2 Aerodynamic

A. Szymanski et al.
Applied Thermal Engineering 189 (2021) 116697
Nomenclature b Bleed slot length, m

h Compressor duct height, m
0D 0 dimensional m Mass flow rate, kg s 1
3D 3 dimensional p pressure, Pa
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage T Temperature, K
CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine t Bleed slot height, m
CCHP Combined Cooling Heat and Power U Circumferential velocity, m s 1
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics V Velocity, m s 1
CMF Corrected Mass Flow, kg s 1 y Non-dimensional wall distance, -
Comp Compressor
COT Combustor Outlet Temperature Subscripts
IVG Inlet Guide Vane 0 Total parameter
MEL Minimum Environmental Load 1 Inlet
ML Minimum Load 2 Outlet
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration AD Adiabatic (efficiency)
OGV Outlet Guide Vane ax Axial component
PR Pressure Ratio r Radial component
R Rotor s Static parameter
RES Renewable Energy Sources Greeks
RM Reattachment Modification Difference
RNG Re-Normalisation Group Efficiency
S Stator Tangential component
SST Shear Stress Transport Blade solidity as a ratio of blades chord to their spacing in
TE Trailing-Edge the peripheral direction
VIGV Variable Inlet Guide Vane Flow coefficient, -
Symbols Total pressure loss coefficient, -
a Bleed slot inclination angle, deg
locations pointed out that the rotor leading edge is the most favourable, of mass flow locally. The velocity field behind the extraction varied
with peak efficiency gains of 0.4% at 5% extraction [11]. Locally circumferentially, causing the upstream stages to deliver non-uniform
aperiodic flow extraction of 5% of core flow rate from the 1.5 stage total pressure; therefore, locally pushing the stage to unstable opera-
compressor (IGV R1 S1) upstream of R1 resulted in strong effects in tion. Cited works did not consider the performance of the whole engine
the tip region of IGV and R1 blades. Additionally, significant flow but focused only on aerodynamics.
overturning and reduced entropy generation in the tip annulus area The approach taken in this study involves the use of 0D analytical
were noticed [12]. The bleeding of air from the compressor of a jet engine model and a standalone 3D CFD multistage compressor model.
engine, operating at high load, is proven to reduce the adverse effects of The 3D numerical models provide a superior level of details than lower-
secondary flows. These include tip leakage vortex or blockage genera- dimensional and lower fidelity analytical models. In this case, the 0D
tion, aligning the vortex trajectory with the flow, thus extending the model is used to generate design and off-design boundary conditions for
surge margin [8,9]. Benefits pointed out in those studies originate from the latter, as it is not practical to simulate an engine or even a whole
the passage boundary layer ingestion that contributes to the reduction of compressor model numerically. The problem under investigation is
losses. As such, local flow extraction of up to 5% is beneficial from an unusual for the gas turbine in terms of the amount of flow extraction. As
aerodynamic point of view. such, there are no experimental data to facilitate the specification of
With regards to heavy-duty gas turbine engines, the rationale for boundary conditions for the CFD model. Besides, in practice, data
high air extraction is different. Since they operate at more stable con- measurements are not commonly conducted interstage, because of the
ditions than jet engines, the air offtakes can serve as a method to control intrusive nature of the instrumentation. In modelling, there are at least
the power output. The concept of air extraction from an industrial-scale two ways of complimenting the 3D with 0D model interaction. These can
gas turbine was studied by Cioffi et al. [13]. The work shows the uti- be using the 3D high-fidelity CFD model to alter the 0D low-fidelity
lisation of the existing single blow-off valve for minimum load extension model as in Refs [18,19,20,21,22,23], or vice-versa [24,25,26,27]. In
by air extraction up to 6.5% of the core flow. The outcomes of the some cases, the process is iterative, where the 3D high-fidelity model
analytical and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) study were vali- updates the 0D performance model, thereby improving the 3D CFD
dated on the power plant, proving the proposed concept. Peltier et al. boundary conditions for the next step. The latter of the two approaches
[14] investigated compressor air offtakes up to 13% from Siemens F- is the case in this paper, which is generally referred to as zooming
class engine. High air bleeding indicated loss reduction near the tip re- approach in the mentioned studies. In this study, the 3D model boundary
gion and increased the outlet flow angle by up to 35%, contributing to conditions of the compressor are restricted to the values determined by
unwanted flow separation. Leishman et al. [15] experimentally studied the off-design behaviour of the 0D engine model.
cascade stator hub bleed offtakes with large flows up to 15%. They The main contribution of this study is in the identification of aero-
pointed out total pressure losses and flow angle reduction in the hub dynamic limits that are related to high offtakes or extraction from the
region and overturning near the tip. Another important aspect is how the rear of the multistage compressor. The operation is associated with the
extraction is realised. Grimshaw et al. [16,17] studied the effects of improvement of the minimum load of a gas turbine and the capacity for
extraction non-uniformity on the flow distortion in a low-speed energy storage use. The relevant flow phenomenon at these limits is
compressor. With bleed rates up to 6.2%, a substantial distortion in shown and their prevalence for the respective stages. Using an engine
flow distribution at specific configurations may be present up to 25% model in the absence of experimental data also ensured that indicative

2 Aerodynamic

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A. Szymanski et al.

Applied Thermal Engineering 189 (2021) 116697

Nomenclature b Bleed slot length, m

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