CIVL 306 Hydraulic

Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Outline
• Introduction: Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, Hydraulic
Engineering
• Applications of Hydraulics
• Basic Equations in Hydraulics
• Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensions and units
• Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids under all conditions of
rest and motion. The fluid may be gaseous or liquid. It provides
solution to a wide variety of problems encountered in many
fields of engineering, regardless of the physical properties of
the fluids involved.
• Hydraulics deals with flow and conveyance of liquid, principally
water
• Hydraulic Engineering aims at:
• understanding the physical processes of fluid flow analytically and
empirically
• Expressing these processes mathematically
• Utilizing the understanding of flowing liquid in the design of various
water related structures, devices and systems.
Applications of Hydraulics (1/3)
• In water resources engineering it covers concepts such as design
of pressurized pipe system, hydropower, flow measurements,
river works, flood control, wastewater systems, sediment
transport and erosion control, waterways, canals, lakes,
estuaries and seas.

• In transportation engineering it covers drainage systems of

bridges and roads.

• In structure engineering it covers all problems related to the

design of hydraulic structures such as spillways, culverts, and
energy dissipation in dams.
Applications of Hydraulics (2/3)
• Design of Water distribution systems such as irrigation and
drainage canals, Domestic and Municipal water supply systems,
pipe network design

• Design of hydraulic machines like pumps, turbines and hydraulic

press.

• Design of navigation systems such as waterways by river

training.

• Design of wells for domestic and irrigation purposes, as well as

dewatering of water-logged areas
Applications of Hydraulics (3/3)
• In Water Quality, Hydraulics is important in analyzing pollutant
transport, design of water treatment and waste water treatment
plants

• Computational Hydraulics – use of computers, numerical

techniques and graphic interface in hydraulic applications
Basic Equations in Hydraulics
• Continuity Equation

• Energy Equation

• Momentum Equation
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional Analysis (1/4)
• It is impossible to obtain the solution of many problems in
fluid mechanics by mathematical theory alone.
• To get a satisfactory solution of such problems, experimental
investigations are usually done.
• The number of tests to be conducted for a particular
problem is greatly reduced if the investigations are done
according to a systematic programme.
• Dimensional analysis helps in evolving such a systematic
programme. It is used to obtain a functional relationship
between variables.
Dimensional Analysis (2/4)
• Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which deals with
the dimensions of the physical quantities involved in the
phenomenon. It is used in research work for design and for
conducting model tests.

• The physical quantities are measurable entities such as length, time,

electric current, temperature, density, specific weight, etc.

• All physical quantities are measured by comparison, which is made

with respect to an arbitrary fixed value.
Dimensional Analysis (3/4)
• Dimensional analysis reduces the number of variables in a
fluid phenomenon by combining some variables to form
non-dimensional parameters.

• Instead of observing the effect of individual variables, the

effect of the non-dimensional parameters is studied.

• Experimental work is thus greatly reduced and the results

are presented in a systematic manner
Dimensional Analysis (4/4)

• In dimensional analysis one first predicts the physical

parameters that will influence the flow, and then by,
grouping these parameters in dimensionless combinations a
better understanding of the flow phenomenon is made
possible.

• It is particularly helpful in experimental work because it

provides a guide to those things that significantly influence
the phenomena; thus it indicates the direction in which the
experimental work should go.
Types of Dimensions (1/2)

• There are two types of dimensions:

• Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities
• Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

• Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities:

• These are the minimum number of physical quantities in terms of
which all other physical quantities can be expressed: Time (T),
Distance (L), Mass (M), and Temperature (θ)
Types of Dimensions (2/2)
• Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities:
• These are the quantities which possess more than one fundamental
dimension

• For example
• Velocity is denoted by distance per unit time L/T
• Acceleration is denoted by distance per unit time square L/T2
• Density is denoted by mass per unit volume M/L3

• Since velocity, density and acceleration involve more than one

fundamental quantities so these are called derived quantities
Units (1/3)
• The dimension of a physical quantity gives its qualitative measure.
• The quantitative measure of the physical quantity is done in terms of
units.
• Units are the standards in terms of which the physical quantities are
measured.
• For example, the unit for mass is a kilogram; a metre is a unit of
length; the unit of time is a second.
• (See Table 1.1 for the SI units of fundamental and derived quantities):
Units (2/3)
• The dimension of a physical quantity gives its qualitative measure.
• The quantitative measure of the physical quantity is done in terms of
units.
• Units are the standards in terms of which the physical quantities are
measured.
• For example, the unit for mass is a kilogram; a metre is a unit of
length; the unit of time is a second.
• (See Table 1.1 for the SI units of fundamental and derived quantities):
Table 1.1 Fundamental Quantities

No. Quantity Symbol Dimensions SI Units

1 Length l L Metre m
2 Mass m M Kilogram Kg
3 Time t T Second s
4 Electric Current I I Ampere A
5 Thermodynamic Ө Ө Kelvin K
temperature
6 Amount of substance mol mol Mole mol

7 Luminous intensity J J Candela

Table 1.2 Derived Quantities
No. Quantity Symbol Dimensions Units
1 Area A L2 m2
2 Volume V L3 m3
3 Velocity (linear) v LT-1 m/s
4 Velocity (angular) ω T-1 rad/s
5 Acceleration (linear) a LT-2 m/s2
6 Acceleration (angular) α T-2 rad/s2
7 Discharge Q L3T m3/s
8 Kinematic Viscosity υ L2T-1 m2/s
9 Force, weight F, W MLT-2 N, Kg m/s2
10 Mass Density ρ ML-3 Kg/m3
11 Specific weight γ ML-2T-2 N/m3
Table 1.2 Derived Quantities (cont.)
No. Quantity Symbol Dimensions Units
12 Pressure intensity p ML-1T-2 N/m2 , Pascal
13 Dynamic Viscosity μ ML-1T-1 N s/m2 , Pa.s
14 Shear Stress τ ML-1T-2 N/m2
15 Surface Tension σ MT-2 N/m
16 Modulus of Elasticity K ML-1T-2 N/m2
17 Impulse, Momentum I, M MLT-1 N.s
18 Work, Energy W, E ML2T-2 N.m, Joule (J)
19 Torque T ML2T-2 N.m
20 Power P ML2T-3 N.m/s Watt (W)
21 Circulation Γ L2T-1 m2/s
Methodology of Dimensional Analysis

• The Basic principle for dimensional analysis is Dimensional Homogeneity.

• An equation, in which dimensions of each term on both sides of equation are

same, is known as a Dimensionally Homogeneous equation. Such equations are
independent of system of units. For example;

• Consider the equation V=(2gH)1/2

• Dimensions of LHS=V=L/T=LT-1
• Dimensions of RHS=(2gH)1/2=(L/T2xL)1/2=LT-1
• Dimensions of LHS= Dimensions of RHS
•So the equation V=(2gH)1/2 is dimensionally homogeneous equation.
Methods of Dimensional Analysis

• If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are

known, then the relation among the variables can be determined by
the following two methods:

• Rayleigh’s Method

• Buckingham’s π-Theorem
Rayleigh’s Method (1/3)
•It is used for determining an expression for a variable (dependent) which
depends upon a maximum of three to four variables (independent) only.

•If the number of independent variables are more than 4 then it is very
difficult to obtain expression for dependent variable.

•Let X be a dependent variable which depends upon X1, X2, and X3 as

independent variables. Then according to Rayleigh’s Method,
X=f(X1, X2, X3)
which can be written as:
X=K X1a, X2b, X3c
where K is a constant and a, b, c are arbitrary powers which are obtained by comparing
the powers of fundamental dimensions.
Rayleigh’s Method (2/3)
Example: The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can
be considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V,
air viscosity μ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus of air k. Express the
functional relationship between the variables and the resisting force.
• R  f (l , V ,  ,  , K )  R  Al a , V b ,  c ,  d , K e (1)
Where: A = Non dimensional constant
Substituting the powers on both sides of the equation
MLT -2  ALa ( LT 1 )b ( ML1T 1 )c ( ML3 ) d ( ML1T 2 ) e
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides
Power of M  1  c  d  e
Power of L  1  a  b - c - 3d - e
Power of T   2  -b - c - 2e
Rayleigh’s Method (3/3)
Since the unkown(5) are more than number of equations(3). So expressing
a, b & c in terms of d & e
d  1- c - e
b  2 - c - 2e
a  1- b  c  3d  e  1- (2 - c - 2e)  c  3(1- c - e)  e
 1- 2  c  2e  c  3 - 3c - 3e  e  2 - c
Substituting the values in (1), we get
R  Al 2cV 2c  2 e  c  1c e K e  Al 2V 2  (l  cV  c  c   c )(V 2 e   e K e )
 c
2 2     K 
e

R  A l V     2 

 Vl   V  
    K  
R  A l V   
2 2
 2 
 Vl  V 
Buckingham’s π-Theorem (1/6)
• Rayleigh’s Method becomes laborious if variables are more than fundamental
dimensions (MLT). This difficulty is overcome by Buckingham’s π-Theorem which states
that:
• “If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a physical phenomenon and if
these variables contain m fundamental dimensions then the variables are arranged into
(n-m) dimensionless terms which are called π-terms.”
• Let X1, X2, X3,…,X4, Xn be the variables involved in a physical problem. Let X1 be the
dependent variable and X2, X3, X4,…,Xn the independent variables on which X1 depends.
Mathematically, this can be written as:
X1=f(X2 ,X3 ,X4 ,Xn)
which can be rewritten as:
f1(X1,X2 X3 X4 Xn)=0
• The equation above is dimensionally homogenous. It contain n variables and if there are
m fundamental dimensions then it can be written in terms of dimensions groups called
π-terms which are equal to (n-m)
• Hence f1(π1 π2 π3,… πn-m)=0
Buckingham’s π-Theorem (2/6)
• Properties of π-terms:
• Each π-term is dimensionless and is independent of system of units.
• Division or multiplication by a constant does not change the character of the π-terms.
• Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of fundamental dimensions
and also called repeating variable.
•Let in the above case X2, X3, X4 are repeating variables and if fundamental dimensions m=3
then each π-term is written as
Π1=X2a1. X3b1. X4a1 .X1
Π2=X2a2. X3b2. X4a2 .X5
Πn-m=X2a(n-m). X3b(n-m). X4a(n-m) .Xn
Each equation is solved by principle of dimensionless homogeneity and values of a1, b1 & c1
etc are obtained. Final result is in the form of
Π1=(Π2, Π3, Π4 ,…, Π(n-m))
Π2=(Π1, Π3, Π4 ,…, Π(n-m))
Buckingham’s π-Theorem (3/6)
Methods of Selecting Repeating Variables
• The number of repeating variables are equal to number of fundamental
dimensions of the problem. The choice of repeating variables is governed
by following considerations:

• As far as possible, dependent variable shouldn’t be selected as repeating variable.

• The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains
geometric property, other contains flow property and third contains fluid property.
• The repeating variables selected should form a dimensionless group
• The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental
dimension.
• No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.

• Note: In most of fluid mechanics / hydraulics problems, the choice of

repeating variables may be (i) d,v ρ, (ii) l,v,ρ or (iii) d, v, μ.
Buckingham’s π-Theorem (4/6)
Example: The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can
be considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V,
air viscosity μ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus of air k. Express the
functional relationship between the variables and the resisting force.
R  f (l , V ,  ,  , K )  f ( R, l , V ,  ,  , K )  0
Total number of variables, n= 6
No. of fundamental dimension, m=3
No. of dimensionless  -terms, n-m=3
Thus: f ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  0
No. Repeating variables =m=3
Repeating variables =l , V , 
Thus π-terms are written as
 1  l a1V b1  c1 R
 2  l a 2V b 2  c 2 
 3  l a 3V b 3  c 3 K
Buckingham’s π-Theorem (5/6)
Now each Pi-term is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity.
 1  term  M o LoT o  La1 ( LT 1 )b1 ( ML3 )c1 MLT 2
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0=c 1 +1  c 1 =-1
Power of L: 0=a1 +b1 -3c1 +1  a1  2
Power of T: 0=-b1 -2  b1 =-2
R
  1  l -2V -2  -2 R   1 
 L2V 2
 2  term  M o LoT o  La 2 ( LT 1 )b 2 ( ML3 )c 2 ML1T 1
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0  c 2 1  c 2  -1
Power of L: 0  a2  b2 - 3c2 -1  a2  1
Power of T: 0  -b2 -1  b2  -1

  2  l -1V -1 -1   2 
 lV
Buckingham’s π-Theorem (6/6)
 3  term  M o LoT o  La 3 ( LT 1 )b 3 ( ML3 )c 3 ML1T 2
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0  c 3 1  c 3  -1
Power of L: 0  a3  b3 - 3c3 -1  a3  0
Power of T: 0  -b3 - 2  b3  -2
K
  3  l 0V -2  -1 K   2 
V 2
Hence
 R  K 
f ( 1 2 3 )  f  2 2 , , 2   0 or
  l V lV  V  
R   K  2 2   K 
  , 2   R  l V   , 2 
l V
2 2
 lV  V    lV  V  
Similitude and Model Analysis
• Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering Models.

• Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical solution of hydraulic phenomenon.

• Therefore experimental investigations are often performed on small scale models, called
model analysis.

• Examples include where models may be used are ships in towing basins, air planes in
wind tunnel, hydraulic turbines, centrifugal pumps, spillways of dams, river channels etc
and to study such phenomenon as the action of waves and tides on beaches, soil
erosion, and transportation of sediment etc.
Model Analysis (1/2)
• Model: is a small scale replica of the actual structure.

• Prototype: the actual structure or machine.

• Note: Models should not necessarily be smaller than prototypes; they may be
larger.
Lp1
Lm1

Lp2 Lm2
Fp1 Fp2 Fm1 Fm2

Fm3 Lm3
Fp3 Lp3

Prototype Model
Model Analysis (2/2)

• Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of finding solutions of

complex flow problems.

• The followings are the advantages of model analysis:

• The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in advance from its model.
• Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow problem
is obtained which help in conducting tests.
• The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of model analysis to adopt
most economical, and safe design.

• Note: Tests performed on models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful
information about the performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity
exits between the model and the prototype.
Similitude - Type of Similarities (1/4)

• Similitude is defined as similarity between the model and prototype in every

respect. This means the model and prototype have similar properties or are
completely similar.

• Three types of similarities must exist between model and prototype.

• Geometric Similarity

• Kinematic Similarity

• Dynamic Similarity
Similitude - Type of Similarities (2/4)
• Geometric Similarity is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist between model
and prototype if ratio of all the corresponding linear dimensions in the model and
prototype are equal.

• For example, Lp, Bp and Dp are length, breadth, and diameter of prototype and Lm,
Bm, Dm are length, breadth, and diameter of model.
• Lr = Scale ratio
Lp Bp Dp
   Lr
Lm Bm Dm

• Note: Models are generally prepared with same scale ratios in every direction.
Such a model is called true model. However, sometimes it is not possible to do so
and different convenient scales are used in different directions. Such a models is
call distorted model.
Similitude - Type of Similarities (3/4)
• Kinematic Similarity is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist between model
and prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration at the corresponding points in
the model and prototype are equal.

• For example, Vp1 and Vp2, and ap1 and ap2 are velocity and acceleration at points 1
and 2 in the prototype and Vm1 and Vm2, and am1 and am2 are velocity and
accelerations at points 1 and 2 in the model.
• Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio
V p1 V p 2 a p1 a p 2
  Vr ;   ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2
• Note: Velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence not only the ratio of
magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in model and
prototype should be same, but the direction of velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in model and prototype should also be parallel.
Similitude - Type of Similarities (4/4)
• Dynamic Similarity is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist between model
and prototype if ratio of forces at the corresponding points in the model and
prototype are equal.

• For example, (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are inertia, viscous and gravitational forces in the
prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m and (Fg)m are inertia, viscous and gravitational forces in
the model.
 Fi  p  Fv  p  Fg  p
• Fr is the Force ratio    Fr
 Fi m  Fv m  Fg m

• Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model and prototype
should also be parallel.
Forces on Fluids
There are two types of forces acting on a fluid element:
•Surface force (Short-range force):
•Molecular in origin, and decreases rapidly with increasing distance
between interacting elements.
•Is appreciable only if fluid elements are in contact, therefore exists
only on the boundary, hence the name “surface force.”
•Surface force per unit area is called the stress - epends on time, on the
location, and on the orientation of the surface element.
•Examples of surface force include: Pressure force, viscous force,
frictional and normal force.
Forces on Fluids
•Body or Volume force (Long-range force):
•The origin of the force is far away from the zone of interest.
•The strength of such forces varies (decreases) very slowly with
increasing distance apart, and acts uniformly on all parts of a fluid
parcel.
•Therefore, the total force is proportional to the volume of fluid.
•The best example of body force is the force due to gravitation and
which is usually known as weight of the body. Other examples include:
Centrifugal force, Electric Field, Magnetic Field, Inertia Force.
Types of forces encountered in fluid Phenomenon
• Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in the flowing
fluid.

• Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and
surface area of flow.

• Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration due to gravity.

• Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of pressure intensity and cross-sectional

area of flowing fluid.

• Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of surface tension and length of
surface of flowing fluid.

• Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic stress and area of flowing fluid.
Dimensionless Numbers (1/4)
• These are numbers which are obtained by dividing, for example, the
inertia force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or
surface tension force or elastic force.

• As this is ratio of one force to another, it will be a dimensionless

number. These are also called non-dimensional parameters.

• The following are most important dimensionless numbers.

• Reynold’s Number
• Froude’s Number
• Euler’s Number
• Weber’s Number
• Mach’s Number
 Dimensionless Numbers (2/4)
• Reynold’s Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous
force of flowing fluid Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity
Re   Time  Time
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity  Q.V  AV .V  AV .V VL VL
Re   Time  Time     
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area  .A du V
 .A  .A  
 Q.V  AV .V  AV .V VL VL dy L
    
 .A du V
 .A  .A  
• Froude’s Number,
dy L
Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force
Velocity
of flowing fluid. Fi
Mass.
Time Fe  
Fg Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion
Velocity Volume
Mass.  . Velocity  Q.V  AV .V V2 V
Fe 
Fi
 Time  Time    
Fg Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion Volume.g  AL.g gL gL

 Q.V  AV .V V2 V
   
Volume.g  AL.g gL gL
 Dimensionless Numbers (3/4)
• Eulers’s Number, Eu: It is the ratio of inertia force toVelocity
the pressure
Volume
force
of flowing fluid Mass.  . Velocity
Fi Time Time
Eu   
Fp Pr essure. Area Pr essure. Area
Velocity Volume
Mass.  . Velocity  Q.V  AV .V V2 V
Fi
Eu   Time  Time    
Fp Pr essure. Area Pr essure. Area P. A P. A P/ P/
 Q.V  AV .V V2 V
   
P. A P. A P/ P/
• Weber’s Number, We: It is the ratio of inertia force to the surface
tension force of flowing fluid.
Velocity
Mass.
Fi Time
We   
Fg Surface Tensionper. Length Sur
Velocity Volume
Mass.  . Velocity
Fi Time Time  Q.V  AV .V  L2V 2 V
We       
Fg Surface Tensionper. Length Surface Tensionper. Length  .L  .L  .L 
 Q.V  AV .V  L2V 2 V L
   
 .L  .L  .L 
L
Exercises (1/2)

1. What is dimensional analysis?

2. State and explain the principle of dimensional homogeneity.
Determine if the following equations are dimensionally
homogenous:
a. p = γh
b. Q = K b H3/2 g1/2
3. State the Buckingham Pi-theorem.
4. What are the limitations of the Buckingham Pi-theorem?
5. What are the dimensions of the following:
a. Area c. Force e. specific weight
b. Velocity d. Discharge f. relative density
Exercises (2/2)
6. Show that the discharge over a spillway can be expressed as
Q = VD2φ[(gD)1/2/V, H/D]
where: V = velocity of flow, D = throat depth, H = head causing flow
g = acceleration due to gravity

7. Manning’s formula for velocity of flow V in uniform flow in a open

channel is written as:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
where R = hydraulic radius, S0 = bed slope and n = Manning’s
coefficient. Determine the dimensions of n.