FILTRATION

RAPID GRAVITY
FILTERS
RAPID SAND
FILTERS
PRESSURE
FILTRATION
FILTERS
SLOW SAND
FILTERS

1. Direction of flow
2. Type of filter media and bed
3. Driving force
4. Method of flow rate control
5. Filtration rate
• The process of passing the water through the beds of granular material is known as filtration.
• Two types of filters are commonly used for treating municipal water supplies
• Slow sand filter
• Rapid sand filter
• Slow sand filters can remove much larger percentage of impurities and bacteria from water as
compared to rapid gravity filter
• Slow sand filter yield a vary slow rate of filtration about 1/30th of that given by rapid gravity filter.
• It requires larger area and costly
• The necessity of maximum removal of bacteria has decreased due to advancement of disinfection
technique and therefore slow sand filters are obsolete these days.
• The water from coagulation-sedimentation plant is directly fed into the rapid gravity filters and the
water exit from filtration unit are disinfected for complete killing germs and colour removal.
 THEORY OF FILTRATION
MECHANICAL STRAINING
The suspended particles present in water and which are bigger size than the size of the voids in sand layers of
filter cannot pass through these voids and get arrested in them. Most of the particles are removed in the
upper sand layers. The arrested particles including the coagulated flocs forms a mat on the top of the bed
which further helps in straining out the impurities.
FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION
The filters are able to remove even particles of size smaller than the size of the voids present in the filter. This
can be explained by assuming that the void spaces act like tiny coagulation-sedimentation tanks. The
colloidal matter arrested in these voids is a gelatinous mass and therefore attract other finer particles.
These finer particles thus settle down in the voids and get removed.
BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM
Certain micro-organisms and bacteria are generally present in the voids of the filters. They may either reside
initially as coatings over sand grains or they may be caught during the initial process of filtration. These
organisms utilise such organic impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the process of
biological metabolism. The harmless compounds so formed generally form a layer on the top which is called
schmutzdecke. This layer helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities.
ELECTROLYTIC CHANGES
The purifying action of filter can also be explained by the theory of ionisation. According to this theory, a filter
helps in purifying the water by changing the chemical characteristics of water. This may be explained by the
fact that the sand grains of the filter media and impurities in water carry electrical charges of opposite nature.
When these oppositely charged particles and impurities come in contact with each other, they neutralise each
other, thereby changing the character of water and making it purer. After a certain interval, the electrical
charges of sand grains get exhausted and have to be restored by cleaning the filter.
Filter Materials
Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is measured and
expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the
sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass. The uniformity in size or
degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and expressed by the term called uniformity
coefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm
through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.
Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water
to move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly
upwards. It should be hard, durable, free from impurities, properly rounded and should
have a density of about 1600 kg/m3 .
Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media.
Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke
or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.
Filtration
The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some
very fine suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the
remaining impurities still further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine
granular material, such as sand, etc. The process of passing the water through
the beds of such granular materials is known as Filtration.
How Filters Work: Filtration Mechanisms
There are four basic filtration mechanisms:
SEDIMENTATION : The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity
and the associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the
streamlines and reach the collector.
INTERCEPTION : Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a
large enough particle follows the streamline, that lies very close to the media
surface it will hit the media grain and be captured.
Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with
different densities. Usually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers
combined may provide more versatile collection than a single sand layer. Because of the
differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.
Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes: sedimentation,
straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical processes. The
resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer on the sand surface, which remains
permeable and retains particles even smaller than the spaces between the sand grains.
• As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of micro-
organisms which break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide
and other oxides.
•Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The
purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the
surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water
becomes purified and contains less organic material.
•When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter.
•They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.
Components →
l Enclosure tank
l Filter media
l Base material
l Under drainage system
l Inlet and outlet arrangements
Enclosure tank
l An open watertight rectangular tank made of masonry and concrete.
l Depth→ 2.50-3.50m
l Plan area → 100-2000m² depending on quantity of water to be treated.
l Bed slope is about 1in 100 towards the central drain.
Filter Media
Filtering media consists of sand layers of 90-110 cm in depth and placed over a gravel support.
Effective size D10 of sand varies from 0.2-0.4 mm
Uniformity coefficient (D60 / D10 ) varies from 1.8-2.5.
The top 15 cm layer of the sand is generally finer variety.
Coarsest layer should be placed near the bottom and finest towards top.
Finer the sand purer will be water (More impurities and bacteria will be removed)
Base material
• Base material is gravel and it supports the sand
• 30-75 cm thick gravels of different sizes placed in layers
• Generally 3-4 layers each of 15-20 cm depth are used.
• Coarsest gravel is used in the bottom most layer (40-65 mm size gravel), 1st intermediate layer (20-
40 mm size gravel), 2nd intermediate layer (6-20 mm size gravel) and finest gravel (3.0-6 mm) is
used as top most layer.
Under drainage system
• The gravel support is laid on the top of an under-drainage system.
• It consists of a central drain and lateral drains.
• The laterals are open jointed pipe drains or porous drains placed 3-5 m apart on the bottom floor
and sloping towards a main covered central drain.
• Lateral collects the filtered water and discharges it into main drain which further moves to filtered
water well.
Inlet and outlet arrangements
• Inlet chamber admits the effluent from sedimentation tank without disturbing sand layers of the filter and
distribute uniformly over the filter bed.
• Filtered water well is also constructed on the outlet side to collect the filtered water coming out from the
underdrainage system.
Other appuretenances
Vertical air pipes: It passes through the layer of sand for proper functioning of the filtering layers.
Arrangements are made to control the depth of water above the sand layer to 1-1.5 m.
Meter: To measure the flow
Gauges: To measure the loss of head.
Filter head: It is the loss of head caused by the resistance offered by the sand grains to the flow of water through
it. Difference of water levels between filter tank and filtered water well. The resistance offered will be less for a
freshly cleaned filter unit (10-15 cm generally) and it will be more as clogging of filter layer increases
The filter should be cleaned if loss of head is high (0.7-1.2 m)
Operation and cleaning of slow sand filter
• The treated water from sedimentation tank is allowed to enter the inlet chamber and get distributed uniformly
over the filter bed.
• The water purified during percolating through filter media. The water entered into gravel layer and gets
collected in the laterals through open joints in filtered water well.
• The rate of filtration is kept constant.
• Water entering the slow sand filter should not be treated by coagulants because the dirty skin formed by the
floc affects the economical working of the filter.
• Depth of water on filter is generally kept equal to the depth of filter sand.
• The cleaning of slow sand filter is done by scrapping and removing the 1.5 – 3 cm of top sand layer. The top
surface is finally raked, roughened, cleaned and washed with good water.
• The amount of wash water required is of the order of 0.2-0.6 % of total water filtered.
• More sand is added when the sand depth is reduced to 40 cm due to cleaning.
• Effluents obtained during beginning of just after cleaning the filter bed will not be pure and are not used for
about 24-36 hours until formation of a film of arrested impurities around the sand grain has taken place.
• Since the filtering action of slow sand filters depends on formation of schmutzdecke, the effluents obtained
in the beginning shall not be pure.
• The interval between the two successive cleanings depends on nature of impurities present in water and size
of the filtering sand used in filter. But the normal interval between the two successive cleanings is 1-3
months.
Rate of filtration:
• 100-200 litres per hour per m2 of filter area
Efficiency and performance of slow sand filter
• Highly efficient in removal of bacteria (upto 98-99 % or more).
• This filter also removes the odours and taste particularly those caused by the presence of organic impurities
such as algae and plankton.
• Less efficient in removing colors of raw water.
• Remove turbidities upto 50 mg/lit
RECOMMENDED NUMBER OF SLOW SAND FILTERS FOR GIVEN PLAN AREAS

AS PER CEEPHO MANUAL

AREA IN M2 NUMBER OF BEDS

Upto 20 2
20-249 3
250-649 4
650-1200 5
1201-2000 6
 SUMMARY GUIDELINES OF SLOW SAND FILTERS

AS PER CEEPHO MANUAL

Description Recommended value Description Recommended value

Design period 10 years Depth of supernatant 1.0 m
water
Filtration rate Normal operation (0.1 Depth of filter sand Initial (1.0 m)
m3/hr/m2) Final Minimum (0.4 m)
Max overload rate (0.2
m3/hr/m2)
Size of sand Effective size (0.2-0.3 mm) Gravel (3-4 layers) 0.3 m
Uniformity coefficient (5) depth
Freeboard 0.2 m Underdrains (made of 0.2 m
bricks or perforated
pipes)
Uses of slow sand filters
Best suited for smalller plants and for purifying water with low colour, low turbidity and low bacterial
contents.
Require huge surface area and large volume of filtering materials
Costly, uneconomical for treating large scale supplies.

Problem
Design six slow sand filter beds from following data
Population to be served = 50000 persons
Per capita demand = 150 litres/capita/day
Rate of filtration = 180 litres/ hr/sq. m
Length of each bed = twice the breadth
Max demand is 1.8 times of average daily demand
Assume one unit out of six will be kept as stand by.
 RAPID SAND FILTER

Slow sand filter requires

Huge area for their installation (Due to slow rate)
Require huge quantities of filter material
1. RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS: One which utilize comparatively larger sized sand particles which allow greater rate
of filtration as compared to that of slow sand filters.
2. PRESSURE FILTERS: One which utilise the development of pressure over the filtering water and thereby
increasing the rate of filtration.
Rapid gravity filter
Enclosure tank
Filter media
Base material
Under-drainage system
Other appurtenances (Wash water Trough, Air compressor, Rate controller, Miscellaneous accessories)
Enclosure tank
Open water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete
Depth of tank: 2.5-3.5 m
Area of the filter units: limited to about 10-80 m2 (In order to achieve uniform distribution of water)

Number of units at a filter plant 𝑁 = 1.22 𝑄

Q = plant capacity in million litres per day.
There should be atleast two filter units in any plant.
No single unit should have a capacity greater than one-fourth of the capacity of that plant if plant requires to
filter more than 9 Million litres per day.
Filter media
Filtering media consists of sand layers about 60-90 cm in depth and placed over a gravel support
Effective size of sand D10 = 0.35-0.55 mm
Uniformity coefficient (D60 / D10 ) = 1.2-1.8
Finer sand should be used towards the top and coarser sand towards bottom.
Base Material
Base material is gravel and it supports the sand and it distributes the wash water in rapid gravity filter.
It consists of 60-90 cm thick gravels of different sizes placed in layers
Generally 5-6 layers each of 10-15 cm in depth are used.
Coarsest gravel about 40 mm in size is used in bottom layer and finest gravel (about 3 mm in size) is used in
the top most layer.
20-40 mm size of gravel bottom most layer
12-20 mm size of gravel intermediate layer 1
6-12 mm size of gravel intermediate layer 2
3-6 mm size of gravel Top most layer
Distribution of wash water is the critical function of the gravel layer and careful grading and careful placing is
necessary.
Under-drainage system
1. To receive and collect the filtered water
2. To allow backwashing for cleaning of filter
• The underdrainage system should be designed in such a way that in addition to collecting the filtered water during
its downward flow, it should be capable of passing the wash water upward at a high rate of about 300-900
litres/minute/ m2 of filter area.
• Since the rate of application of wash water is so much higher than the rate of filtration (6-16 times the rate of
filtration), the design of the underdrainage system is primarily governed by the consideration of even and uniform
distribution of wash water.
Various forms of underdrainage system
l Manifold and lateral system
l The wheeler bottom
l The porous plate bottom
Manifold and lateral system →
l Perforated pipe system
l Pipe and strainer system
• A manifold and lateral system type installation consists of about 40 cm diameter manifold pipe running length
wise along the centre of the filter bottom.
• Taking off from the manifold in both directions at right angles to it would be 10 cm dia laterals.
• The laterals are placed at about 15-30 cm apart
Perforated pipe system
Lateral drains are provided with holes at the bottom side
l 6-13mm dia. holes are made, inclined 300 with vertical, near bottom
l The holes are spaced at about 7.5-20 cm centre to centre for 6-13 mm dia pipes respectively.
l Sometimes holes are staggered instead of being continuous
l Sometimes brass bushings are inserted
l Placed over 40-50 mm cement concrete block.
Pipe and strainer type system
The laterals are attached to the manifold but holes are not drilled into the laterals
Instead of drilling holes, strainers are placed on the lateral drains.
A strainer is a small brass pipe closed at its top by a perforated cup.
Such strainers are placed at about 15 cm apart on lateral drains instead of drilling holes into them
In certain cases, the strainers are even fixed directly on the central drain without any laterals.
Section of the manifold and lateral system in which laterals are provided with strainers
When pipe and strainer system is provided, compressed air is used while backwashing the filter which can save the
wash water.
When no strainers are used, the agitation of sand particles is done by water-jet and the back wash is required at a
high velocity.
The rate of water application being of the order of 700-800 litre/minute/ sq. m filter area (High velocity wash) but
when strainers are used, wash water is required at low rate of about 250-300 litres/min/sq. m of filter area
because compressed air assists in agitating the sand particles (Slow velocity wash)
Designing of the Size of the pipes
• The total cross sectional area of perforations should be about 0.2 percent of the total filter area
• The cross sectional area of each lateral should be about 2-4 times the total cross-sectional area of perforations
in it, for diameter of perforations 13 mm and 6 mm respectively.
• The cross sectional area of the manifold should be about twice the cross-sectional areas of the lateral drains.
• Length of each lateral/Diameter of the lateral should not be greater than 60.
• Maximum permissible velocity in the manifold to provide the required amount of wash water is about 1.8-2.4
m/sec.
other appurtenances:
Wash water troughs:
The dirty wash water which comes out of the filter is collected in wash water troughs or gutters and carried
to main gutter.
These gutters may be square, V-shaped or semicircular.
They should be set at such an elevation that the overflow lip will be at or somewhere above the top of the
sand rise otherwise sand may be washed out of the filter.
Their tops are therefore generally kept atleast above the sand bed by a distance of about half the depth of
the sand and their bottoms adjusted usually 5cm above the top of the sand surface.
Flat bottom troughs, particularly with clearance above the sand less than half of the depth of sand cause
sand boiling during washing and therefore avoided.
These troughs are generally spaced at about 1.5-2.0 m apart. This spacing limits the horizontal distance
travelled by the wash water before entering the trough to 0.75-1.0 m and the water surface during washing
is maintained.
These troughs should be large enough and laid at suitable slopes
AIR COMPRESSOR
Sand grains are agitated during back washing either by water jet or by compressed air or by mechanical rakes.
Generally compressor should be able to supply compressed air for about 4 minutes at a rate of about 600-800
litres/minute/sqm of filter area
The pressure of the compressed air should be sufficient to overcome the frictional resistances offered by the air
pipes and the column of water lying above the air distribution system.
The compressed air is supplied either through the laterals or through separate pipe system.
RATE CONTROLLER
Rate controllers are required to be fitted at the outlet end of each filter unit in order to obtain a uniform rate of
filtration irrespective of head loss through the filter.
Venturi rate controller is generally used which works on the principle of venturimeter.
MISCELLANEOUS ACCESSORIES
Head loss indicator: It is a differential type of a mercury gauge, one end of which is connected to the water
resting on the sand bed and the other to the effluents coming from filter
Meters: installed for measuring discharge at entry and exit and also at backwash
WORKING AND CLEANING OF RAPID GRAVITY FILTER
Valve 1 is first of all opened: leads the effluent of the coagulation sedimentation plant to enter the inlet chamber
of the filter.
This water gets filtered through the filter beds and the filtered water can be taken out from the main drain by
opening valve 4.
This filtered water can be taken to the disinfection unit.
Valve 1 & 4 is kept open when filter is in working condition and all other valves remain closed.

BACK WASHING
Valve 1 & 4 closed and valve 5 & 6 are opened. The wash water and compressed air are thus forced upward from
the upper drainage through the gravel and sand beds.
Valve 5 is closed after supplying required amount of air
The dirty water resulting from washings, overflows into the wash water troughs and is removed by opening valve 2
through the inlet chamber into the wash water gutter.
For backwashing system
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=61GlQbwLIY8
The process of washing the filters and removing the dirty water is generally continued for a period of 3-5 minutes.
After washing of the filter has been completed, valve 2 and 6 will be closed and valve 1 & 3 are opened
This restores the inlet supply through valve 1 but the filtered water in the beginning is not collected and washed
for a few minutes through valve 3 to the gutter.
This is necessary because the remains of the wash water must be removed from the voids of the filter and a
surface mat must be allowed to be formed on sand.
Then valve 3 is closed and valve 4 is opened to get filtered supplies again.
Entire process of back washing the filters and re-maintaining filtered supplies takes about 15 minutes and the
filter unit remains out of operation for this much of time.
The amount of water required for washing a rapid gravity filter may vary from 2-5% of the total amount of water
filtered .
Rapid gravity filters get clogged very frequently and have to be washed every 24-48 hours.
Normally 10-15 minutes are required in washing but in recommissioning, a total of 30 minutes may be
consumed.
The pressure at which wash water is supplied is about 40 kN/m2.
Large volume of wash water containing low concentration of solids (100-1000 mg/l), will be evolved from the
water treatment plants using filters.
These filters can also be washed efficiently by surface wash.
Clean filtered water is applied to the sand bed from the top by means of nozzles. Rate of application of wash
water may range 200-600 litres/minute/sqm. and it may be applied under a pressure of 10-20 m head of
water.
The water letting out of the nozzles cleaning the top layers easily. Since the trapped particles in top layer can
not be easily cleaned by backwashing, surface wash may be used to supplement the back wash.
LOSS OF HEAD AND NECESSITY OF CLEANING
The water percolating through the filter moves downward under the force of gravity. This motion is opposed by
the resistance offered by the sand grains and the impurities arrested in them. The percolating water therefore
losses some of its head.
The loss of head can be easily computed by knowing the water level in the filter and the pressure of water in
the outlet pipe. The difference between the two heads will give the loss of head called filter head.
The loss of head is measured by inserting two piezometers, one in the water standing over the filter and other
in the outlet pipe. The difference in the readings of these two piezometers will give the loss of head.
When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head is very small 15-30 cm. The loss of head goes on
increasing as the time passes and as more and more impurities get trapped into it.
A stage is reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media exceeds the static head of water
above the sand bed. Most of this resistance is caused by the top 10-15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand then
acts like more vacuum and water is sucked through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it.
The negative pressure tend to release the dissolved air and other gases present in water.
The formation of bubbles takes place which stick to the sand grains and thereby seriously affecting the
working of the filter. The phenomenon is known as air binding as the air binds the filter and stops its
functioning.
Loss of head is generally limited to 2.5-3.5 m and the negative head to about 1.2 m.
OPERATIONAL TROUBLES IN RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS

1. air binding
2. formation of mud balls
3. cracking of filters

Formation of mud balls:

The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface so as to form a dense mat. During
inadequate washing of the filter, this mud may sink down into the sand bed. This mud then sticks to the sand
grains and other arrested impurities forming mud balls. These mud balls slowly and steadily go on increasing in
size and weight and may sink down to the gravel, thus interfering with the upward movement of wash water
during cleaning. They cause turbulences around them and thus hinder with the uniform application of wash
water. The high velocity created around the edges of these balls, also displaces the gravel and thereby forming
mounds.
Use of surface wash technique can eliminate mud balls. Also mud balls can be reduced by
1. Breaking them up with rakes or some such equipment and then washing off the particles.
2. Washing the filter with solution of caustic soda or some other chemicals
3. Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.
Cracking of filters
The fine sand contained in the top layers of filter bed shrinks and develops the shrinkage cracks.
These cracks are prominent near wall junctions.
With the use of filter, the loss of head and therefore the pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing which
further widen the cracks.
The floc, mud and impurities arrested in the filter, penetrate deep into the filter through these cracks.

Rate of filtration: 3000-6000litres/hour/sqm of filter area

Efficiency: Remove 80-90% of bacterial load
Removed turbidity about 35-40 mg/lit
Removal of colour to 10 on cobalt scale
Design the approximate dimensions of a set of rapid gravity filters for treating water required for a population
of 50000, the rate of supply being 180 litres per day per person. The filters are rated to work 5000 litres per
hour per sq.m. Assume suitable data if necessary.

Design a rapid sand filter unit for 4 million litres per day of supply with all its principal components.
Slow Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters
•Pre treatment requirement: Effluents either from plain sedimentation tank or raw waters
are fed in SSF whereas coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation is must in RSF.
•Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while in
RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
•Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55
and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
•Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in
RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
•Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
•Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may
be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
•Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to
clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without compressed air.
•Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the
final limit when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is
the final limit when cleaning is required.
•Period of cleaning: SSF cleaned at interval of 1-3 months but RSF cleaned frequently
at intervals of 1-3 days.
•Quantity of wash water required: 0.2-0.6 percent of total filter water is required for
SSF but 1-5 percent of total filter water is required for RSF.
•Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing the top 1.5-3 cm thick layer and washing
down by hoses in SSF but Agitating the sand grain through backwashing with or without
compressed air in RSF.
 DISINFECTION

METHODS OF DISINFECTION

PHYSICAL METHOD:
• DISINFECTION BY HEAT: BOILING WATER
• DISINFECTION BY LIGHT: SUNLIGHT (NATURAL DISINFECTANT); ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
• CHEMICAL METHOD
OXIDISING CHEMICALS
• The Halogens: Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine
• Ozone
• Potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide
METAL IONS
• Silver and copper ions
ALKALIS AND ACIDS
• pH > 11 or pH < 3: pathogenic bacteria donot survive
SURFACE ACTIVE CHEMICALS
Advantages & Disadvantages of Ozone as disinfectant
Advantages
Ozone is being unstable, nothing remains in water, by the time time it reaches the distribution system
Ozone removes the colour, taste and odour from water, in addition to removing the bacteria from it.
The ozonized water becomes tasty and pleasant unlike the chlorinated water which becomes bitter to tongue.

Disadvantages
It is very costly and much costlier than chlorination
Ozone needs electricity for its manufacture and hence it can be used only when electricity is available easily and
cheaply.
No residuals can be maintained because it is highly unstable and thus its use doesnot ensure safety against
possible future contamination.
Complicated ozone manufacturing apparatus called ozoniser is required to be installed at the treatment plants
because it can not be supplied in cylinders as chlorine can be.
Treatment with ultra-violet rays
These rays usually found in sunlight and can be prepared by passing electric current through mercury
enclosed in quartz bulbs.
Water to be treated with ultra-violet ray should less turbid (< 15 mg/lit) and low in colour (Colourless).
Sterilisation with UV rays doesnot impart any additional taste or odour to water
It is very costly, possibility of interruption due to failure of electricity.
This method is useful for treating swimming pool water and suitable where cost is a minor factor.
Treatment with Potassium Permanganate:
Disinfecting well water in villages
It also helps in oxidizing the taste producing organic matter.
Normal dose is 1-2 mg/lit with a contact period of 4-6 hours
It can remove about 98% of bacteria. It can possible remove 100% organisms causing cholera.
 DISINFECTION

When chlorine is dissolved in water at temperatures between 90C – 1000C, it reacts to form hypochlorous
and hydrochloric acid.
𝐶𝑙! + 𝐻! 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝐻 > 5)
Hypochlorous acid (since it is unstable) dissociates into hydrogen ion and hypochlorite ion.
𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 ↔ 𝐻 " + 𝑂𝐶𝑙# (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝐻 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
The dissociation of HOCl into ions is more effective at high pH values and vice versa. pH > 10, only OCl ions
are formed. pH <7 but more than 5; HOCl exist without dissociating into Ocl ions and pH < 5 chlorine does
not react and remains as elemental chlorine.
At pH < 5 chlorine exist as elemental chlorine.
At pH 5-7, It remains in the form of hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
At pH 7-10, it remains in the form of both hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions. Concentration of HOCl
decreases and OCl increases as pH increases.
At pH > 10, only OCl ion exist.
DISINFECTION
 DISINFECTION

The chlorine existing in water as molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions and their
sum is known as free chlorine.
It is the hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions which accomplish disinfection.
Disinfection efficiency depends upon the ratio of hypochlorous acid to the hypochlorite ions. Higher
efficiency at higher ratio.
Hypochlorous acid is about 80 times effective than hypochlorite ions
Therefore, pH of water to be treated should be maintained at less than 7 to prevent ionization of HOCl.
Chlorine will also react with ammonia present in water to form various chloramines and found to
possess disinfecting properties. They can remove odour upto certain extent.

𝑁𝐻$ + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝐻! 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻! 𝑂 (𝑁𝐻! 𝐶𝑙 Mono Chloramine; Predominates pH > 7.5)

𝑁𝐻! 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙! + 𝐻! 𝑂 (𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙! Di- Chloramine; Predominates pH at 5- 6.5)
𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙! + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝐶𝑙$ + 𝐻! 𝑂 (𝑁𝐶𝑙$ Nitrogen Tri- Chloramine, Predominates pH<4.4)

Combined chlorine is less effective (25 times less effective) than free chlorine in causing disinfection
 Use of hypochlorite and bleaching powder

𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐶𝑙 ! 40 + 2 ∗ 16 + 35 = 142) ⟺ 𝐶𝑎"" + 2𝑂𝐶𝑙# (2*(16+35)=102

𝑂𝐶𝑙# + 𝐻 " ⟺ HOCl# (Hypochlorite ions may combine with hydrogen ions present in water to form hypochlorous acid

A 100% pure hypochlorite should contain free available chlorine equal to Ocl- value of the compound.
142 parts of calcium hypochlorite will contain 102 parts of free chlorine (around 70%)
Chlorine usage in the treatment of 20000 cubic meter per day is 8kg/day. The
residual after 10 minute contact period is 0.2 mg/lit. Calculate the dosage in mg/lit
and chlorine demand of water.

It is required to supply water to a population of 20000 at a per capita demand of 150

litres/day. The disinfectant used for chlorination is bleaching powder which contains
30 percent of available chlorine. Determine how much of bleaching powder is
required annually if 0.3 ppm of chlorine dose is required for disinfection.
 TYPES OF CHLORINATION
Plain Chlorination:
Only chlorine treatment and no other treatment has been given to raw water.
Raw water fed into distribution system after chlorination only that helps in removing bacetria, organic matter and
colour from raw water.
May be helpful for relatively clear water (turbidity < 20-30 mg/lit)
Pre-Chlorination
It is the process of applying chlorine to water before sedimentation-coagulation.
It helps in improving coagulation, reduces load on filter, reduces taste, odour, algae and other organisms if present.
Chlorine dose should be such that residual chlorine of about 0.1-0.5 mg/lit
Post-Chlorination
Normal standard process of applying chlorine at the end (after filtration).
Chlorine dose should be such that residual chlorine of about 0.1-0.2 mg/lit after a contact period of 20 minutes
Double Chlorination: Water has been chlorinated twice (Pre chlorination and Post chlorination)
Pre chlorination is used when water is highly turbid and contaminated.
Super Chlorination

It indicates the addition of excess amount of chlorine (5-15 mg/lit) to the water.
It requires in special cases of highly contaminated water or during epidemics of water borne diseases.
If water contains cysts of histolytica (cause amoeba dysentery), super chlorination is required.
1-2 mg/lit of residual chlorine exist beyond break point
Dechlorination may be required later by using dechlorinating agents (Sodium thiosulphate, activated
carbon, sulphur dioxide gas etc.). This ensures the removal of bad taste and odours caused by the
presence of excess chlorine.
Dechlorination
This the process of removal of excess chlorine from water.