Concept of Stress and Strain

a. Tension Test

 can be used to ascertain several mechanical properties of materials that are important in design

 A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the
long axis of a specimen

• Engineering stress 𝜎 is defined by the relationship

F
σ=
A0
• Engineering strain 𝜀 is defined according to

li −l 0 ∆l
ε= =
l0 l0
b. Compression Test

 Compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except that the force is compressive and the
specimen contracts along the direction of the stress. Tensile tests are more common because they are easier to perform;
also, for most materials used in structural applications, very little additional information is obtained from compressive
tests. Compressive tests are used when a material’s behavior under large and permanent (i.e., plastic) strains is desired,
as in manufacturing applications, or when the material is brittle in tension.

c. Shear and Torsional Test

F
 For tests performed using a pure shear force, the shear stress is computed 𝜏 = , where F is the load or force imposed
Ao
parallel to the upper and lower faces, each of which has an area of Ao .The shear strain is defined as the tangent of the
strain angle.

d. Geometric Consideration of the Stress State

 Stresses that are computed from the tensile, compressive, shear, and torsional force states. Using mechanics of materials
principles, it is possible to develop equations for σ’ and Ƭ’ in terms of and , as follows:

Elastic Deformation

 The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of an imposed stress. For most metals that are
stressed in tension and at relatively low levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship

σ=Eϵ

 This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (GPa or psi) is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.
  A deformation in which stress and strain are proportional

 a plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain (abscissa) results in a linear relationship

 Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released, the piece returns to its
original shape

Anelasticity

 Time-dependent elastic behavior

 For metals, the anelastic component is normally small and is often neglected

 However, for some polymeric materials its magnitude is significant; in this case it is termed viscoelastic behavior

Elongation (Elastic) Computation (Sample problem)

1. A piece of copper originally 305 mm (12 in.) long is pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa (40,000 psi). If the deformation is
entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation?

Poisson’s Ratio, ν

• Stress applied in one direction causes strain on transverse axis

• Ratio between lateral/transverse strain and axial strain

−lateral strain −ε L
ν= =
axial strain ε
Mechanical Properties

 Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

Other Elastic Properties

Elastic Shear Modulus, G:

τ =G γ
Elastic Bulk Modulus, K:

∆V
P ¿ -K
Vo
Special Relations for Isotropic Materials:
 E E
G¿ K¿
2(1+ν ) 3(1−2 ν )
Linear Elastic Relationship

 Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection. Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

 Indicative of the stress at which plastic deformation begins. For most materials, yield strength is determined from a stress–
strain plot using the 0.002 strain offset technique.

Tensile Strength, TS

 Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve. Metals occurs when noticeable necking starts and polymers occurs
when polymer backbone chains are aligned ad about to break

Ductility

 It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A metal that experiences very
little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle

Resilience, U r

 Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this
energy recovered.

 The associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from
an unloaded state up to the point of yielding.

 Definition of modulus of resilience

εy
 U r =∫ σdε
0

 If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this simplifies to

1
 U r= σ y ε y
2
Toughness

 toughness (or more specifically, fracture toughness) is a property that is indicative of a material’s resistance to fracture
when a crack

 the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before fracturing

 For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions and when a notch (or point of stress concentration) is present, notch
toughness is assessed by using an impact test

Brittle fracture: elastic energy;

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Hardness

 a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation. Early hardness tests were based on natural minerals
with a scale constructed solely on the ability of one material to scratch another that was softer.

 Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test for several reasons:

1. They are simple and inexpensive

2. The test is nondestructive

3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data, such as tensile strength
Elastic Strain Recovery

Upon release of the load during the course of a stress– strain test, some fraction of the total deformation is recovered as elastic strain. Point of
unloading (point D), and its slope is virtually identical to the modulus of elasticity, or parallel to the initial elastic portion of the curve. The
magnitude of this elastic strain, which is regained during unloading, corresponds to the strain recovery, If the load is reapplied, the curve will
traverse essentially the same linear portion in the direction opposite to unloading; yielding will again occur at the unloading stress level where
the unloading began. There will also be an elastic strain recovery associated with fracture.

Variability in Material Properties

 Elastic modulus is material property and Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws (defects, etc.). Large sample to sample
variability.

Design or Safety Factor

 Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit

Factor of safety, N

Types of Metal Alloys

• Ferrous Alloys

• Nonferrous Alloys

• FERROUS ALLOYS

- are those in which iron is the prime constituent

- are produced in larger quantities than any other metal type and important engineering construction materials

- principal disadvantage is their susceptibility to corrosion

• FERROUS ALLOYS

- use is accounted for by three factors:

(1) iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust;

(2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and

(3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile

- are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements

- mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%

- common steels are classified according to carbon concentration into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types

• STEELS

- Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and

a little manganese

- Alloy steels are where more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations

• Low-Carbon Steels

- generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C

- are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite

- are relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness

- are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce

- applications include: automobile body components, structural shapes, sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans

• High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels

- contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined concentrations as high as 10 wt%,
and they possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels

- most may be strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi)

- they are ductile, formable, and machinable

- more resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels

- have replaced in many applications where structural strength is critical (e.g., bridges, towers, support columns in high-rise buildings,
pressure vessels)

- Medium-Carbon Steels

- have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%

- most often utilized in the tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered martensite

- plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities and can be successfully heat-treated only

in very thin sections and with very rapid quenching rates

• High-Carbon Steels

- having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%

- are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels

- are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition

- are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge

• High-Carbon Steels

- having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%

- are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels

- are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition

- are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge

• Stainless Steels

- are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments

- predominant alloying element is chromium and a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required

- are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase constituent of the microstructure—martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic

• CAST IRONS

- are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%

- they are easily melted and amenable to casting

- some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most convenient fabrication technique

- most common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white, malleable, and compacted graphite

• Gray Iron

- its carbon and silicon contents vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%

- for most of these, the graphite exists in the form

of flakes (similar to corn flakes)

- is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a consequence of its microstructure, the tips of the graphite may serve as points of stress
concentration when an external tensile stress is applied

• Ductile (Nodular) Iron

- adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of
mechanical properties

- graphite still forms but as nodules or spherelike particles instead of flakes.

- are stronger and much more ductile than gray iron

- applications for this material include valves, pump

bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other automotive and machine components

- extremely hard but also very brittle to the point of being virtually unmachinable

- fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance

- use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface (e.g. as rollers in rolling mills)

- is used as an intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron.

• Malleable Iron

- caused by heating white iron at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C (1470°F and 1650°F) for a prolonged time period and in a neutral
atmosphere (to prevent oxidation)

- microstructure is similar to that of nodular iron which means it’s relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability

- representative applications include connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive industry, and also flanges,
pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty services

- white and malleable cast irons are produced in smaller quantities

• Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI)

- relatively recent addition to the family of cast irons

- its microstructure is intermediate between gray iron and ductile

- are more complex than for the other cast iron types; compositions of magnesium, cerium, and other additives must be controlled

- higher thermal conductivity, better resistance to thermal shock, lower oxidation at elevated temperatures

- are now being used in a number of important applicastions, including diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings, brake discs
or high-speed trains, and flywheels

• NONFERROUS ALLOYS

- all other alloys fall within the nonferrous category, which is further subdivided according to base metal or some distinctive characteristic that
is shared by a group of alloys

- Seven classifications are copper, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, the refractory metals, the superalloys, the noble metals, and miscellaneous
category (nickel, lead, tin, zinc, and zirconium).

• Cast Alloys

- alloys that are so brittle that forming or shaping by appreciable deformation is not possible

• Wrought Alloys - are amenable to mechanical deformation

• NONFERROUS ALLOYS
 • Copper Alloys

- possessing a desirable combination of physical properties have been used in quite a variety of applications since antiquity

- is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals

- cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating procedures

- most common copper alloys are the brass and bronze

• Aluminum Alloys

- are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel)

- high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments

- are easily formed by virtue of high ductility

- mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work and by alloying but decreases the resistance to corrosion

- principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc

• Magnesium Alloys

- are difficult to deform in room temperature

- are used where light weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components)

- are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in marine environments

- replaced engineering plastics that have comparable densities because the magnesium materials are stiffer, more recyclable, and less costly to
produce

• Magnesium Alloys

- is employed in a variety of handheld devices (e.g., chainsaws, powertools, hedge clippers), automobiles (e.g., steering wheels and columns,
seat frames, transmission cases), and audio, video, computer, and communications equipment (e.g., laptop computers, camcorders, TV sets,
cellular telephones).

• Titanium Alloys

- are relatively new engineering materials that possess an extraordinary combination of properties

- are extremely strong, highly ductile and easily forged and machined

- have relatively low densities and desirable mechanical characteristics

- used extensively for dental and orthopedic (hip and knee) implants

• Refractory Metals

- metals that have extremely high melting temperatures

- included in this group are niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum (Ta)

- have large elastic moduli and high strengths and hardnesses, at ambient as well as elevated temperatures

- used for extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles; incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes,

• Superalloys

- have superlative combinations of properties

- are used in aircraft turbine components

- are classified according to the predominant metal(s) in the alloy, of which there are three groups: iron–nickel, nickel, and cobalt
- are used in nuclear reactors and petrochemical equipment

• The Noble Metals

- are a group of eight elements that have some physical characteristics in common

- are expensive (precious) and are superior or notable (noble) in properties characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation resistant

- consist of silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium

- used extensively in jewelry (sterling silver), dental restoration materials, for chemical laboratory equipment, as a catalyst (especially in the
manufacture of gasoline), and in thermocouples to measure elevated temperatures.

• Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloy

- Nickel alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments, especially those that are basic (alkaline), e.g. Monel

- Lead, tin, and their alloys find some use as engineering materials

- Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and have other mechanical characteristics that are comparable to those of titanium alloys and the
austenitic stainless steels

Fabrication of Metals

- Refers to the refining, alloying, and often heat-treating processes that produce alloys with the desired characteristics

- methods chosen depend on several factors: properties of the metal, the size and shape of the finished piece, and the cost

• FORMING OPERATIONS

- are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic deformation

- deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the material

• FORMING OPERATIONS

- Hot working when deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which recrystallization occurs

- Cold working when metals experience some surface oxidation, which results in material loss and a poor final surface finish

• Forging

- is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a usually hot metal

- this may be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing

• Rolling

- most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal

between two rolls

- a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted

by the rolls
 • Extrusion

- a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is applied to a ram

- the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area

• Drawing

- is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a tensile force that is applied on the exit side

• CASTING

- is a fabrication process in which a completely molten metal is poured into a mold cavity having the desired shape

• Sand Casting

- is the most common methodwhere ordinary sand is used as the mold material

• Die Casting

- the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high velocity and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained

• Investment Casting

- (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, is where the pattern is made from a wax or plastic that has a low melting temperature

• Lost-Foam Casting

- a variation of investment casting

- the expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the desired shape and then bonding
them together by heating

- Continuous Casting

- (sometimes termed strand casting) it is where the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a continuous strand that may have either a
rectangular or circular cross section

• MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES

Powder Metallurgy

- fabrication technique which involves the compaction of powdered metal followed by a heat treatment to produce a denser piece

• MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES

Welding

- two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient

• ANNEALING PROCESSES

- refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly
cooled

- is carried out to (1) relieve stresses; (2) increase softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or (3) produce a specific microstructure

- consists of three stages: (1) heating to the desired temperature, (2) holding or “soaking” at that temperature, and (3) cooling,
usually to room temperature

- Process Annealing

- is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal
 - is commonly used during fabrication procedures that require extensive plastic deformation, to allow a continuation of deformation without
fracture or excessive energy consumption

• Stress Relief

- annealing heat treatment in which the piece is heated to the recommended temperature, held there long enough to attain a uniform
temperature, and finally cooled to room temperature in air

• Annealing of Ferrous Alloys

Normalizing

- is used to refine the grains (i.e., to decrease the average grain size) and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution

Full Anneal

- is often used in low- and medium-carbon steels that will be machined or will experience extensive plastic deformation during a
forming operation

Spheroidizing

- during which there is a coalescence of the Fe3C to form the spheroid particles,

• HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

- typically involve continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen in some type of quenching medium, such as water, oil, or
air

- Hardenability

- the influence of alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to transform to martensite for a particular quenching treatment is related to a
parameter

The Jominy End-Quench Test

- with this procedure, except for alloy composition, all factors that may influence the depth to which a piece hardens (i.e., specimen size and
shape and quenching treatment) are maintained constant

Hardenability Curves

- the quenched end is cooled most rapidly and exhibits the maximum hardness

• Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry

- Severity of quench is a term often used to indicate the rate of cooling; the more

rapid the quench, the more severe is the quench.

- The degree of agitation of each medium also influences the rate of heat removal. Increasing the velocity of the quenching medium across the
specimen surface enhances the quenching effectiveness.

• PRECIPITATION HARDENING

- strength and hardness of some metal alloys may be enhanced by the formation of extremely small, uniformly dispersed particles of
a second phase within the original phase matrix; this must be accomplished by phase transformations that are induced by
appropriate heat treatments

- Solution Heat Treating

- - heat treatment in which all solute atoms are dissolved to form a single phase solid solution

- Precipitation Heat Treatment

- - the supersaturated 𝛼 solid solution is ordinarily heated to an intermediate temperature T2 within the 𝛼 + 𝛽 two-phase region, at
which temperature diffusion rates become appreciable

- Mechanism of Hardening
 - the character of these 𝛽 particles, and

subsequently the strength and hardness of the alloy, depend on both the precipitation temperature T2 and the aging time at this temperature

• Miscellaneous Considerations

- if the alloy is precipitation hardened before cold working, more energy must be expended in its deformation, cracking may also result because
of the reduction in ductility that accompanies the precipitation hardening