Brower V County of Inyo

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Brower v. County of Inyo, 489 U.S. 593 (1989)
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109 S.Ct. 1378, 103 L.Ed.2d 628
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109 S.Ct. 1378
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Supreme Court of the United States
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Georgia BROWER, Individually and as Administrator of the Estate of William James
Caldwell (Brower), Deceased, et al., Petitioners
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v.
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COUNTY OF INYO et al.
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No. 87\u8211\'3f248.
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Argued Jan. 11, 1989.
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Decided March 21, 1989.
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Section 1983 action was brought alleging that police officers, acting under color
of state law, violated rights of decedent who was killed when stolen car he was
driving at high speeds to elude pursuing police crashed into police roadblock, on
basis that roadblock constituted unreasonable seizure due to excessive force. The
United States District Court for the Eastern District of California, Robert E.
Coyle, J., dismissed action and appeal was taken. The Court of Appeals, Ninth
Circuit, Goodwin, Circuit Judge,
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reversed in part, affirmed in part and remanded. The Supreme Court, Justice
Scalia, held that: (1) decedent was subject to Fourth Amendment seizure by
placement of roadblock, and (2) complaint adequately alleged unreasonable seizure
for purposes of \u167\'3f 1983 liability.
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Justice Stevens filed opinion concurring in judgment in which Justices Brennan,
Marshall and Blackmun joined.
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Opinion on remand,
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What Constitutes a Seizure or Detention
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Fourth Amendment seizure does not occur whenever there is governmentally caused
termination of individual\rquote s freedom of movement even if desirable, such as
in case of fleeing felon, but only when there is governmental termination of
freedom of movement through means intentionally applied.
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U.S.C.A. Const.Amend. 4
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Driver of stolen car who was attempting to elude police was \u8220\'3fseized\
u8221\'3f for purposes of Fourth Amendment, when police officers placed 18\
u8211\'3fwheel truck completely across highway in path of flight.
}
.
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{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
"http://www.westlaw.com/Browse/Home/KeyNumber/78k1088(3)/View.html?
Searches and seizures
\par
}
}
}
cellx600
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\u8220\'3fSeizure\u8221\'3f alone is not enough for \u167\'3f 1983 liability;
seizure must also be unreasonable.
}
;
}
findType=L&pubNum=1000546&cite=42USCAS1983&originatingDoc=If5be02d09c1f11d9bdd1cfdd
42 U.S.C.A. \u167\'3f 1983
.
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{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
"http://www.westlaw.com/Browse/Home/KeyNumber/78k1395(6)/View.html?
Arrest, search, and detention
\par
}
}
}
cellx600
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{\li30 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri30 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
Section 1983
complaint which alleged that police officers, acting under color of state law,
violated rights of decedent who was killed when stolen car he had been driving at
high speeds to elude pursuing police crashed into police roadblock, stated cause of
action under Fourth Amendment on basis that seizure was unreasonable due to
excessive force; complaint alleged that roadblock was placed in such manner as to
be likely to kill decedent.
}
;
}
42 U.S.C.A. \u167\'3f 1983
.
\par
}
}
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Arrest
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Alleged use of roadblock to stop driver of stolen car constituted \
u8220\'3fseizure\u8221\'3f within meaning of Fourth Amendment.
}
.
\par
}
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**1379
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{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*593
}
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{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Syllabus
\par
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}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
Petitioners\rquote decedent (Brower) was killed when the stolen car he had been
driving at high speeds to elude pursuing police crashed into a police roadblock.
Petitioners brought suit under
}
42 U.S.C. \u167\'3f 1983
}}}
in Federal District Court, claiming,
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
inter alia,
}
}
that respondents, acting under color of law, violated Brower\rquote s Fourth
Amendment rights by effecting an unreasonable seizure using excessive force.
Specifically, the complaint alleges that respondents placed an 18\u8211\'3fwheel
truck completely across the highway in the path of Brower\rquote s flight, behind a
curve, with a police cruiser\rquote s headlights aimed in such fashion as to blind
Brower on his approach.
}
It also alleges that the fatal collision was a \u8220\'3fproximate result\
u8221\'3f of this police conduct. The District Court dismissed for failure to state
a claim, concluding that the roadblock was not unreasonable under the
circumstances, and the Court of Appeals affirmed on the ground that no \
u8220\'3fseizure\u8221\'3f had occurred.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
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{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Held:
\par
}
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
1. Consistent with the language, history, and judicial construction of the Fourth
Amendment, a seizure occurs when governmental termination of a person\rquote s
movement is effected through means intentionally applied. Because the complaint
alleges that Brower was stopped by the instrumentality set in motion or put in
place to stop him, it states a claim of Fourth Amendment \u8220\'3fseizure.\
u8221\'3f Pp. 1380\u8211\'3f1382.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
2. Petitioners can claim the right to recover for Brower\rquote s death because the
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
**1380
}
}
unreasonableness alleged consists precisely of setting up the roadblock in such a
manner as to be likely to kill him. On remand, the Court of Appeals must determine
whether the District Court erred in concluding that the roadblock was not \
u8220\'3funreasonable.\u8221\'3f Pp. 1382\u8211\'3f1383.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
817 F.2d 540 (CA9 1987)
}}}
, reversed and remanded.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
SCALIA, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which REHNQUIST, C.J., and
WHITE, O\rquote CONNOR, and KENNEDY, JJ., joined. STEVENS, J., filed an opinion
concurring in the judgment, in which BRENNAN, MARSHALL, and BLACKMUN, JJ., joined,
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
post,
}
}
p. \u8211\'3f\u8211\'3f\u8211\'3f\u8211\'3f.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
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Attorneys and Law Firms
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*U.S.594
}
}
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Robert G. Gilmore
}
}
argued the cause for petitioners. With him on the briefs was
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Craig A. Diamond.
\par
}
}
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Philip W. McDowell
}
}
argued the cause for respondents. With him on the brief was
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Gregory L. James.
\par
}
}
}
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Opinion
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Justice SCALIA delivered the opinion of the Court.
\par
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{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
On the night of October 23, 1984, William James Caldwell (Brower) was killed when
the stolen car that he had been driving at high speeds for approximately 20 miles
in an effort to elude pursuing police crashed into a police roadblock. His heirs,
petitioners here, brought this action in Federal District Court under
}
42 U.S.C. \u167\'3f 1983
}}}
, claiming,
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
inter alia,
}
}
that respondents used \u8220\'3fbrutal, excessive, unreasonable and unnecessary
physical force\u8221\'3f in establishing the roadblock, and thus effected an
unreasonable seizure of Brower, in violation of the Fourth Amendment. Petitioners
alleged that \u8220\'3funder color of statutes, regulations, customs and usages,\
u8221\'3f respondents (1) caused an 18\u8211\'3fwheel tractor-trailer to be placed
across both lanes of a two-lane highway in the path of Brower\rquote s flight,
(2) \u8220\'3feffectively concealed\u8221\'3f this roadblock by placing it behind a
curve and leaving it unilluminated, and (3) positioned a police car, with its
headlights on, between Brower\rquote s oncoming vehicle and the truck, so that
Brower would be \u8220\'3fblinded\u8221\'3f on his approach. App. 8\u8211\'3f9.
Petitioners further alleged that Brower\rquote s fatal collision with the truck was
\u8220\'3fa proximate result\u8221\'3f of this official conduct.
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Id.,
}
}
at 9. The District Court granted respondents\rquote motion to dismiss the
complaint for failure to state a claim on the ground (insofar as the Fourth
Amendment claim was concerned) that \u8220\'3festablishing a roadblock [was] not
unreasonable under the circumstances.\u8221\'3f App. to Pet. for Cert. A\
u8211\'3f21. A divided panel of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed
the dismissal of the Fourth Amendment claim on the basis that no \u8220\'3fseizure\
u8221\'3f had occurred.
}
ca3a4&refType=RP&fi=co_pp_sp_350_545&originationContext=document&vr=3.0&rs=cblt1.0&
transitionType=DocumentItem&contextData=(sc.DocLink)#co_pp_sp_350_545" }{\fldrslt
817 F.2d 540, 545\u8211\'3f546 (1987)
}}}
. We granted certiorari,
}
487 U.S. 1217, 108 S.Ct. 2869, 101 L.Ed.2d 904 (1988)
}}}
, to resolve a conflict between that decision and the contrary holding
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*595
}
}
of the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Jamieson v. Shaw,
}
}
772 F.2d 1205 (1985)
}}}
.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution provides:
\par
}
}
{\li200 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li200 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li1000 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri800 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li1000 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri800 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
\u8220\'3fThe right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and
no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation,
and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to
be seized.\u8221\'3f
\par
}
}
}
}
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
In
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Tennessee v. Garner,
}
}
471 U.S. 1, 105 S.Ct. 1694, 85 L.Ed.2d 1 (1985)
}}}
\sb200
, all Members of the Court agreed that a police officer\rquote s fatal shooting of
a fleeing suspect constituted a Fourth Amendment \u8220\'3fseizure.\u8221\'3f See
}
ca3a4&refType=RP&fi=co_pp_sp_708_1699&originationContext=document&vr=3.0&rs=cblt1.0
&transitionType=DocumentItem&contextData=(sc.DocLink)#co_pp_sp_708_1699" }{\fldrslt
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
id.,
}
}
at 7, 105 S.Ct., at 1699;
}}}
\sb200
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
id.,
}
}
at 25, 105 S.Ct., at 1708
}}}
\sb200
(O\rquote CONNOR, J., dissenting). We reasoned that \u8220\'3f[w]henever an
officer restrains the freedom of a person to walk away, he has seized that person.\
u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Id.,
}
}
at 7, 105 S.Ct., at 1699.
}}}
\sb200
While acknowledging
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Garner,
}
}
the Court of Appeals here concluded that no \u8220\'3fseizure\u8221\'3f occurred
when Brower collided with the police roadblock because \u8220\'3f[p]rior to his
failure to stop voluntarily, his freedom of movement was never arrested or
restrained\u8221\'3f and because \u8220\'3f[h]e had a number
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
**1381
}
}
of opportunities to stop his automobile prior to the impact.\u8221\'3f
}
817 F.2d, at 546.
}}}
\sb200
Essentially the same thing, however, could have been said in
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Garner.
}
}
Brower\rquote s independent decision to continue the chase can no more eliminate
respondents\rquote responsibility for the termination of his movement effected by
the roadblock than Garner\rquote s independent decision to flee eliminated the
Memphis police officer\rquote s responsibility for the termination of his movement
effected by the bullet.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
The Court of Appeals was impelled to its result by consideration of what it
described as the \u8220\'3fanalogous situation\u8221\'3f of a police chase in which
the suspect unexpectedly loses control of his car and crashes. See
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Galas v. McKee,
}
}
801 F.2d 200, 202\u8211\'3f203 (CA6 1986)
}}}
(no seizure in such circumstances). We agree that no unconstitutional seizure
occurs there, but not for a reason that has any application to the present case.
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*596
}
}
Violation of the Fourth Amendment requires an intentional acquisition of physical
control. A seizure occurs even when an unintended person or thing is the object of
the detention or taking, see
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Hill v. California,
}
}
401 U.S. 797, 802\u8211\'3f805, 91 S.Ct. 1106, 1110\u8211\'3f1111, 28 L.Ed.2d 484
(1971)
}}}
; cf.
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Maryland v. Garrison,
}
}
480 U.S. 79, 85\u8211\'3f89, 107 S.Ct. 1013, 1017\u8211\'3f1020, 94 L.Ed.2d 72
(1987)
}}}
, but the detention or taking itself must be willful. This is implicit in the
word \u8220\'3fseizure,\u8221\'3f which can hardly be applied to an unknowing act.
The writs of assistance that were the principal grievance against which the Fourth
Amendment was directed, see
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Boyd v. United States,
}
}
116 U.S. 616, 624\u8211\'3f625, 6 S.Ct. 524, 528\u8211\'3f529, 29 L.Ed. 746 (1886)
}}}
; T. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations *301\u8211\'3f*302, did not involve
unintended consequences of government action. Nor did the general warrants issued
by Lord Halifax in the 1760\rquote s, which produced \u8220\'3fthe first and only
major litigation in the English courts in the field of search and seizure,\
u8221\'3f T. Taylor, Two Studies in Constitutional Interpretation 26 (1969),
including the case we have described as a \u8220\'3fmonument of English freedom\
u8221\'3f \u8220\'3fundoubtedly familiar\u8221\'3f to \u8220\'3fevery American
statesman\u8221\'3f at the time the Constitution was adopted, and considered to
be \u8220\'3fthe true and ultimate expression of constitutional law,\u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Boyd, supra,
}
}
at 626, 6 S.Ct., at 530
}}}
(discussing
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Entick v. Carrington,
}
}
19 How.St.Tr. 1029,
}
findType=Y&cite=95ENGREP807&originatingDoc=If5be02d09c1f11d9bdd1cfdd544ca3a4&refTyp
e=IC&originationContext=document&vr=3.0&rs=cblt1.0&transitionType=DocumentItem&cont
extData=(sc.DocLink)" }{\fldrslt
95 Eng.Rep. 807 (K.B. 1765)
}}}
). In sum, the Fourth Amendment addresses \u8220\'3fmisuse of power,\u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Byars v. United States,
}
}
273 U.S. 28, 33, 47 S.Ct. 248, 250, 71 L.Ed. 520 (1927)
}}}
, not the accidental effects of otherwise lawful government conduct.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
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{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i0
{\*\bkmkstart co_anchor_B11989042020_1}{\*\bkmkend co_anchor_B11989042020_1}
}
Thus, if a parked and unoccupied police car slips its brake and pins a passerby
against a wall, it is likely that a tort has occurred, but not a violation of the
Fourth Amendment. And the situation would not change if the passerby happened, by
lucky chance, to be a serial murderer for whom there was an outstanding arrest
warrant\u8212\'3feven if, at the time he was thus pinned, he was in the process of
running away from two pursuing constables. It is clear, in other words, that a
Fourth Amendment seizure does not occur whenever there is a governmentally caused
termination of an
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*597
}
}
individual\rquote s freedom of movement (the innocent passerby), nor even whenever
there is a governmentally caused and governmentally
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
desired
}
}
termination of an individual\rquote s freedom of movement (the fleeing felon), but
only when there is a governmental termination of freedom of movement
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
through means intentionally applied.
}
}
That is the reason there was no seizure in the hypothetical situation that
concerned the Court of Appeals. The pursuing police car sought to stop the suspect
only by the show of authority represented by flashing lights and continuing
pursuit; and though he was in fact stopped, he was stopped by a different means\
u8212\'3fhis loss of control of his vehicle and the subsequent crash. If, instead
of that, the police cruiser had pulled alongside the fleeing car and sideswiped it,
producing the crash, then the termination of the suspect\rquote s freedom of
movement would have been a seizure.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
This analysis is reflected by our decision in
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
**1382
}
}
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Hester v. United States,
}
}
265 U.S. 57, 44 S.Ct. 445, 68 L.Ed. 898 (1924)
}}}
, where an armed revenue agent had pursued the defendant and his accomplice after
seeing them obtain containers thought to be filled with \u8220\'3fmoonshine
whisky.\u8221\'3f During their flight they dropped the containers, which the agent
recovered. The defendant sought to suppress testimony concerning the containers\
rquote contents as the product of an unlawful seizure. Justice Holmes, speaking
for a unanimous Court, concluded: \u8220\'3fThe defendant\rquote s own acts, and
those of his associates, disclosed the jug, the jar and the bottle\u8212\'3fand
there was no seizure in the sense of the law when the officers examined the
contents of each after they had been abandoned.\u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Id.,
}
}
at 58, 44 S.Ct., at 446.
}}}
Thus, even though the incriminating containers were unquestionably taken into
possession as a result (in the broad sense) of action by the police, the Court held
that no seizure had taken place. It would have been quite different, of course, if
the revenue agent had shouted, \u8220\'3fStop and give us those bottles, in the
name of the law!\u8221\'3f and the defendant and his accomplice had complied. Then
the taking of possession would have been
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*598
}
}
not merely the result of government action but the result of the very means (the
show of authority) that the government selected, and a Fourth Amendment seizure
would have occurred.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
[2]
}}}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i0
}
In applying these principles to the dismissal of petitioners\rquote Fourth
Amendment complaint for failure to state a claim, we can sustain the District
Court\rquote s action only if, taking the allegations of the complaint in the light
most favorable to petitioners, see
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Scheuer v. Rhodes,
}
}
416 U.S. 232, 236, 94 S.Ct. 1683, 1686, 40 L.Ed.2d 90 (1974)
}}}
, we nonetheless conclude that they could prove no set of facts entitling them to
relief for a \u8220\'3fseizure.\u8221\'3f See
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Conley v. Gibson,
}
}
355 U.S. 41, 45\u8211\'3f46, 78 S.Ct. 99, 101\u8211\'3f102, 2 L.Ed.2d 80 (1957)
}}}
. Petitioners have alleged the establishment of a roadblock crossing both lanes of
the highway. In marked contrast to a police car pursuing with flashing lights, or
to a policeman in the road signaling an oncoming car to halt, see
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Kibbe v. Springfield,
}
}
777 F.2d 801, 802\u8211\'3f803 (CA1 1985)
}}}
, cert. dism\rquote d,
}
480 U.S. 257, 107 S.Ct. 1114, 94 L.Ed.2d 293 (1987)
}}}
, a roadblock is not just a significant show of authority to induce a voluntary
stop, but is designed to produce a stop by physical impact if voluntary compliance
does not occur. It may well be that respondents here preferred, and indeed
earnestly hoped, that Brower would stop on his own, without striking the barrier,
but we do not think it practicable to conduct such an inquiry into subjective
intent. See
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
United States v. Leon,
}
}
468 U.S. 897, 922, n. 23, 104 S.Ct. 3405, 3420, n. 23, 82 L.Ed.2d 677 (1984)
}}}
; see also
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Anderson v. Creighton,
}
}
483 U.S. 635, 641, 107 S.Ct. 3034, 3039, 97 L.Ed.2d 523 (1987)
}}}
;
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Harlow v. Fitzgerald,
}
}
457 U.S. 800, 815\u8211\'3f819, 102 S.Ct. 2727, 2736\u8211\'3f2739, 73 L.Ed.2d 396
(1982)
}}}
. Nor do we think it possible, in determining whether there has been a seizure in a
case such as this, to distinguish between a roadblock that is designed to give the
oncoming driver the option of a voluntary stop (
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
e.g.,
}
}
one at the end of a long straightaway), and a roadblock that is designed precisely
to produce a collision (
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
e.g.,
}
}
one located just around a bend). In determining whether the means that terminates
the freedom of movement is the very means that the government intended we cannot
draw too fine a line, or we will be driven to saying that one is not seized who has
been
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*599
}
}
stopped by the accidental discharge of a gun with which he was meant only to be
bludgeoned, or by a bullet in the heart that was meant only for the leg. We think
it enough for a seizure that a person be stopped by the very instrumentality set in
motion or put in place in order to achieve that result. It was enough here,
therefore, that, according to the allegations of the complaint, Brower was meant to
be stopped by the physical obstacle of the roadblock\u8212\'3fand that he was so
stopped.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
[3]
}}}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i0
}
}
[4]
}}}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i0
}
This is not to say that the precise character of the roadblock is irrelevant to
further issues in this case. \u8220\'3fSeizure\u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
**1383
}
}
alone is not enough for
}
\u167\'3f 1983
}}}
liability; the seizure must be \u8220\'3funreasonable.\u8221\'3f Petitioners can
claim the right to recover for Brower\rquote s death only because the
unreasonableness they allege consists precisely of setting up the roadblock in such
manner as to be likely to kill him. This should be contrasted with the situation
that would obtain if the sole claim of unreasonableness were that there was no
probable cause for the stop. In that case, if Brower had had the opportunity to
stop voluntarily at the roadblock, but had negligently or intentionally driven into
it, then, because of lack of proximate causality, respondents, though responsible
for depriving him of his freedom of movement, would not be liable for his death.
See
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Martinez v. California,
}
}
444 U.S. 277, 285, 100 S.Ct. 553, 559, 62 L.Ed.2d 481 (1980)
}}}
;
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Cameron v. Pontiac,
}
}
813 F.2d 782, 786 (CA6 1987)
}}}
. Thus, the circumstances of this roadblock, including the allegation that
headlights were used to blind the oncoming driver, may yet determine the outcome of
this case.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
[5]
}}}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i0
}
The complaint here sufficiently alleges that respondents, under color of law,
sought to stop Brower by means of a roadblock and succeeded in doing so. That is
enough to constitute a \u8220\'3fseizure\u8221\'3f within the meaning of the Fourth
Amendment.
}
Accordingly, we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and remand for
consideration of whether the District Court properly dismissed the Fourth Amendment
claim
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*600
}
}
on the basis that the alleged roadblock did not effect a seizure that was \
u8220\'3funreasonable.\u8221\'3f
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
It is so ordered.
\par
}
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
}
}
}
}
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
Justice STEVENS, with whom Justice BRENNAN, Justice MARSHALL, and Justice BLACKMUN
join, concurring in the judgment.
\par
}
}
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\*\bkmkstart co_anchor_I5292ae133a3c11e38578f7ccc38dc}{\*\bkmkend
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\par
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
The Court is unquestionably correct in concluding that respondents\rquote use of a
roadblock to stop Brower\rquote s car constituted a seizure within the meaning of
the Fourth Amendment. I therefore concur in its judgment. I do not, however, join
its opinion because its dicta seem designed to decide a number of cases not before
the Court and to establish the proposition that \u8220\'3f[v]iolation of the Fourth
Amendment requires an intentional acquisition of physical control.\u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Ante,
}
}
at 1380.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
The intentional acquisition of physical control of something is no doubt a
characteristic of the typical seizure, but I am not entirely sure that it is an
essential element of every seizure or that this formulation is particularly helpful
in deciding close cases. The Court suggests that the test it articulates does not
turn on the subjective intent of the officer.
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
Ante,
}
}
at 1382. This, of course, not only comports with the recent trend in our cases,
see,
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf1 \i1
e.g.,
}
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Harlow v. Fitzgerald,
}
}
457 U.S. 800, 815\u8211\'3f819, 102 S.Ct. 2727, 2736\u8211\'3f2739, 73 L.Ed.2d 396
(1982)
}}}
;
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
United States v. Mendenhall,
}
}
446 U.S. 544, 554, n. 6, 100 S.Ct. 1870, 1877, n. 6, 64 L.Ed.2d 497 (1980)
}}}
(opinion of Stewart, J.), but also makes perfect sense. No one would suggest that
the Fourth Amendment provides no protection against a police officer who is too
drunk to act intentionally, yet who appears in uniform brandishing a weapon in a
threatening manner. Alternatively, however, the concept of objective intent, at
least in the vast majority of cases, adds little to the well-established rule
that \u8220\'3fa person has been \u8216\'3fseized\u8217\'3f within the meaning of
the Fourth Amendment only if, in view of all of the circumstances surrounding the
incident, a reasonable person would have believed that he was not free to leave.\
u8221\'3f
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Id.,
}
}
at 554, 100 S.Ct., at 1877
}}}
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
*601
}
}
opinion of Stewart, J.); see also
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
INS v. Delgado,
}
}
466 U.S. 210, 215, 104 S.Ct. 1758, 1762, 80 L.Ed.2d 247 (1984)
}}}
.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
There may be a case that someday comes before this Court in which the concept of
intent is useful in applying the Fourth Amendment. What is extraordinary about the
Court\rquote s discussion of the intent requirement in this case is that there is
no dispute that the roadblock was intended to stop the decedent. Decision in the
case before us is thus not advanced by pursuing a hypothetical
}
{\f2 \b1 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
**1384
}
}
inquiry concerning whether an unintentional act might also violate the Fourth
Amendment. Rather, as explained in Judge Pregerson\rquote s dissent in the Court of
Appeals, this case is plainly controlled by our decision in
}
{\f2 \b0 \fs20 \cf5 \i1
Tennessee v. Garner,
}
}
471 U.S. 1, 105 S.Ct. 1694, 85 L.Ed.2d 1 (1985)
}}}
.
}
817 F.2d 540, 548 (CA9 1987)
}}}
(opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part). In that case, we held that \
u8220\'3fthere can be no question that apprehension by the use of deadly force is a
seizure subject to the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth Amendment.\
u8221\'3f
}
471 U.S., at 7, 105 S.Ct., at 1699.
}}}
Because it was undisputed that the police officer acted intentionally, we did not
discuss the hypothetical case of an unintentional seizure. I would exercise the
same restraint here.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
{\li0 \f2 \qj \b0 \ri0 \fs20 \cf1 \i0
I am in full accord with Judge Pregerson\rquote s dissenting opinion, and, for the
reasons stated in his opinion, I join the Court\rquote s judgment.
\par
}
}
}
\u160\'3f
\par
}
}
}
}
}
}
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\par
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109 S.Ct. 1378, 103 L.Ed.2d 628
\par
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Brower V County of Inyo

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