods of rest, such as lifting weights every The insertion is the end of the muscle attached to the
other day, provide time for the repair of muscle bone undergoing the greatest movement.
tissue. • The part of the muscle between the origin and
Oxygen Deficit the insertion is the belly.
• There are two distinct phases of O2 use: • A group of muscles working together are called
• Oxygen deficit is the lag time between when a agonists.
person begins to exercise and when they begin • A muscle or group of muscles that oppose
to breathe more heavily because of the muscle actions are termed antagonists.
exercise. Muscle Names
• Excess postexercise oxygen consumption is the Muscles are named according to:
lag time before breathing returns to its • Location – a pectoralis muscle is located in the
preexercise rate once exercise stops. chest.
Smooth Muscle • Size – the size could be large or small, short or
• Smooth muscle cells are non-striated small, long.
spindle-shaped muscle cells, usually with one • Shape - the shape could be triangular, quadrate,
nucleus per cell. rectangular, or round.
• The myofilaments are not organized into • Orientation of fascicles – fascicles could run
sarcomeres. straight (rectus) or at an angle (oblique).
• The cells comprise organs controlled • Origin and insertion. The sternocleidomastoid
involuntarily, except the heart. has its origin on the sternum and clavicle and its
• Neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and insertion on the mastoid process of the
other factors can stimulate smooth muscle. temporal bone.
Cardiac Muscle • Number of heads. A biceps muscle has two
• Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated, and heads (origins), and a triceps muscle has three
branching, with usually only one nucleus per heads (origins).
cell. • Function. Abductors and adductors are the
• Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of the muscles that cause abduction and adduction
sarcomere arrangement. movements
• Cardiac muscle contraction is autorhythmic.
• Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one
another by specialized structures that include
desmosomes and gap junctions called
intercalated disks.
• Cardiac muscle cells function as a single unit in
that action potential in one cardiac muscle cell
can stimulate action potentials in adjacent cells.
Skeletal Muscles Biceps brachii:
• “flexing muscle”
Muscles of Mastication
• flexes elbow and shoulder
• Temporalis
• Masseter Brachialis:
• Pterygoids (two pairs) • flexes elbow
Thoracic Muscles Latissimus dorsi:
External intercostals: • lower back
• elevate ribs for inspiration • extends shoulder
Internal intercostals: Forearm Muscles
• depress ribs during forced expiration • Flexor longus
Diaphragm: • Flexor carpi radialis
• moves during quiet breathing • Flexor carpi ulnaris
Abdominal Wall Muscles • Flexor digitorum profundus
Rectus abdominis: • Flexor digitorum superficialis
• center of abdomen • Pronator
• compresses abdomen • Brachioradialis
External abdominal oblique: • Extensor carpi radialis brevis
• sides of abdomen Muscles of Hips and Thighs
• compresses abdomen Iliopsoas:
Internal abdominal oblique: • flexes hip
• compresses abdomen Gluteus maximus:
Transverse abdominis: • buttocks
• compresses abdomen • extends hip and abducts thigh
Pelvic Diaphragm Muscles Gluteus medius:
• Levator ani • Hip
• Ischiocavernosus • abducts and rotates thigh
• Bulbospongiosus Muscles of the Upper Leg
• Deep transverse perineal The quadriceps femoris is comprised of 4 thigh
• Superficial transverse perineal muscles:
Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles The rectus femoris:
Trapezius: • front of thigh
• shoulders and upper back • extends knee and flexes hip
• extends neck and head The vastus lateralis:
Pectoralis major: • extends knee
• chest The vastus medialis:
• elevates ribs • extends knee
Serratus anterior: • The vastus intermedius:
• between ribs • extends knee
• elevates ribs Gracilis:
Deltoid: • adducts thigh and flexes knee
• shoulder Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus:
• abductor or upper limbs • Hamstring
Upper Limb Muscles • back of thigh
Triceps brachii: • flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hip
• 3 heads The rectus femoris:
• extends elbow • front of thigh
 • extends knee and flexes hip
The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
Muscles of Lower Leg
Tibialis anterior:
• front of lower leg
• inverts foot
Gastrocnemius:
• calf
• flexes foot and leg
Soleus:
• attaches to ankle
• flexes foot