CEE 4312

Mechanics of
Solids Lab

Course Teacher:
Dr. Md. Imran Kabir
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering,
1 IUT
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Materials for Engineering Use

 Many natural and artificial materials are used in the field of

engineering.
 Selection/preference of material depends on many factors
 Depending on their use, materials mechanical properties are
tested in the lab
 e.g. – strength (tensile, compressive, shear), stiffness, ductility,
resilience, toughness etc.
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Ductile Materials:
 withstand large strains and yielding before
rupture.
 Ductile materials often have relatively small
Young‟s moduli and ultimate stresses.
 e.g. - Steel and aluminum

Brittle Materials:
 Brittle materials fracture at much lower strains.
 Brittle materials fail suddenly and without much
warning
 Brittle materials often have relatively large
Young‟s moduli and ultimate stresses.
 .e.g. – concrete, glass and cast iron.
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Basic Properties of Materials

• Tensile strength
• Compressive Strength
• Shear Strength
• Elasticity & Plasticity
• Stiffness
• Yield
• Poisson‟s ratio
• Ductility; Toughness; Resilience
• Hardness
• Impact resistance
• Slenderness
• Deflection
The conditions under which the mechanical test are conducted are of
three types

(1) Static:
When the load is increased slowly and gradually and the metal is
loaded by tension, compression, torsion or bending.

(2) Dynamic:
when the load increases rapidly as in impact

(3) Repeated or Fatigue:

when the load repeatedly varies in the course of test
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Stress, Strain and Stress-Strain Diagram:

Stress
the internal force on a body per unit area.
 = P/A
Strain
the deformation caused in a body per unit length.
 = /L
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Deformation
 is a change in the shape or size of an object due to either an applied
Force or a change in temperature
 The first case can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces, compressive
(pushing) forces, shear, bending or torsion (twisting).
 Two types: elastic and plastic

Elastic deformation
 This type of deformation is reversible.
 Once the forces are no longer applied, the object returns to its
original shape e.g., rubber.
 Linear elastic deformation is governed by Hooke's law,
σ=Eε
 Elastic deformation of some material such as concrete, gray cast
iron, and many polymers, respond nonlinearly. For these materials
Hooke's law is inapplicable
Plastic / permanent deformation
deformation is irreversible.
deformation without rupture

Permanent set
Amount of plastic deformation remains after removal of load

Elastic limit
Maximum stress within the material without permanent set.
Indicates yield point

Proportional limit
Maximum stress limit up to which stress-strain diagram
maintains straight-line proportionality
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Yielding
 Property of ductile materials
 It is defined as the stress at which marked increase in strain takes
place without increase in stress
 material ceases to behave elastically – inelastic action begins
 Yield strength is the measure of elastic strength
 A few materials start to yield or flow plastically, at a fairly well-
defined stress (upper yield point) that falls rapidly to a lower steady
value (lower yield point) as deformation continues.
 Any increase in the stress beyond the yield point causes greater
permanent deformation and eventually fracture
 When a yield point is not easily defined based on the shape of the
stress-strain curve, an offset yield point is arbitrarily defined. The
value for this is commonly set at 0.1 or 0.2% of the strain.
 yield strength is very important when designing components, since it
usually represents the upper limit of the load that can be applied
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Beyond yield point, the strains increase at a much faster rate with nominal
increase in stress and the material moves towards failure.
However, the material can usually take stresses higher than its yield strength.
The maximum stress a material can sustain without failure is called the
ultimate strength, which is denoted by ult in Fig. 1.2(a).
For most materials, the stress decreases as the material is strained beyond
ult until failure occurs at a stress called breaking strength of the material,
denoted by brk in Fig. 1.2(a).

Here it may be mentioned that the stress does not actually decrease
beyond ultimate strength in the true sense. If the actual - diagram
[indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 1.2(a)] of the material is drawn using
the instantaneous area
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Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus

The ratio of stress and strain up to proportional limit (or elastic
limit) is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young‟s Modulus.
E = p/p

Modulus of Resilience
The corresponding area up to the proportional limit is called
Modulus of Resilience .

Modulus of Resilience = p p/2 = p2/2E

The Modulus of Elasticity and the Poisson‟s Ratio are two basic
material constants used universally for the linear elastic analysis
and design
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Poisson's ratio
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Modulus of Toughness
The total area under the - diagram is called the Modulus of
Toughness. Physically, this is energy required to break a specimen
of unit volume.
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Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus [G]

is the coefficient of elasticity for a shearing force.
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Table 1.1: Useful Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials

Modulus % of
Modulus
Poisson’s of Elongatio Reduction
p y ult E of
Material ratio Toughnes n/ of Area
(ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) Resilience
 s Ductility (%)
(ksi)
(ksi) (%)

29000 0.25 35 60
Mild Steel 35 40 60 0.02 15

Aluminum
60 70 80 10000 0.33 0.18 7 10 30
Alloy
Alloy
210 215 230 29000 0.30 0.73 20 10 20
Steel

Concrete 1.4 2.0 3.0 3000 0.30 0.0004 0.006 0.30 0.60
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Experiment 1:
Tension Test of Mild Steel
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Mechanical Properties of Mild Steel:

 the most important and widely used structural materials all

over the world.
 Its use as a construction material is of great importance to
Civil Engineers, particularly for steel and reinforced concrete
structures
 Therefore the tension test of mild steel is very important
from a structural designer‟s point of view.
 The tensile strength and elastic properties of mild steel
obtained from this test are used in buildings, bridges,
towers, trusses, poles, water tanks and various other
structural applications.
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 Proportional Limit, p = 30~65 ksi (larger for stronger specimens)

 Yield Strength, y = 35~75 ksi (larger for stronger specimens)
 Ultimate Strength, ult = 60~100 ksi (larger for stronger
specimens)
 Modulus of Elasticity, E = 29000~30000 ksi (almost uniform for all
types of specimens)
 Poisson‟s Ratio,  = 0.20~0.30 (larger for stronger specimens)
 Modulus of Resilience = 0.02~0.07 ksi (larger for stronger
specimens)
 Modulus of Toughness = 7~15 ksi (smaller for stronger
specimens)
 Ductility = 10~35% (smaller for stronger specimens)
 Reduction of Area = 20~60% (smaller for stronger specimens)
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Failure Mechanism and Failure Surface of Mild Steel Specimen

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Strain hardening
• Occurs when a metal is strained beyond the yield point.

• An increasing stress is required to produce additional plastic

deformation and the metal apparently becomes stronger and more
difficult to deform.
•
Strain hardening is the strengthening of a metal by plastic
deformation.
• This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and
dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.

• Example, bending the thin steel rod becomes more difficult the
farther the rod is bent. This is the result of work or strain
hardening.

• Strain hardening reduces ductility, which increases the chances of

brittle failure.
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Engineering &True stress

 When one applies a constant tensile force the material will

break after reaching the tensile strength. The material starts
necking (the transverse area decreases). The ratio of the force
to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the
engineering stress. If the ratio is to the actual area (that
changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.
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 Experiment 3

Test on Helical
Spring

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Helical springs are used in several engineering structures and

equipment as load transferring elements or shock absorbers.

Two types:
1. Close Coiled (Angle of helix small)
2. Open coiled (Angle of helix large)
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Behavior of Closely Coiled Helical Springs:

 Helical springs made of rods or wires of circular cross-section is
analyzed in the elastic range by the superposition of shearing
stresses.

Important assumption -
one coil of such a spring will be assumed to be in a plane which is
nearly perpendicular to the axis of the spring. As such, a section taken
perpendicular to the spring‟s rod may be taken to be vertical.

Therefore the forces acting on any section of the spring are

 Shearing force, V = P
 Torque, T = PR
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Torsion
Twisting moments, or torques, are forces acting
through distances (“lever arms”) so as to
promote rotation
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Combined Shear Stresses in Helical Springs:

 The maximum shearing stress at an arbitrary section of the spring is
found by superposing the direct and torsional shear stresses.
 Direct shearing stress in spring is customarily taken as the average
shearing stress uniformly distributed over the cross-section.
 Torsional shearing stress having a linear stress distribution will
produce the maximum shear stress at the inner edge of the coil.
Therefore, by superposing one obtains

max = direct + torsion

max = P/A + Tr/J = (4P/ 𝜋d2) + 16PR / 𝜋d3)

max = = P/A (1 + 2R/r) [J = polar moment of inertia =𝜋 d4/32]

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Deflection and Stiffness of Helical Springs:

 The deflection of a helical spring can be obtained (neglecting the

deflection due to direct shear stress, as it is normally small) by
using the following relationship
 = PR2L/GJ
L = 2RN

 = 64 PR3N/Gd4

This equation can be used to obtain the deflection of a closely coiled

helical spring along its axis when subjected to either tensile or
compressive force P.
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 The stiffness of a spring, commonly referred to as spring constant,

is frequently used to define the spring‟s behavior.
 The spring constant (k) is defined as the force required to produce
unit deflection.
 Thus the spring constant
k = P/ = Gd4/(64R3N)

However, the expression of k in is subject to the limitation due to

neglect of the deformation caused by direct shear stresses.

** In lab measure k using –

1. equation stated above
2. slope of load –deflection curve
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 Experiment 1:

Hardness Test on
metal Specimens

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Hardness

The term „hardness‟ refers to the resistance of a metal to permanent

deformation to its surface.

Depending on the particular deformation type hardness may be-

(i) Indentation hardness test (by indenting),
(ii) Scratch hardness test (by scratching),
(iii) Dynamic hardness test (by impact),
(iv) Rebound hardness test (by the rebound of a falling ball).

• Hardness is dependent on-

ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness,
visc-elasticity, and viscosity

.
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Hardness Measurements:

• Indentation hardness is the most commonly used hardness test and

different forms of this hardness test are in use
• The depth of penetration and the force required are measured which
provides an indication of hardness

Some of the common form of indentation hardness tests are :

1. Diamond Pyramid hardness/ Vicer‟s hardness
2. Brinell harness
3. Rockwell hardness
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The Brinell hardness number is measured as kg/sq.mm.

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Brinell Hardness Test Conditions for Different Materials

Specimen Standard conditions for Brinell Test F/D2 for Range of
Material Min. thickness Load (F), kg Ball dia (D), mm other HB
penetrator
size
Steel - 3,000 10 30
Grey Cast Iron > 15 mm 1,000 10 10 <140
5-15 mm 750 5 30 140~500
< 5 mm 120 2 -
Copper & its - - - 10 25~200
alloys - - - 5 <40
- - - 30 >190
Light metals - - - 5 <55
and alloys - - - 5~15 55~80
- - 10 15 80
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Rockwell Hardness HR = E − e

i. Diamond Brale (C Scale)

ii. Steel Ball (B Scale)
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The Rockwell hardness value (HR), which is dimensionless index, is read

directly from a specially graduated dial indicator.

E = 130 (Steel Ball) for B scale, and E = 100 (Diamond Brale) for C scale
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Type of Scale to be Minor Load Major Load

Indenter used (F0) (F)
kg kg
Steel ball
B 10 90
1/16 dia
Diamond
C 10 140
Brale
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Relationship between Hardness Numbers

Brinell (3,000 kg load) and Rockwell hardness numbers may be

converted interchangeably with an accuracy of about 10 percent
according to the following relationships:

For RB = 35 ~ 100, BHN = 7300/(130−RB)

For RC = 20 ~ 40, BHN = 20,000/(100−RC)

For RC  41, BHN = 25,000/(100−RC)

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Relation between the Hardness Number and other Properties

no precise correlation exists between any indentation hardness and

the yield strength determined in a tension test since the amount of
inelastic strain involved in the hardness test is much greater than in
the test for yield strength.
However, because of greater similarity in inelastic strain involved in
the test for ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and indentation
hardness, empirical relations have been developed between these
two properties.
The empirical relationships give approximate tensile strength from
Brinell Hardness Number, all of which show that the UTS in ksi is
nearly 40~50% of the BHN.
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Material Tensile Strength

(ksi)
For heat treated alloy steels with Brinell No. 0.42 × Brinell No.
250 to 400
For Heat-Treated Carbon Steels as rolled 0.43 × Brinell No.
normalized or annealed

For Medium Carbon Steels as rolled 0.44 × Brinell No.

normalized or annealed

For Mild Steels normalized or annealed 0.46 × Brinell No.

For non-ferrous rough alloy such as Brinell No/2 − 2.0

Duralumin
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 Experiment 2:

Impact Test on
metal Specimens
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 Impact load is an important type of dynamic load that is applied

suddenly;
 e.g., the impact from a moving mass.
 The velocity of a striking body is changed, there must be a transfer
of energy and work is done on the parts receiving the blow.
 The mechanics of impact not only involves the question of stress
induced but also a consideration of energy transfer, energy
absorption and dissipation.
 The effect of an impact load in producing stress depends on the
extent to which the energy is expended in causing deformation.
 In the design of many structures and machines that must take
impact loading, the aim is to provide for absorption as much as
possible through elastic action and then to rely on some kind of
damping to dissipate it
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Impact Testing Apparatus:

The standard notched bar impact testing machine is of the pendulum
type

The energy delivered to the

specimen is (WHWH)
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Notch
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Specimens for Impact Testing:

The following three types of specimen are used for impact testing of
metals:
1. Charpy simple beam
2. Izod cantilever beam
3. Charpy tension rod

Charpy simple beam

• The standard flexure test specimen is a piece 10 by 10 by 55 mm
notched at mid length
• The specimen which is loaded as a simple beam, is placed
horizontally between two anvils
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Izod cantilever beam

The cantilever specimen is a 10 by 10 mm is section and 75 mm long

having a standard 45 notch 2 mm deep.
The specimen is clamped to act as a vertical cantilever.
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