CHAPTER – II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Review of Literature is a key step in research process. A researcher analyses

existing knowledge before dealing in to a new area of study while conducting a study

when interpreting the result of the study and when making judgements about

applications of a new knowledge in nursing practice. Research Literature were

reviewed and organized under the following heading:

1. Studies related to prevalence of dysmenorrhea.

2. Studies related to non-pharmacological measures for dysmenorrhea.

1.Studies related to prevalence of dysmenorrhea

Mooral Raj Kural (2015) was conducted a study to determine the prevalence

of primary dysmenorrhea among 310 young college going girls( 18-25 years)

at Indore City of Central India.Written consent was obtained from all the

girls before commencement of study.Self administered questionnaire was used.

Study findings showed that 84.2% girls have dysmenorrhea.Among hat 34.2% experiences

Severe pain ,36.6% moderate and 29.2% have mild pain.

Rafia Bano et al (2013) was conducted a study to determine the prevalence

and severity of dysmenorrhea among 100 young students at University of Hail city.

Self-administered questionnaire was used. The study results showed that the mean age

at menarche was found to be 12.36 r 1.15 yrs. The prevalence of dysmenorrhea was

100%. The percentage distribution of various degrees of severity of dysmenorrhea in

100 girls was 20% mild, 4.3% moderate and 37% severe dysmenorrhea respectively.

Nervvousness and depression was identified (70%) as the most common type of

dysmenorrhea related symptoms headache 40% and dizziness 38%.

Kiran B et al (2012) was conducted a study to assess the prevalence, severity

students from SRM university Chennai and 97 students from Vydehi Institute of

Medical Sciences and Research centre Bangalore respectively were enrolled in this

study. The study findings showed that 306 students in Chennai have a history of

dysmenorrhea giving a prevalence of 76.30%. Among 57% had severe and 19.20%

had mild dysmenorrhea. All the students enrolled in Bangalore (97) presented with a

history of dysmenorrhea. 73.19% with severe and 26.80% with mild dysmenorrhea.

Allopathic treatment was taken by 33% and 37.11% home made remedies by 6.20 and

2.06% and ayurvedic medicines by 0.98 and 1.03 by Chennai and Bangalore

respectively.

Anandha Lakshmi et al (2011) was conducted a study to evaluate the

prevalence of premenstrual syndrome and dysmenorrhea among 300 female medical

students at SRM Medical college Hospital and Research centre Kanchipuram.

Menstruation related questionnaire were administered. The study results showed that

the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was 51% and that of the pre menstrual syndrome was

67% only 9.7% of the students consulted a physician or pharmacist 22.1% of students

with dysmenorrhea reported limitation of daily activities. The severity of

dysmenorrhea is significantly associated with college absenteeism. (P=0.005).

Anil K. Agarwal (2010) was conducted a study to assess the prevalence of

dysmenorrhea among 970 adolescent girls of age 15-20 years studying in the higher

secondary schools at Gwalior. The study findings showed that the prevalence, of

dysmenorrhea in adolescent girls was found to be 79.67% most of them 37.96%

suffered regularly from dysmenorrhea severity.

Hong – Gui et al (2010) was conducted a study to investigate the prevalence of

dysmenorrhea in 2640 female college students in North Sichuan medical college.

Menstruation related diary data were obtained. The study reveals that dysmenorrheal

occurred in 56.4% of students, In that 6.5% of dysmenorrhea students suffered from

Dysmenorrhea occurred on 37% of menstrual dates on average and was unrelated to

irregularity of menstrual cycles. The percentages of students taking medicine with

mild 4.0%, moderate 13.3% and unbearable 23.7% respectively.

Rahma Al-Kindi et al (2010) was conducted a study to determine the

prevalence of dysmenorrhea in Omani high school among 380 school girls. A self

administered questionnaire was given to the samples. The study findings showed that

the over all 94% (n=380) of the participants had dysmenorrhea. It was mild in 27%

(n=104) moderate in 41% (n=155) and severe in 32% (n=121). Dysmenorrhea was the

cause of limited sports activities in 81%, decreased class concentration in 75%,

restricted home work in 59%, school absenteeism in 45%, limited social activities in

25%, and decreased academic performance in 8% of the affected students. Only 3%

(n=10) had consulted a physician; 21% (n=80) self medicated, and 55% (n=210) took

no action. The commonest drugs used were paracetamol (n=60, 16%) ibuprofen

(n=29.8%) and mefanamic acid (n=12.3%) There was no statisfically significant

correlation between dysmenorrhea, demographics and menstrual characteristics.

Alaettin et al (2009) was conducted a study to evaluate the prevalence of

dysmenorrhea and determine its effect on health related quality of life among 623

Female students at Dumlupinar university. The severity of dysmenorrhea was

determine with a 10 point visual analog scale. The study findings showed that the

average age of the study group was 20.8 r 1.8 years. Prevalence of dysmenorrhea was

found to be 72.7% and was significantly higher in coffee consumers, females with

menstrual bleeding duration > 7 days and those who had a positive family history of

dysmenorrhea when compared to the others (P<0.05, for each one). By multivariate

analysis, coffee consumption (OR 2.084). menstrual bleeding duration > 7 days (OR

1.590) and positive family history of dysmenorrhea (OR 3.043) were important risk

factors of dysmenorrhea.
 Ortiz MI et al (2009) was conducted a study to evaluate the factors affecting

the prevalence of dysmenorrhea in a group of Mexican students. A questionnaire was

administerd to 1152 high school students. The study findings showed that the

dysmenorrhea had a prevalence of 48.4% and was the cause of school absences of

24% of the affected students. It was mild in 32.9%, moderate in 49.7%, and severe

In 17.4% of the students, of whom 28% consulted a physician and 60.9%

self-medicated. The most common over- the-counter drugs used were a combination of

paracetamol, pamabrom and pyrimelamine maleate, metamazol plus butylhioscine,

and naproxen. It found a significant correlation between the presence of

dysmenorrhea and smoking, cycle pattern, cycle duration, flow duration and amount

of flow.

Burnett et al (2005) was conducted a study to describe the prevalence, clinical

effect, characteristic, and underlying risk factors of primary dysmenorrhea in Canada.

A stratified random sample of 2721 women 18 years and older was identified. The

study result showed that in the sample, 1546 women were having menstrual periods,

of these 934(60%) met the criteria for primary dysmenorrhea. 60% of the women with

primary dysmenorrhea described their pain as moderate or severe. 51% reported that

their activities had been limited, and 17% reported missing school or work because of

primary dysmenorrhea. The prevalence of Primary dysmenorrhea decreased with

increasing age (P<0.001) and increased with smoking (P=0.002). Users of oral

contraceptives tended to have less pain the non-users (P=0.005). Socio-economic status,

nullilparity, and earlier age of menarche were not independently associated with

primary dysmenorrhea.

2.Studies related to non-pharmacological measures for dysmenorrhea

Sakineh Mohammed Alizadeh Chandradabi (2011)conducted a study to assess the

effect of acupressure at the Sanyinjiao point(SP6) on primary dysmenorrhea among

resident in dormitories of Public Universities,Tabriz.Clustered randomized controlled trial

menstrual symptoms and duration of resting time in the 2 nd and 3rd cycles were significantly

reduced in intervention group as compared to control group(4.9 Vs 6.2).While all the subjects

of control group used atleast one ibuprofen during the first and second periods after the

beginning of study,29-33% of intervention group member did not use any ibuprofen.Also

Farzanesh Kashefi (2010) was conducted a study to assess the effect of acupressure

at the Sanyinjiao point on primary dysmenorrhea among 86 students. The study group

received acupressure at Sanyinjiao point, while the control group received sham

acupressure. The study findings showed that the acupressure caused decline in the

severity of dysmenorrhea immediately after intervention in both groups during their

first menstrual cycle, although there difference was not significant (P>0.05). In addition,

during the same cycle, the severity of the dysmenorrhea decreased more in study group

rather than control group at 30 min, 1, 2 and 3 hours after intervention (P<0.05).

Parvin Rahnama et al (2012) was conducted a study to evaluate the effects of ginger

on pain relief in primary dysmenorrhea among 120 samples at dormitories university.

They were randomly assigned in two equal groups. The ginger and placebo groups in both

protocol 500mg capsules of ginger root or powder. Placebo three times a day. In the first

protocol ginger given two days before the onset of the menstrual period and continued

through the first three days of menstrual period. In the second protocol ginger and placebo

were given only for the first three days of menstrual period. The study findings showed that

there were significant differences in the severity of pain between ginger and placebo groups

for protocol one (P=0.015) and protocol two (P=0.029). There was also significant duration of

pain between the two groups for protocol one (P=0.017) but not for protocol two.Also

Howida Awed et al (2013) was conducted a study to evaluate the effect of fresh ginger usage

as a home remedy on pain relieve for dysmenorrhea among 120 female students in menofia

university. A quasi experimental design was used. The study result showed that 60% sample

had moderate dysmenorrhea before intervention changed in to 31.7% had moderate

scoring among intervention groups with mean pain score at 2nd day of menses.

Helms JM (1987) was conducted a study to find out the effectiveness of acupuncture in

managing the pain of primary dysmenorrhea among 43 women were followed for one year

in one of four groups. The Real Acupuncture group was given appropriate acupuncture and

the Placebo acupuncture group was given random point acupuncture on a weekly basis for

three menstrual cycle standard control group was followed without medical or acupuncture

intervention the visitation control group had monthly non acupuncture visits with the project

physician. The study showed that Real acupuncture group 10 of 11 (90.9%) women showed

improvement, in the Placebo Acupuncture group 4 of 11 (36.4%) in the standard control

group 2 of 11 (18.2%) and in the visitation control group 1 of 10 (10%). There was a 41%

reduction of analgesic medication used by the women in the real acupuncture after their

treatment series, and no change or increased use of medication seen in the other groups .

Also Hye Lin Woo(2018) was conducted a study to assess the efficacy and safety of

acupuncture among 3171 women with primary dysmenorrhea.Control goup included

1730 women received no treatment.Randomized controlled trials are used for study

Result showed that compared to no treatment ,manual acupuncture (SMD=-1.59,95%)

and electro acupuncture was more effective at reducing menstrual pain than NSAIDs and

the efficacy could be maintained during a short term follow up period.

Myeong Soo Lee et al(2018) was conducted a study to identify the effect of aroma

therapy on managing pain in primary dysmenorrhea.Randomizd Controlled Trials testing

were considered.All of the trials reported superior effects of aromatherapy for pain

reduction compared to placebo(n=1787,SMD=-0.91,95%) with high heterogeneity.A

sub analysis for inhalational aromatherapy for pain alleviation also showed superior effects

compared to placebo(n=704,SMD=-1.02,95%).With regard to aromatherapy massage ,the

pooled results of 11 studies showed favourable effects of aromatherapy massage on pain reduction

compared to placebo(n=793,SMD=-0.87,95%).Also Tyseer M.F. et al (2013) was conducted a study

suffering of primary dysmenorrhea. A randomized blind clinical trial of cross over design

was used. In the first treatment phase group 1 (n=48) received aromatherapy abdominal

massage for seven days prior to the menstruation using the essential oils (Linnamon, clove

rose and lavender in a base of almond oil) group 2 (n=47) received the same intervention

but with placebo oil (almond oil). In the second treatment phase, the two groups switched

to alternative regimen. Level and duration of pain and the amount of menstrual bleeding

were evaluated at the base line and after each treatment phase. The study result suggest

that the level and duration of menstrual pain and the amount of menstrual bleeding were

significantly lowed in the aromatherapy group than in placebo group.

Nam Young Yang et al(2016) was conducted a study to evaluate the effects of yoga on

Menstrual cramps and menstrual distress among 40 randomly selected undergraduate students

with primary dysmenorrhea,with 20 assigned to control group.The participants engaged in

yoga,physical exercise with relaxation and meditation for 60 minutes once a week for 12 weeks .

Menstrual cramps and menstrual distress were measured by using visual analogue pain scale

and menstrual distress questionnaire respectively.Study result showed that menstrual pain

intensity (group difference=-0.94,95% ) and menstrual distress (group difference =-1.13,95%)

scores decreased significantly in the experimental group compared with control group.

And also Usha Nag et al (2013) was conducted a study to analyze the effect of Yoga and

meditation as alternative therapy for primary dysmenorrhea in young students and its

outcome on school absentecism. 113 Medical students, Unmarried girls from

Dr. Pinnamaneni Siddhartha Medical College with Primary dysmenorrhea were randomly

assigned to the study (n=60) and control group (n=53). Semi structured questionnaire

and the numerical pain rating scale were administered on all the participants at baseline

and after three months. The study group was subjected to yoga,pranayama and meditation.

The study findings showed that a significant(P<0.0001) reduction in the perceived pain

after Yoga intervention in study group 83.33% reported complete pain relief and 11.66%
reported mild pain. No reduction of pain was found in the control group. After Yoga

intervention, absenteeism dropped to 10.3% and improvement in daily activity was

observed in study group .