NEW

INSIDE
THE WAY
OF THE
WARRIOR

BOOK OF THE

SAMURAI THE
INCREDIBLE
ST O RY O F
THE ICONIC
JA PA N E S E
FIGHTERS
Edition
Digital

ONNA-MUSHA: SHOGUN: WARLORDS RŌNIN: WANDERING

SECOND
EDITION

WOMEN OF WAR OF THE EMPIRE SWORDSMEN

 BOOK OF THE

SAMURAI
Honour. Discipline. Death-defying courage. The
samurai are among the most iconic forces the world
has ever seen. Yet alongside their military prowess
and fearsome battle rage they celebrated a strict code
of etiquette, a deep appreciation of aesthetics, and a
serene philosophy. They were warrior poets.
Discover the history of this multifaceted fighting
force, from its earliest inception on the plains of
Honshu to the internecine systems of the imperial
court and the feudal daimyo that controlled Japan’s
most fierce fighters. Explore how this unique warrior
class began, how it was refined as it rose to power
under the auspices of the shogun warlords, and
how, eventually, it was broken by the reforms of the
Meiji Emperor. On the way, you’ll meet heroes and
heroines, encounter vast armies, visit the sites of epic
battles, and learn how the samurai saw the world.
Find out how they transformed Japan through their
deeds, their words, and their legacy.
BOOK OF THE

SAMURAI Future PLC Quay House, The Ambury, Bath, BA1 1UA

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Part of the

bookazine series
CONTENTS
8 God emperors and 46 Q&A: Dr Peter Shapinsky
warrior queens 48 Historic Japan
14 The conquest of 50 Maple Viewers
northern Honshu
52 The war for
18 The Age of Tranquillity Japan’s throne
24 Taira Masakado 56 The Way of the Warrior
30 Secrets of the samurai 62 Jisei: Death poetry
38 Japanese feudal era 64 Philosophy of
40 Himeji Castle the samurai
42 Noh theatre performer 68 Daimyo: The warlords
44 Famous warriors of Japan
72 Who were Japan’s
lady samurai?
78 Japan’s Sengoku period
38
82 Legends of the Sengoku

30
 84 Shogun showdowns
90 18 86 Armour, blades
and gunpowder
88 Sekigahara
90 Kawanakajima
98 Clash of clans
106 Isolation nation
110 Samurai in the Meiji era
112 Last stand of
the samurai
122 The art of samurai
warfare
126 Feudal Japanese armour
122 The art of
samurai warfare
68 126 Feudal Japanese armour

82
 God emperors and
warrior queens
The earliest history of Japan is shrouded in myths and legends of
emperors descended from gods and queens who waged bloody wars
Written by Ben Gazur

The first emperor of Japan was the legendary

Jimmu, who led his people eastward and conquered
other kings – with the aid of a three-legged crow

8
 God emperors and warrior queens

he human history of Japan dates back at the Jōmon called themselves, but their name then began migrating to Japan around 300 BCE.

T least 30,000 years. At that point, the four

main islands of Japan were connected
and land bridges joined them to both
Korea in the south and Siberia in the
north. The first humans to occupy what is now
Japan simply walked in.
While their stories remain in the archaeological
comes from their distinctive pottery style of
intricately arranged cords, which archaeologists
call Jōmon, meaning rope-patterned. Some of the
pottery created by the later Jōmon would not look
out of place in a modern art gallery. Their stylised
pottery statues of people known as dogū so
closely resemble spacemen in suits that some take
With their arrival, 10,000 years of Jōmon culture
disappeared from the archaeological record.
Not much is known about the displacement of
the Jōmon. Was it in a single wave of migration?
Were they destroyed by warfare? The alternative
is that the Yayoi came in smaller numbers over a
long period and integrated themselves.
record as flint tools and the remnants of them to be evidence of alien contact.
settlements, we know almost nothing of their Contact with space aliens is unlikely, but when
history. The development of writing tells us what contact came between Japan and Asia it spelled
the Japanese said about themselves. What little the doom of the Jōmon people. Climate change
does emerge may be part-myth and part-truth, but around 1000 BCE saw them driven further south
it reveals a society often riven by war. in Japan by cold weather. The Yayoi of China lived
in a lush environment that dried out around the
THE JOMON AND THE YAYOI same time to create the Gobi desert of today. This
The first culture to develop in Japan was the destruction of their homelands caused a wave
Jōmon around 10,000 BCE. We do not know what of migration. At first settling in Korea, the Yayoi

The Soga clan and then the Fujiwara clan came to

dominate the royal court through marriage of their
daughters into the imperial family

Recent analysis of DNA has revealed that on

average, a modern Japanese person derives only
around ten per cent of their genes from the Jōmon.
However the Yayoi came to Japan, their offspring
swamped those of the Jōmon. The indigenous
Ainu of Japan share more DNA with the Jōmon
though, so it is possible some aspects of Jōmon
culture survived in them.
Because of their lack of a writing system, our
knowledge of Yayoi culture is limited. We do know
that they formed clans called uji. At the head of
each clan stood a man who mediated between
humans and spirits, or kami, as well as acting as
a military leader. Over times these clans grew in
power and territorial size, forming the first states
in Japan.
The Yayoi brought crucial innovations to Japan.
The cultivation of rice emerged at the same time
as the Yayoi arrived. The stone tools of the Jōmon
were abandoned in favour of metal implements
that allowed greater working of the land. Weapons
and armour of bronze and iron reached Japan
around the same time, mostly imported from
China or Korea because of the lack of metal ores
in Japan. By the 1st century CE, axe heads, spears
and swords made of iron were becoming common

9
 The first emperor of
Japan, Jimmu, is said to
have been descended
from the gods and
created the imperial
throne through conquest

throughout Japan. Conflict between clans drove Other clan leaders accepted the right of Jimmu
the need for ever more weaponry. to rule, thus marking his accession as monarch “Peace was
THE FIRST EMPEROR
of Japan. Alongside other improbable facts, we
are told that Jimmu lived to the age of 126. The
restored but did
According to the two great works of Japanese chronicles that set down the life of Jimmu were not long survive
legend written in the 8th century CE, the Kojiki written over 1,000 years after his supposed rule.
and Nihon Shoki, the first emperor of Japan Many consider Jimmu to be wholly legendary, but Himiko’s death”
was Jimmu. Born in 711 BCE, Jimmu was a some wonder whether the tale of his migration
descendant of the goddess Amaterasu and, with might have echoes of the coming of the Yayoi
his brothers, was the leader of a clan. They people to Japan.
sought a location to cement their rule. “By
dwelling in what place shall we most quietly THE CIVIL WARS OF
carry on the government of the empire? It were WA AND QUEEN HIMIKO
probably best to go east.” Much of Japanese history at this early date is
Together they led their people east. Jimmu conjectural and little can be known for sure. Early
was provided with a sword that was magically Chinese accounts of their interactions with the
sent by a deity to use in battle. As they travelled Japanese, who they called Wa, record the trade of
east, they fought a clan under the command of iron weapons and also the reasons they may have
Nagasunehiko – the long-legged man – and were been required.
defeated. Jimmu realised that because they were According to Chinese sources: “During the
fighting eastwards, they were fighting against the reigns of Huandi [147–168 CE] and Lingdi [168–189
rising of the sun and so approached from the east, CE] the country of Wa was in a state of great
under the guidance of an eight-foot-long crow. confusion, war and conflict raging on all sides.
This time Jimmu was victorious and settled the For a number of years, there was no ruler. Then Empress Kōken abdicated but continued to influence
land of Yamato. We are told that he “extirpated the a woman named Himiko appeared. Remaining behind the scenes – until she retook the throne with the
monk Dōkyō by her side
unsubmissive people”. unmarried, she occupied herself with magic and

10
 God emperors and warrior queens

JINGU AND THE SEVEN- “intended in person to chastise the West”.

BRANCHED SWORD Understanding that it was a patriarchal society
Empress Jingū is said to have reigned from that she was attempting to lead, she informed
201-269 CE following the death of her husband, her army: “Although I am a woman, and a feeble
Emperor Chūai. Chūai died without any obvious woman too, I will for a while borrow the outward
heir, and Jingū acted as regent for their unborn appearance of a man, and force myself to adopt
child. The Nihon Shoki gives an account of her rule manly counsels.”
and the many acts of warfare she carried out. With a mighty fleet and army, Jingū crossed
As soon as Jingū came to the throne, she sought the sea, taking up a battle-axe herself. When the
to put down potential rebellions. We are told that enemy king saw the forces arrayed against him,
one village leader, Hashiro Kuma-washi, would not he surrendered, completely and utterly. Other
obey imperial decrees because he was “a fellow kings and lords also offered rich annual tributes
of powerful frame, and had wings on his body, so to Jingū. After returning to Japan, she finally gave
that he could fly, and with them soar aloft”. Jingū birth to her husband’s heir – a full three years after
struck down the rebel and pacified the region. In his death. Much, it may be assumed, is legendary
one area she avoided battle by executing the sister in the tales of Jingū, but many historians do
of an obstreperous general as a warning. believe that there was a reigning empress around
Jingū’s greatest exploit, however, was her this time to whom myths and tales of Jingū were
invasion of Korea. She announced that she later attached.

The Tōdaijiyama Sword

The Kofun tombs of Japan were the burial sites of important
Japanese people – people who were often sent to the afterlife with
rich grave goods like swords
In the 140-metre-long tomb at Tōdaijiyama, who wears it will accord with the stars...”
one sword was found that revealed much The Zhongping era refers to the rule of
about Japan in the 2nd century CE. the Chinese Emperor Ling of Han, which
Inside the tomb were 29 iron swords. spanned from 184 to 189 CE.
One of these, 1.1 metres long, was inlaid Was this sword sent from China to a
with a Chinese inscription in gold, reading: Japanese king? All we can know is that the
“This ornate sword was manufactured in an sword was a treasured item. The tomb it
auspicious day of the fifth month in the… was found in was built in the 4th century,
Zhongping era. The metal from which it 200 years after the sword was first forged.
sorcery and bewitched the populace. Thereupon
has been wrought has been refined many Other inscribed swords are known, but the
they placed her on the throne.” This civil war
times; it is pure… The fortune of the one Tōdaijiyama Sword is by far the earliest.

Image source: National Land Image Information (Color Aerial Photographs), Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
of the Wa is the earliest historical war in Japan
of which we have a written record, but much
Kofun tombs were
remains mysterious. large mounds built for
Himiko is said to have been a shaman and important people and
often included rich
queen of Yamatai, whose location remains
burial goods like the
unknown. We are told she lived in a palace Tōdaijiyama Sword
surrounded by ever-vigilant guards. She had
1,000 female attendants, but only one man who
relayed her orders. Apparently Himiko was a great
ruler and brought peace to her kingdom. She sent
emissaries to the Chinese court and received
praise in return.
Himiko did not pacify all of Japan, however, and
Himikuko, ruler of a rival state, rose in conflict
against her. Peace was restored but did not long
survive Himiko’s death. “Then a king was placed
on the throne, but the people would not obey him.
Assassination and murder followed; more than
1,000 were thus slain. A relative of Himiko named
Iyo, a girl of thirteen, was then made queen and
order was restored.”
Japanese sources make no mention of Himiko,
but some scholars have sought to link her with
other powerful queens of around this time.

11
 The In the Japanese account of her life, we are told THE ARRIVAL OF BUDDHISM
that a “seven-branched” sword was presented to Japan continued to receive migrants from East

Grass-Cutting Empress Jingū as part of the tribute. Intriguingly,

a sword with seven branches off the main blade
Asia throughout the Kofun period. As well as
introducing the Chinese writing system and

Sword still exists today. Held in the Isonokami Shrine

in Nara prefecture, its Chinese inscription says:
methods of organising an imperial court, many
immigrants rose to prominent positions. The
Each person who takes the “Never before has there been such a blade. The incoming people were called Toraijin, and by the
Chrysanthemum Throne of crown prince of the king of Baekje, who lives 9th century, nearly one-quarter of the clans in the
under august sounds, had this sword made for Honshu region could trace their ancestry back to
Japan is presented with three
King of Wa in the hope that it might be passed ancestors from outside Japan.
legendary items on to later generations.” Baekje was a kingdom The migrants also brought with them Buddhism
Japan’s imperial regalia consists of an in Korea and this sword, along with the legend for the first time, marking the start of the Asuka
ancient gem, a sacred mirror, and a sword of Jingū, may tell us much about the relationship Period. In Japanese tradition, Buddhism came
known as Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi – the Grass- between Japan and Korea in antiquity. to Japan when a king from Korea sent Emperor
Cutting Sword. Kinmei Buddhist images and texts in 552 CE. The
According to a legend set down in Kojiki, UNIFICATION IN THE emperor is said to have declared: “Never have I
a 7th-century chronicle, this famous sword KOFUN PERIOD heard of such an exquisite teaching.” But while
was discovered in a battle between a god Empress Jingū is generally considered the last he may have been impressed, several clans were
and a monstrous eight-headed serpent. ruler of the Yayoi period. The Kofun period that not so taken with Buddhism. The Mononobe
Once the beast was slain, Kusanagi-no- followed is marked by the growing power of the and Nakatomi clung to the traditional teachings
Tsurugi was found inside its tail. The sword Yamato emperors, descendants of Jingū. Their of Shinto, believing that Buddhism would harm
then passed to the goddess Amaterasu, increasing power is seen in the large Kofun tombs the relationship with the kami spirits and thus
from whom all Japanese emperors are said that they were buried in, from which the period Japan. While Buddhism was not made the official
to be descended. takes its name. religion, the Soga clan was allowed to adopt it.
The sword was once used to protect These graves are packed with sophisticated The Soga clan was influential at court and
the emperor when fire spread across a arms and armour. Swords have been found with several of its members married into the imperial
field. The warrior holding it hacked down glittering, gilded hilts shaped like animals from family. Kinmei’s son, Emperor Bidatsu, married
the burning grass to put out the fire and myth. Iron armour is often decorated with bronze a daughter of the Soga clan as his second wife.
discovered with each stroke that he could and gold. These implements of war became When Bidatsu died, conflict broke out, with the
control the direction of the wind. necessary as the Yamato sought to increase their Soga looking to place the emperor’s younger, Soga,
According to one record, the original power and territory. son on the throne.
sword was lost in the Battle of Dan-no-ura At the court in Yamato, the emperors – or At the Battle of Mount Shigi, the Soga
when it was thrown into the sea to prevent Ōkimi, meaning great king, as they called triumphed. According to some, this was through
it being captured. The sword currently themselves – ruled over a complex web of clans. divine aid when they invoked Buddhist symbols.
used at coronations may therefore be an Some clans were given special roles; the Otomo What is known is that an arrow struck down the
ancient replica. The regalia are closely and Mononobe were often placed head of the Mononobe clan, his closest
guarded today so it seems unlikely whether in charge of the military, while advisers were killed, and his troops
scientific analysis will ever be done to others served ritual roles scattered. The Soga now firmly
determine the truth of the matter. or as ministers of state. embedded Buddhism into
Inconvenient sons who might Japanese culture.
The legendary Grass-Cutting otherwise have muddied They continued to influence
Sword earned its name when
Prince Yamato Takeru used it the line of the imperial imperial politics until 645
to slash down burning grass to succession were sometimes when the leader of the Nakatomi
save his emperor
given new surnames and clan conspired with Prince Ōe to
roles, occasionally creating new assassinate a member of the Soga clan.
clans in the process. This was done in front of the
Thanks to clay models left reigning Empress Kōgyoku.
as grave offerings from Shocked by the murder,
this period, we know she abdicated in favour
that there was a of her brother. The
highly developed Asuka period came to
cavalry that rode an end with the Taika
horses with saddles Reforms brought in
and stirrups. These by Prince Ōe that saw
Haniwa figures also greater centralisation of
show soldiers in suits power in the hands of
of armour made from the emperor. Clans were
overlapping plates and armed still influential, but much of
with a sword worn at the hip. their ability to control the
Using clan leaders to muster
and command armies, the
Jōmon culture flourished in Japan for
Yamato emperors were able to 10,000 years and its extraordinary
subjugate the southern half of pottery productions give tantalising
clues into their society
Japan under their rule.

12
 God emperors and warrior queens

Empress Jingū received

divine aid in her conquest
of Korea and extracted
yearly tribute from the
kings she conquered

throne was removed, limiting their overall power to him as well as control of the military. In 757, Empress Shōtoku, with the loyal Dōkyō by her
in the imperial court and making it a little harder Kōken abdicated the throne, apparently willingly, side. Unfortunately, there was no end to the power
for one clan to influence the ruler to Prince Oi, who became Emperor Junnin. and wealth Dōkyō desired. In 768 a message
Nakamaro remained one of the leading statesmen was sent from the Uza Shrine saying that the
EMPRESS KŌKEN at court despite the change in monarch. gods wanted Dōkyō to be emperor. Shōtoku
AND THE MONK DŌKYŌ Kōken continued to be a power at court, but she was puzzled by this divine order so she sent a
In 749 CE, an imperial princess took the throne fell ill in 761. The cure was found through Dōkyō, messenger to confirm that this was really what
as Empress Kōken. Her father had no direct male a Buddhist monk and son of a minor clan. Soon he the gods desired. The oracle replied:
heir and ruled alongside her. When he died in 756, was attending court with the former empress and “Since the establishment of our state, the
his will stated that Kōken’s heir would be Prince some believed that the two had become lovers. distinction between lord and subject has been
Funado. However, Kōken was convinced by the When Kōken recovered, she returned to court, fixed. Never has there been an occasion when
powerful Fujiwara no Nakamaro that Funado but, in 762, she declared that the Emperor Junnin a subject was made lord. The throne of the
Heavenly Sun Succession shall be given to one
“By the 9th century, nearly one-quarter of the of the imperial lineage; wicked persons should
immediately be swept away.”
clans in the Honshu region could trace their Dōkyō was seen as a grasping usurper and his
hold on power began to loosen. When Empress
ancestry back to ancestors from outside Japan” Shōtoku died in 770, he was removed from every
office he held and forced into exile in a low-
was insufficiently loyal to the throne and that was not acting as a ruler should. She issued an ranking monastery.
he should be replaced by Prince Oi. As soon as edict that would make Junnin a mere figurehead
this was done, conspiracies sprang up not only while all real power resided with her Threatened THE FUJIWARA CLAN
to return Funado to the line of succession, but to by the return of Kōken and an increasingly Nakamaro was just one member of the powerful
remove Empress Kōken from power. powerful Dōkyō, Nakamaro raised a rebellion. Fujiwara clan. His defeat did not lead to their
The conspiracy was soon uncovered and Kōken Nakamaro attempted to seize the insignia destruction. Many of the clan had been opposed
issued orders to her guards to arrest all involved. and seals of government as well as replacing the to his high-handed ways and refused to be drawn
The Japanese history Shoku Nihongi goes into compliant Junnin with a stronger emperor. Forced into his rebellion. They remained at court even
great detail about how the conspirators were to flee the capital, Nakamaro led his forces east, when Dōkyō was in the ascendancy.
captured, tortured and forced to confess. Empress but imperial troops sent by Kōken blocked his With the death of Kōken and the banishment of
Image source: Getty Images, Wiki

Kōken issued an edict that told her subjects how path. When battle turned against Nakamaro he Dōkyō, the clan waxed ever more powerful. They
the conspirators planned to kill Nakamaro, steal tried to escape on a boat across Lake Biwa. He was came to marry into the imperial family, served
the seals and ritual objects of the crown, and captured and, alongside his family, executed. His as regents and governors, and chose emperors
replace her on the throne. head was taken to decorate the palace walls. as they willed. The rise of the Samurai and
After the attempted coup, Nakamaro became Empress Kōken now deposed Junnin entirely professional soldiers grew under the Fujiwara as
more powerful. Vast revenues were entrusted and retook the throne for herself under the title Japan moved into the Heian period.

13
 The
conquest of
northern
Honshu
Northern Honshu was not always part of Japan;
its colonisation and conquest, and the dynamic
response by the Emishi even after their military
defeat, had a far-reaching influence on Japanese
political and military history
Written by Dr Nyri A Bakkalian

efore its annexation by the Yamato was foreign land regardless. The colonisation and

B court, northern Honshu was called

Michinoku: “beyond where the road
ends”. In the 7th century, the court’s
meaningful sphere of control extended
as far as Shirakawa Barrier (Shirakawa no seki), a
government outpost in modern-day
Fukushima prefecture, for a
conquest of northern Honshu, and the dynamic
response to that conquest by the Emishi even after
their military defeat, had a far-reaching influence
on Japanese political and military history.
In the face of this military threat at and beyond
its northern borders, the Yamato state
steadily expanded its regional control
very long time. through force. Colonisation, open
Shirakawa Barrier combat, and a line of fortress-
was so far from central “Colonisation, settlements pushed them north
Japan that even in later open combat, over the years. Yamato soldiers
poetry, “Shirakawa were posted to the region as
Barrier” survived as a and a line colonists, and as a deterrent
euphemism evoking of fortress- against Emishi uprising. As
distance. Beyond
Shirakawa Barrier in
settlements Suzuki Takuya notes in the
book Emishi to Tōhoku Sensō,
the mountains to the pushed them from 701 through the late 9th
north and east lived the north” century, the number of Yamato
people whom the Yamato troops rose from 6,000 to 10,000 in
state collectively called Emishi the year 768, before settling at around
– barbarians. They were people 8,000. Together with this buildup, in the
who stubbornly refused to submit to 8th century Yamato state also established gold
the Yamato aegis. mines in Mutsu. The colonisation of Emishi land
There’s some debate as to whether or not the was thus lucrative.
Emishi had a state or states like the Yamato By the late 8th century, the Yamato court’s
court, but from the Yamato perspective, theirs northern holdings were governed from Fort Taga

14
 Great Wisdom Sutra
from the Chusonji
Temple Sutra Collection

15
 A hall at Mōtsū-ji, one of the Northern
Fujiwara family temples in Hiraizumi

(Tagajō), a government outpost and military Things only worsened for the Yamato court,
installation just east of modern-day Sendai. Like culminating in the particularly large, late-8th-
other provincial capitals in the empire, Fort Taga century Emishi rebellion led by Aterui, who lived
was the seat of a civil administration. But because in Isawa, one of the Inner Six Counties in what’s
this was the edge of empire, it was also the now Iwate prefecture, where he commanded a
headquarters for a special peacekeeping officer, the significant following. The revolt lasted for several
Commanding General for Pacification. Together years, until Aterui’s defeat and execution in 802.
with this, the court divided this newly annexed That year, a Yamato army under Sakanoue no
land into two provinces, Mutsu and Dewa, which Tamuramaro crushed further concerted Emishi
endured in some form until the launch of the resistance. Tamuramaro is one of the first people
modern prefecture system in the 1870s. in Japan to have received the title “barbarian-
But Emishi resistance to this subduing generalissimo”– sei-i
foreign authority continued taishogun – at a time when this title
despite the presence of was given to the commanders
troops. Emishi murdered a “The fushū of major expeditionary forces
Yamato official in 720, and dispatched against foreign
launched a rebellion. The
kept up a enemies. He secured Aterui’s
court soon dispatched continuity with surrender and reasserted
a punitive expedition their non-Yamato the court’s authority in the Date Masamune’s letter to Pope
Paul V in 1613, where he refers to
in response, and issued Tōhoku region.
an edict ordering land roots, holding onto Tamuramaro’s forces
himself as “King of Oshu in the
Empire of Japan”
cultivation, which would their lands” further expanded political and
further bring the land in military control by building of Yamato culture. But as historian Mimi Hall
line with Yamato norms, new fortifications. They also Yiengpruksawan notes, the fushū kept up a
making it easier to control. moved the regional government’s continuity with their non-Yamato roots, holding
After further revolts in Mutsu seat from Fort Taga to Fort Isawa, in onto their lands, gods, and even their weapons
in 774, and in Dewa in 777, Emishi what is now southern Iwate. Locally based for the next several centuries. They were the
rebels burned Fort Taga in 780 and killed local Yamato forces soon built other, more northerly court’s regional allies, called upon to join military
government officials in a revolt led by one-time forts. Yet this didn’t end the uprisings: another campaigns and contribute government levies and
Yamato ally Korehari no Azamaro. Azamaro had in 878 saw Yamato outposts in Dewa destroyed. projects. Leaders of major fushū families could
previously led Yamato-allied Emishi troops in Again, it was some time before Yamato forces were also hold the title of “fushū chief” (fushūchō),
support of action against unsubjugated Emishi able to respond and reassert their control. which recognised their preeminence but also
in Mutsu. Michishima Ōtate, a local Yamato-born As the Yamato government, newly ensconced brought them at least nominally into the Yamato
resident, apparently taunted Azamaro for his in Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), strengthened and government’s political orbit. Meanwhile, the court
foreign ancestry, which reportedly provoked the solidified its control over the north, it divided continued to label Emishi those northerners who
revolt. Azamaro’s men quickly murdered both the Emishi into two groups: fushū and emishi. did not submit, and who remained outside the
Michishima and Ki no Hirozumi, a court noble The fushū were the “surrendered barbarians” court’s control and the Yamato cultural sphere.
also antagonistic to Azamaro who was posted to or “captives”, Emishi who submitted to the A fushū family that rose to prominence in the
the region. This rebellion raged for over half a year. court’s authority and assimilated at least some Heian era was the Northern Fujiwara, whose first

16
 The conquest of northern Honshu

Northern stronghold was Tamuramaro’s old Fort Isawa.

This was a family of mixed Yamato-Emishi origin,
Theirs was a syncretic Buddhism, one that
incorporated Heian-era Shinto deities as well

Honshu which ruled from its second stronghold, Hiraizumi,

for four generations.
as old Emishi deities that were still worshipped
in northern Honshu. Kyoto developed its own

after the Although it was kin to the princely Fujiwara

family that frequently held political power at the
Buddhist culture, but Hiraizumi’s was different
because it merged those Emishi spiritual traditions

Emishi Kyoto court, the Northern Fujiwara family made

no secret of its Emishi heritage. Northern Fujiwara
with Buddhism.
Chūson-ji and Mōtsū-ji, two of the Northern
The story of northern Honshu as a semi- founder Fujiwara no Kiyohira (1056-1128) and Fujiwara family’s major temples, were named a
autonomous region not quite adhering to his grandson Hidehira (1122-87) understood that UNESCO World Heritage site in 2011. The temples
the rules of the rest of Japan continued their land lay “inside” and “outside” the empire, were where pathbreaking haiku poet Matsuo
well past Minamoto no Yoritomo’s and took advantage of that position, maintaining Bashō visited in the 17th century and wrote his
conquest of the Northern Fujiwara lands. connections with Kyoto while each called himself famous poem about summer grass as the last
Yoritomo stationed the Isawa family at “chief of the barbarians”. remnant of warriors’ dreams.
Fort Taga, appointing it to the office of The view from Kyoto held that the Northern Protected by politics, soldiering and force of the
Mutsu Caretaker (Ōshū Rusushoku), with Fujiwara were cultured, but also part barbarian. All dharma, the Northern Fujiwara state and society
considerable local autonomy. Fujiwara lords starting with Kiyohira held some flourished until its sudden, violent destruction in
The posting of local representatives with sort of court rank or office, but some in Kyoto felt 1189, before the still greater armed might of the
semi-autonomous authority continued that this was improper because of their Emishi armies Minamoto no Yoritomo raised from the
under the succeeding Ashikaga shogunate heritage. Others feared the Northern Fujiwara Kantō region. But northern Honshu, now known
(1336-1573), with the posting of tandai, were secretly commanders of a barbarian horde as the Tōhoku (‘East-North’) region, remained a
or commissioners. Finally, in the Warring that could spill over into the rest of Japan without politically semi-autonomous region into the late
States era, the House of Date made itself warning. This fear was part of what precipitated Edo period. While it is no longer the northernmost
into the region’s political centre of gravity, the northern military campaigns of Minamoto no part of Japan, it does remain a significantly rural
during the rule of its most renowned Yoritomo, the first Kamakura shogun. region today.
daimyo, Date Masamune (1567-1636). Regardless of their reputation in Kyoto as quasi- And what of the title of sei-i taishōgun once
Masamune was like the Northern Fujiwara barbarians, the Fujiwara were wealthy thanks in held by Tamuramaro in his campaigns against
a patron of the arts and religion, and it’s part to the gold that the Yamato court had once the Emishi? This title went on to far greater fame
thanks to his and his descendants’ efforts discovered in the region, and were thus not only as the honorific that would be held by three
that many of the temples and other historic in a position to field fighting forces but also to be successive dynasties from the 12th to the 19th
locations of the Northern Fujiwara survive patrons of the arts and the centre of a Buddhist century: we remember it today in its abbreviated
to the present. cultural sphere. form: shogun.
In his correspondence with European
heads of state, Masamune called himself
“King of Ōshū in the Empire of Japan”– that
is, King of Mutsu, the former Michinoku.
And two centuries later, his descendants
led the domains of northern Honshu in the
Northern Alliance, which fought to defend
northern Honshu’s autonomy during the
Boshin War. One can’t help but think that
the Northern Fujiwara would be proud.

Northern Fujiwara ruler

Fujiwara no Hidehira, as Cenotaph to Emishi leaders Aterui and
depicted by Kikuchi Yōsai more in modern Hirakata, Osaka prefecture

17
 The Age of
Tranquillity
The Heian period was a cultural high point of Japan, but
it also saw some of the most vicious struggles for control
Written by Ben Gazur

he Heian period takes its name from A Japanese text from the time describes how

T the foundation of a new capital city

founded by Emperor Kanmu in 794
CE. Disappointed by the rivalries and
strife that had beset the Nara Period,
the emperor decided that a new capital built
on a Chinese model would bring stability. He
also hoped that the absolute rule of the Chinese
the Emishi were seen by those living in the
capital. “In winter, they dwell in holes; in summer,
they live in nests. Their clothing consists of furs,
and they drink blood.” Raids by both sides across
the frontier presented a continued threat. The
court’s response was to push further into Emishi
territory and construct forts to project their power.
Ladies of
the court
emperors could be emulated in Japan. This was not a peaceful process.
Heian-kyō – the “Capital of Peace and The 38 Years’ War against the Emishi had
Tranquillity” – was set out in a grid pattern to begun before Kanmu came to the throne. In 773,
further underscore the order Emperor Kanmu hostilities began with the Emishi rising up and
hoped to create. Better known today as Kyoto, destroying many of the Japanese fortresses in The Tale of Genji vividly illustrates what life
was like behind the scenes at the imperial
this city would be the capital of Japan for the region. The emperor of the time raised large court, especially for the women
1,000 years. Despite the flourishing national armies and sent them against the
The outstanding artistic output of the Heian
of Japanese culture during Emishi to limited success. Though
period is perhaps best exemplified in the
the Heian period, however, the Japanese forces numbered
female writers of the time. While most
the hopes for peace and in the tens of thousands, small
tranquillity were never “Small bands bands of Emishi fighters
women were barred from official positions
at court, many wealthy families gave their
quite achieved. of Emeshi were able to harry them
daughters an extensive education. With the
and bring them to battle in
A NEW COURT
fighters were able unfavourable areas.
development of written Japanese, many
The new capital at to harry them In the Battle of Koromo
ladies began to pen their own works.
The Tale of Genji was written in the early
Heian-kyō was a city and bring them River in 789, 1,000 Emishi
11th century by Murasaki Shikibu and many
of wide avenues and under the command of
gorgeous buildings of red
to battle” General Aterui beat a far more
consider it to be one of the first great
novels in all of literature. The tale follows a
columns supporting green numerous Japanese force. Many
minor son of a Japanese emperor and his
roof tiles. A palace complex Japanese warriors were drowned
pursuit of a career, and it gives an intimate
was constructed to house both when they tried to flee. One
portrait of life at the Heian court.
the personal living quarters of the Japanese general said: “Horse-and-bow
Other writers penned zuihitsu,
imperial family and the administration warfare is learned from birth by the barbarians.
collections of essays and vignettes, that
buildings of the government. The palace was Ten of our subjects cannot equal one of them.” It
give a flavour of how court women lived
designed to be the centre of imperial power and became recognised that the National Army was no
at the time. In Sei Shōnagon’s The Pillow
a place where the struggles between nobles could longer fit for modern warfare.
Book, a lady-in-waiting to Empress Sadako
be restrained. The strife caused by Buddhism was Any Japanese male aged 20 to 59 could be
records her thoughts in witty and amusing
also excluded by having no Buddhist temples conscripted into the national army as needed.
sections, and reveals the network of love
within the main area of the capital. A man would lay down his spade on the farm
affairs that riddled the court.
The physical construction of the new capital one day and pick up a pike the next. Around
With writing being one of the few outlets
was matched by centralisation of the government one month of every year was spent in service
for female creativity, it could spark rivalries.
of all Japan. While Emperor Kanmu ruled much of the army. Putting down banditry was one of
Murasaki Shikibu and Sei Shōnagon served
of what is now Japan, there were still the Emishi the army’s main functions, but the service was
different empresses and sought to be the
people of the northern regions who were not open for abuse with some governors putting their
most famous writer of their day.
under his direct control. conscripts to work on private farms. Nonetheless,

18
In building a new capital for Japan, Emperor
Kanmu sought to reorder his empire and
increase his control over fractious nobles

19
 Tomoe
Gozen:
A female
samurai
The samurai are generally depicted as
warrior men, but there were examples of
onna-bugeisha – warrior women. Many
women from samurai families were trained
in the use of weapons to help protect their
families and homes in times of war, but
some were also used on the battlefield.
In a 13th-century account of the Ganpei
War, we are told of Tomoe Gozen, the
female companion of Minamoto no
Yoshinaka. “She was a remarkably strong
archer, and as a swords-woman she was
a warrior worth a thousand, ready to
confront a demon or a god, mounted
or on foot.” When it came to the battles
of the war, she was not simply a soldier.
“Yoshinaka sent her out as his first
captain… and she performed more deeds of
The Battle of Dan-no-ura saw the end of the
valour than any of his other warriors.” Genpei War, the destruction of the Taira
Most onna-bugeisha were armed with a clan and the ushering in of the Shogunate
naginata, a pole tipped with a curved blade,
but Tomoe Gozen was fitted out with the
full kit of the samurai. One enemy leader against the quick-moving Emishi, these peasant the era saw a diminished Chinese influence.
attempted to drag her from her horse; soldiers were no match. Diplomatic relationships with China ended after
Gozen decapitated him with her sword In a move that would have wide repercussions, 838 CE as Japan no longer sought conquest
and delivered his head to Yoshinaka. Some Emperor Kanmu dissolved the National Army in abroad. Some trade continued and many Japanese
historians have questioned whether Gozen 792. Forces would now be raised by local rulers, scholars travelled in China to learn administration,
was a real person, but her story has lived removing the expense of the army from the but there were new routes to success in the court.
on and inspired generations of samurai. imperial throne. But it also loosened the Thousands of Chinese texts made their way
emperor’s grip on the warrior class. to Japan, but Japan began to develop a
The Emishi War ended in unique literature of its own.
811 with a nominal Japanese A form of Japanese writing
victory, but the Emishi developed that used Chinese
of the northern areas
“For the characters to write out
remained independent. next 170 years, Japanese phonetically.
The real victory was for every emperor From this, a true Japanese
those who could afford literature emerged. Works
to train as warriors. was born like The Tale of Genji and The
Suddenly being a trained to a Fujiwara Pillow Book offer the best
warrior was a welcoming
career opportunity for
mother” insight into what life was
like at the Heian court, and
many noblemen. With despite Emperor Kanmu’s best
limited official offices at the efforts, the court remained a place
new court, and most of them in of squabbles between high-ranking
the hands of the Fujiwara clan, the families and clans.
ability to fight offered a path to influence. The pre-eminent family of the time was the
Service to an important lord was one of the only Fujiwara. In past centuries, when a child ascended
methods of movement up the social ladder. ‘Bushi’ the throne, another member of the imperial family
Tomoe Gozen is just one of the women was the name for any warrior, but those in service was chosen to act as their regent. This changed in
in Japanese history to have taken up
to a lord were called samurai. 858 when Fujiwara no Yoshifusa was appointed
arms and led the life of a samurai
sesshō (regent) for the young Emperor Seiwa.
A NEW ORDER He was chosen because one of his daughters
The Heian period saw a flourishing of Japanese was consort to the previous emperor and he was
culture. The design of the new capital had been grandfather to Seiwa. For the next 170 years, every
made to resemble a Chinese imperial city, but emperor was born to a Fujiwara mother.

20
 The Age of Tranquillity

Inland Sea. These warlords required putting down, on it as any land they cleared could be claimed
but without an army of his own, the old emperor by the government. This changed in 723 when a
had to rely on other warlords to quell the revolts. law was issued that gave reclaimed land for three
The rebellions of Taira no Masakado and generations to the family who cultivated it. Later
Fujiwara no Sumitomo were both put down with the grants were made perpetual. Suddenly wealthy
the aid of powerful lords. They revealed, though, families had an interest in clearing land to claim it
that divisions between and within the clans were for their own.
a serious threat to the throne. Members of the Great land estates were created in this way, but
Taira and Minamoto could be found on both sides, another system employed by the court ensured
and members of the Fujiwara who did not have a the loyalty of nobles. Land grants called shōen
position or close blood ties to those at court could were made, turning over portions of the country
rise up. One way emperors sought to buy the to nobles and giving them power within their
loyalty of noble families was to grant them lands, properties. Inside the shōen the government had
but this was at best a short-sighted policy. no right to collect taxes, but the landowner could.
By the 10th century, nearly half of the land
THE GREAT ESTATES was in the hands of private estates. These estates
The population of Japan boomed in the Nara needed to be guarded and the owners turned to
and Heian periods. Famine was a constant threat the samurai to protect their lands. The samurai
because of the small area of the country that was warrior could expect to be paid in koku; one koku
viable as farmland. But there was no incentive was the amount of rice it took to feed one man for
for farmers to clear wasteland and grow crops a whole year – around 180 litres.

With the Fujiwara wielding so much power at

court, many families felt shut out of imperial life.
The Taira and Minamoto clans in particular had
to find new ways of exerting influence. These
two families were born out of a process known as
Dynastic Shedding.
Even the large new palace and capital couldn’t
house all members of the imperial family; if an
emperor found that he had too many sons, he
could make them commoners by giving them
surnames like Taira or Minamoto to ease the
burden on the throne. By removing members of
the imperial family in this way, the throne was
secured for the emperor’s chosen successor by
removing potential rivals. The Taira clan could
trace its origin to the younger sons of Emperor
Kenmu, and later emperors. The abolition of the
National Army offered a new path to these noble
but unwanted children.
But the need for soldiers did not end just
because the National Army was dissolved.
Governors still required armed men to protect
their lands from bandits. Tax collectors still
needed protection from those who resented their
presence. More and more, the court came to
require warriors to put down rebellions.
When Taira no Masakado failed to find a career
in court, he returned to his province in Shimōsa.
There he became involved in political unrest and
in 939 he raised a rebellion. Masakado conquered
much of the Kanto region of Japan and declared Emperor Go-Sanjō, shown here in retirement,
himself Shinnō – The New Emperor. At the same broke the power of the Fujiwara and freed
future emperors to act more decisively
time, Fujiwara no Sumitomo led pirate raids in the

21
 family in particular was good at gaining territory
for itself. One courtier lamented: “All the land in
the country belongs to the regent’s house. There
is not even enough public land left to stand upon.”
Land was power because with more land, a lord
could support more samurai. The power of the
overmighty Fujiwara was finally checked, however,
in the 11th century.

BREAKING THE FUJIWARA

At times during the Heian period, members of
the Fujiwara were the de facto rulers of Japan.
Emperors were invariably provided with a Fujiwara
bride, and every emperor that came to the throne
had a Fujiwara mother. When a child was seated on
the throne, it was a Fujiwara who became sesshō,
or regent. When the emperor grew up, the regent
was often given the title of kampaku (chief advisor)
and carried on ruling as before. Some Fujiwara
regents deposed emperors who were still only in
their thirties to ensure that they could have greater
influence over the next to sit on the throne.
One Fujiwara, Fujiwara no Yorimichi, served as
regent and kampaku for over 50 years through
the reigns of three emperors. The last of these,
Emperor Go-Reizei, had a Fujiwara mother and
wife, but produced no male heirs. When Go-Reizei
came to the throne, his half-brother Go-Sanjō was
appointed as his heir. When he came to the throne
after the death of his half-brother, Go-Sanjō was
the first emperor in 170 years not to have had a
Fujiwara mother.
While he was crown prince, Yorimichi was
antagonistic towards the future emperor. He even
refused him a sword traditionally given to the
crown prince by claiming it only went to those
of Fujiwara blood. Yorimichi is also said to have
stopped Go-Reizei from abdicating, leading to
Go-Sanjō being crown prince for 24 years.
When Go-Sanjō finally came to the throne,
Yorimichi resigned as kampaku and was replaced
by his brother Norimichi. Norimichi was sidelined
by the emperor and the grip of the Fujiwara on
power was reduced. Go-Sanjō filled his Private
Office with scholars who had no ties of loyalty to
The samurai emerged from the need for
the Fujiwara. Members of the Minamoto clan were
properly trained soldiers in the Emishi appointed to high office. And although Go-Sanjō
wars when the Japanese National Army had a Fujiwara first wife, he did not name their
was unable to beat its enemy
son as his heir, instead waiting to see if he could
produce a non-Fujiwara son with his second wife.
Shōen owners were powerful in their own personal enrichment. Samurai became important To further increase the power of the imperial
domains. While there was a brass standard box and powerful people in this power vacuum. throne, Emperor Go-Sanjō attempted to rein in the
held at the treasury that wooden payment boxes The shōen may have helped in the short term abuse of shōen. He declared all those granted since
were supposed to be modelled on, in some shōen, to buy loyalty, but they created more problems. As the accession of his predecessor were illegal and
owners used two different boxes. A larger one more shōen were granted, there was a decrease should be taken back into public hands. Any shōen
was used to measure out payments to the owners, in the amount of imperial tax revenue and a that was a “hindrance” to the orderly running of
while they used a smaller one to measure out their reduction in the money the emperor could grant the state was also liable to confiscation.
payments to others. to courtiers. This led to courtiers wanting shōen Minamoto officers were placed into the new
While land grants were distributed across the of their own to support their station, which led Records Office that was charged with checking the
country, many magnates who owned the land to further decreases in tax revenue and more paperwork for shōen and deciding whether they
spent most of their time in the capital to be near weakening of imperial power. were legally granted or not. The land holdings of
the court. Many areas were left to subordinates Families and factions also competed for the the Fujiwara, especially those in the family that
who could exploit the absence of their lord for best and most productive lands. The Fujiwara had run the court, were diminished by the edicts of

22
 The Age of Tranquillity

“There was
a price to
be paid for
the system of
cloistered rule”

The Japanese portrayed the Emishi

people as primitive barbarians – but often
found themselves defeated by the Emishi

Go-Sanjō. This was partly because Yorimichi had Sometimes a rapid turnover of rulers could leave in rebellion, burned the palace, and captured
been foolish enough to accept shōen lands simply several retired emperors all seeking to control the the emperor. Kiyomori returned with an army of
by verbal agreement – leaving him with no records throne at the same time. Regional powers gained Samurai and freed the emperor.
to protect his rights. mastery of their own lands while the court was in The Genpei War of 1180-85 followed Taira no
After just four years on the throne, Go-Sanjō conflict with itself. Kiyomori attempting to seat his grandson Antoku
abdicated in favour of his son., ensuring there on the throne. The Minamoto clan rose in support
could be no Fujiwara-chosen replacement. He THE COMING OF THE of a rival claimant. After years of warfare, the Taira
would also be able rule alongside his son to make SHOGUNATE were driven from the capital, and they took their
sure that he was not governed by the Fujiwara. Cloistered rule helped to bring about the end of child emperor with them. The end of the civil
This was the beginning of cloistered rule – or the Heian period. In 1156, the retired Emperor war was at the naval Battle of Dan-no-ura. The
insei – in the imperial system. Retired emperors Sutoku quarrelled with the reigning Emperor Taira were utterly defeated. To save Antoku from
would typically go to monasteries, but in reality Go-Shirakawa over the imperial succession. Forces capture, he was drowned by his grandmother. The
they remained closely linked to the court. of Samurai from the Taira and Minamoto clans Minamoto clan placed their chosen emperor on
Go-Sanjō’s son and successor Emperor Shirakawa were called into the capital by both sides, but the throne.
followed his father’s example and abdicated while Go-Shirakawa emerged victorious. Sutoku was Minamoto no Yoritomo, leader of his clan
young, but for the next four decades exerted exiled and the last vestiges of Fujiwara power in the Genpei War, was give broad powers. He
powerful influence over his own son’s reign. were finally destroyed. From then on, the Taira had control of taxation, the power to appoint
The retired emperor had many advantages. He and Minamoto were the ones whose support an ministers at every level, and was given the title
could remove himself from the intrigue of court emperor would lean on. ei-i Taishōgun. This was start of the shogunate
and seek advice from hand-picked advisers. He Minamoto no Yoshitomo had led the winning that ruled from the city of Kamakura. As military
was also freed from the complex ceremonies that forces, even killing his own father who was dictator, Minamoto no Yoritomo ruled directly
were bound up with the throne. fighting on the opposite side, but it was Taira while the emperors in Heian-kyō became mere
There was a price to be paid for the system no Kiyomori who was rewarded with a powerful figureheads. Coming to power thanks to the
of cloistered rule, though. Power flowed away position at court by the Emperor. This led to a actions of his Samurai, there was now no illusion
from the sitting emperor while the edicts of the rivalry between the two. In 1159, Kiyomori left about where true power lay in Japan – it was on
retired emperor were of dubious legal authority. the capital for a pilgrimage. Yoshimoto rose up the edge of a samurai’s blade.

23
 Taira
Masakado
The f irst
samurai
Among the samurai, there were none like the
first, Taira Masakado, whose premature rebellion
brought the imperial court to its knees
Written by Hareth Al Bustani

shadow emerges from the flames, high life in the capital of Heian, or modern Kyoto,

A atop a horse. Digging his feet into the

stirrups, he burns like a crazed dragon,
over the corpses of his enemies and
their houses. Before long, all of Japan
will know the name of Taira Masakado, the
greatest warrior in the realm, a New Emperor for a
new era. And all of this could have been avoided.
retired governors who had settled in their former
postings, and local clans with historic roots to
their land. To make up for a lack of soft power,
clans trained their peasants with exceptional
bravado, promising to protect them at all costs, in
return for absolute loyalty.
Before the samurai code of bushido – the way of
Masakado was born in 903 CE, a great-grandson the warrior – Japan referred to warfare as kyuba no
of Emperor Kammu, and a member of the michi, ‘the way of the horse and bow’ or kyusen
powerful Taira clan. To ease the royal coffers, his no michi, ‘the way of the bow and arrow’. Armies
grandfather, Prince Takamochi, renounced his were centred around a core of mounted archers,
royal lineage and settled in the eastern Kantō drawn from prominent families, who maintained
plain – the fertile lowland surrounding modern their own horses and equipment. They wore scaled
Tokyo – where his sons rapidly became powerful armour, and though they carried swords, hand-to-
landowners. While the state had once held a hand combat was reserved for the peasants, armed
monopoly on land, now most was privately owned with spears and shields. Local clan leaders could
– by temples, shrines, individuals and local clans. boast up to 500 peasants, giving special privileges
Due to high imperial taxes, most peasants to blood relatives and those whose families had
preferred to work for private landowners – who, served for generations. Before long, the country’s
with property disputes on the rise, armed them mass of soldiers was concentrated in the hands
with spears and taught them archery, hunting of distant landowners, rather than the emperor.
and horse riding. Among the new class of private Despite this changing order, Masakado was raised
landowners were absent noblemen, living the to appreciate the prestige of imperial life. Boasting

24
 25
© Alamy
 In the 12th century, the
Taira and Minamoto
clans went to war,
with the Minamoto
emerging the country’s
pre-eminent power

Rise of the
samurai
Masakado’s uprising marked the
rise of the samurai warrior class
After Taira Masakado’s death, members
of the Minamoto and Taira clans – both
stemming from the imperial family –
continued to amass power. In 1028,
another powerful Taira chieftain, Tadatsune,
resigned as vice-governor of Kazusa and
broke out in revolt, causing even more
damage to the country than Masakado
had – before surrendering to the powerful
Minamoto Yorinobu, to whom the imperial
court had appealed twice.
The Minamoto clan went on to play
a crucial role in quashing the Early Nine
Years War, defeating the rebellious Abe
After conquering
clan to the north, and again in the Three
Kantō, Masakado
Years War against the Kiyowara family declared himself
in the province of Mutsu. By the 12th the New
Emperor
century, the Taira and Minamoto clans had
emerged as Japan’s two greatest sources
of military might, earning special privileges
for their efforts. When tensions came to a
head during the epic Genpei War of 1180-
Early Japanese
1185, the Minamoto emerged supreme, bushidan were
usurping power from the emperor and centred around
elite mounted
handing it to the clan leader, a military cavalry, practising
dictator, called the shōgun. ‘the way of the
Though the emperor remained a horse and bow’
figurehead, this feudal society was ruled
by the warrior class – the samurai – who an honourable lineage, he spent his youth in In June 936, still bearing a grudge against
served local lords in return for a food the capital, a guard at the emperor’s private his nephew, Yoshikane marched an army
stipend, while their lords collected taxes residence, and even serving the future imperial “as numerous as the clouds” to a fort in the
and governed fiefs on behalf of the shōgun. reagent, Fujiwara Tadahira. However, in spite of southeastern district of Kazusa, linking up with
his immense promise, the young man failed to his brother Yoshimasa. Senior clan leaders, they
secure a good post. In 931 he decided to return coerced Sadamori into joining their cause, leading
to his homeland of Kantō – which had become a a fresh-faced army of thousands, all clad in brand
snake pit in his absence. With his father recently new armour and equipment, atop well-fed horses
deceased, his uncles were keen to secure his land to Hitachi. There, Masakado lay in wait with a few
for themselves. Things came to a head when hundred, poorly-equipped mounted soldiers and
Masakado married his cousin against her father, the 1,000-odd peasants he was able to muster.
Yoshikane’s, wishes. Against all odds, Masakado routed the attackers,
Sensing an opportunity, the powerful local chasing Yoshikane to the provincial government
landlord, Minamoto Mamoru, who had marriage headquarters in Shimotsuke. However, keen to
ties to all of Masakado’s uncles, sent his three avoid the scandal of killing a family member, he
sons to ambush him in the province of Hitachi let his uncle go unscathed – instead reporting the
in 935. Despite the element of surprise, they not unprovoked attack to the imperial government
only lost the battle, but their lives. Enraged by this and his neighbours.
unprovoked attack, Masakado rampaged across Months later, Masakado was summoned to the
their lands, burning down their residences and the court, where he was handed a light punishment
houses of hundreds of their supporters. Among the for arson – before being pardoned as a part of
battle-dead was another of Masakado’s powerful a general amnesty on New Year’s Day in 937,
Taira uncles, Kunika. Though his death prompted when Emperor Suzaku came of age. Although
his son, Sadamori, to return home from the capital, he disavowed the life of war, no sooner had he
he lamented “Masakado is not my original foe”. returned home, the bitter Yoshikane launched
Sadamori had always been fond of his cousin – as another attack at the River Kogai. During the
fellow courtiers, they shared similar ambitions, battle, he had his army raise images of Masakado’s
5x © Alamy

and he had hoped to avoid conflict with him at all father and grandfather, supposedly to seek their
costs; perhaps even to ally with him. protection, but most likely to deter his enemy

26
 The first samurai

In death, Masakado was immortalised

– with Utagawa depicting his daughter,
Takiyasha, summoning ghosts in a
failed attempt to frighten her captors

from shooting arrows at his men. Having beaten in Hitachi, before taking the provincial capital of Terrified that the two had formed a secret,
Masakado, who was rendered immobile by sudden Shimotsuke; along with its provincial seals and unholy alliance, the Heian court issued an
illness, he defeated him again at Toyota. Shell- keys. Finally, after years of provocation, Masakado edict demanding the eastern governors capture
shocked, Masakado and his family sought shelter had broken out into full-blown rebellion. When Masakado, with rewards of land and positions up
among sympathetic clan members – but a traitor Prince Okiyo pointed out that the for grabs, adding: “Since creation, this
helped Yoshikane capture his wife and children. punishment was equal whether he court has seen many rebellions,
Licking his wounds, after years of unprovoked revolted in eight provinces or but none that compare to this.”
assaults, Masakado had finally run out of patience. one, Masakado marched across Highlighting its desperation, it
Raising an army, he marched on Hitachi, burning Kantō – securing the entire “Though the held elaborate services and
his uncle’s residence to the ground, along with region and appointing his prayers, and ordered rituals
hundreds of his supporters’ houses. He chased own governors.
country had be committed across the
Yoshikane into the mountains, destroying his After supposedly known country by the mystic
crops along the way. Desperate, Yoshikane again consulting an oracle from insurrection, cults – to destroy Masakado
bribed one of Masakado’s men into betraying Hachiman – the patron through black magic.
where his nephew slept and led a group of 80 deity of war – Masakado
Masakado was no At this juncture, as
warriors “each worth a thousand”, to his camp. did the unthinkable, distant barbarian” the country’s greatest
However, his nemesis was waiting for him, “with declaring himself the ‘New tsuwamono, or warrior,
flaming eyes and clenched teeth”. After a brief, Emperor’. While his own Masakado had amassed an
explosive charge, half of Yoshikane’s men lay dead. brother admonished him for army of 5,000 – joined by family
Broken, the Taira kingpin faded into obscurity, “acting without discretion” against members, landowners and those
dying a few years later. the Mandate of Heaven, Masakado drawn to his martial prowess. In doing
Although his troubles were far from over, proclaimed, “Our age dictates that those who are so, he had essentially created the first of many
Masakado had begun to develop something of victorious become rulers,” before spitting, “your bushidan, or warrior bands.
a Robin Hood persona. When the controversial counsels are absolutely meaningless.” Though the country had known insurrection,
Prince Okiyo found himself at odds with the In January 940, he wrote to his former mentor, Masakado was no distant barbarian – he was of the
governor of Musahi, Masakado offered him shelter. the regent Tadahira, justifying his actions, and finest stock, fighting among his own blood. In this
Simultaneously, a local landowner, Fujiwara claiming that his ambition lay only in Kantō. dawn of civil war, his followers, and those of his
Haruaki, had developed a reputation for dodging However, the court was understandably wary. rivals, began to create a new culture, away from
his taxes – a man who official records said During Masakado’s uprising, further north, the the elegance of the Heian court. While warriors
“behaved worse than barbarians or beasts”. When previously ‘pacified’ Emishi people had broken like Sadamori still used powdered foetus to treat
the vice-governor put out a warrant for his arrest, out in revolt – destroying settlers’ property. battle wounds, they also developed new customs;
Haruaki romped across Hitachi and Shimosa, Simultaneously, an even greater rebellion had announcing their names with gusto, before
robbing official granaries. As the region’s constable, broken out west, under the leadership of the rushing into battle. Similarly, they introduced the
Masakado was ordered to arrest him, but instead ‘Pirate King’ Fujiwara Sumitomo. Formerly the curved swords, lacquered o-yoroi armour worn by
offered him protection – claiming it his duty to governor of Iyo, on the southern island of Shikoku, commanders, and elaborate antlered helmets that
protect the weak against the strong. Sumitomo had amassed a fleet of fishermen and would later become hallmarks of samurai warfare.
By June 939, Masakado’s anti-authoritarian petty seamen, and begun raiding the Inland Sea. Having abandoned conscription, the imperial
exploits had earned him an army of 1,000 Though the government offered him a senior post, army had been made irrelevant by the new face of
mounted warriors, disenchanted with the he was not so easily appeased – instead capturing warfare. Instead, the court dealt out promotions,
established hierarchy. After defeating a large the vice-governor of Settsu, cutting off his ears, hoping to inspire private soldiers – like Minamoto
government army three times the size of his, slitting his nose, murdering his son and taking his Tsunemoto, the vice-governor of Musahi, Sadamori
Masakado seized the government’s headquarters wife captive. and Fujiwara Hidesato, the chief constable of

27
 Before the samurai,
Taira Masakado was the
country’s most renowned
tsuwamono – a warrior,
fighting with bow and
arrow on horseback

28
 The first samurai

Shimotsuke – to take matters “Licking his The two sides picked the to the government and led them to his base.
into their own hands. While wounds, after battleground of Kitayama, Retreating to Kyushu, he sacked and raided
Sadamori had joined the in Shimosa for their last all the way to Hakata, until he was eventually
war reluctantly, after years of unpro- showdown. Though surrounded and killed.
Masakado’s men captured voked assaults, both erected walls of With both rebels dead, the emperor visited the
and raped his wife, their
hatred was now mutual.
Masakado had wooden shields, to
protect them from cavalry
Kamo shrine and prayed for the dead – ally and
enemy alike – at Enryakuji monastery on Mount
Unfortunately for finally run out of charges, a violent gust of Hiyei, overlooking the capital. Although peace
Masakado, despite his patience” wind blew from behind had come, it had come at a high price. The nature
heritage, ability and prestige, Masakado, throwing his of warfare, loyalty and rulership had been dealt a
he lacked the structural defences forwards, and hurtling shocking blow – and though the emperor had won,
organisation that his spiritual Sadamori’s back into his soldiers. it was not by the power of his state, but that of his
samurai successors would later herald With the defences down, the coalition’s provincial allies, and their private armies.
to great success. While he led an army of 5,000 Fujiwara and Taira leaders launched a cavalry In the centuries to come, the Heian court
across Hitachi to search for Sadamori, he was charge. Undeterred, Masakado hurled himself blossomed into a centre of sophistication.
dependent on allies, rather than direct retainers. onto his horse and, with just 400 men, stormed Meanwhile, in the provinces, having cemented a
Even among family members, many fought out into the enemy with such great ferocity, all but stronger identity and honour code, the samurai
of self-interest, rather than personal loyalty. So, 300 fled. However, at this critical point, the wind would become the masters of Japan’s emerging
when Masakado returned home, with winter turned against the New Emperor – and, as the feudalist system. Though his rebellion was short-
approaching, so too did his allies – leaving enemy regrouped, he was hit by a stray arrow lived, Masakado was the harbinger of things to
him with an army of just 1,000. After the chief – killing him. Sadamori sent a lowly soldier to come, the personification of the new order. It was
constable Hidesato announced his allegiance with wrench his head from his body and took it to the only a matter of time before the emperor lost his
Sadamori, Masakado’s men thoughtlessly launched capital, along with a certificate. Prince Okiyo was power; Masakado was simply 200 years too early.
a pre-emptive attack – only to be driven back in captured and killed just days later. He left a legacy that would inspire the samurai for
February 940. The vengeful Sadamori burned Meanwhile, the Pirate King Sumitomo, who had centuries to come: the idea that a warrior could
down Masakado’s mansion, as well as the homes lost two chieftains and 2,500 men to bribes, was be a courtly, educated man who followed his own
of his supporters, unleashing chaos in the ranks. dealt a crushing blow after a turncoat surrendered moral code and valued his honour above all.

Masakado is enshrined
at Tokyo’s Kanda
Myojin shrine, where he is
Masakado’s revered, and feared, to this
day as a patron deity

legacy
More than 1,000 years after his
death, Japan still fears the wrath
of Masakado
According to legend, after Masakado’s head was
cut off and put on show in the capital, it flew off
by itself, in search of its body, before landing at
Kubizuka or ‘Head Hill’ – in a fishing village at the
heart of modern Tokyo, right next to the Imperial
© Alamy

Palace. Superstition has since surrounded it.

After the Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923, when
the Ministry of Finance attempted to replace the hill
with an office building, 14 employees died, including
the minister himself, and many others suffered
ominous injuries. Then, in 1940, a lightning bolt
sparked a fire adjacent to the hill, burning down
nine government buildings – again, including the
Ministry of Finance.
It was one of the few sites in the area to survive
allied bombing in WWII and when the occupying
forces tried to build over it, a bulldozer hit the
foundation stone – killing its driver. Though he
was declared an enemy of the emperor in 1874,
Masakado was re-deified, by popular demand, in
1984 at Tokyo’s Kanda shrine. To this day, companies
in the area pay donations to Kubizuka, making
employees go on pilgrimages to it, and laying out
their offices in such a way that no one sits with their
back to Masakado’s grave.
2x © Getty Images

Every year, Fukushima residents

take part in the Sama Nomaoi
festival, a celebration of military
exercises founded by Masakado
29
 Secrets
of the
samurai
We delve into the tradition, dissect the legends and
reveal the innovations that made the samurai one
of the most renowned fighting forces in history
Written by Jonathan Gordon,
additional writing by Callum McKelvie

O
f all the warriors of history, the A Bakkalian, who has written extensively on
samurai are some of the most Japanese military history. “The idea that there was
iconic. The dramatic silhouette of a rigid warrior caste – what we now shorthand as
their armour, the demonic snarls samurai – was more vaguely defined before the
fixed on their face masks and the Edo period (1600-1868). As a result, the structure
deadly sharpness of their blades are images well of an average fighting force varied. There were
established in our minds even if you know little armies of peasant conscripts, especially in the
else about their background. Like the Spartans 16th century’s period of endemic warfare, but as
before them, we know the samurai primarily as the 16th century gave way to the 17th, the caste
a warrior class, seemingly devoted to combat and system’s lines became more rigid, and while there
the perfection of their lethal skills. were some statuses – like ashigaru (infantry,
Naturally, the truth is a little more nuanced and literally ‘light of foot’) – that blurred the lines
complex. The legends and tales of the samurai between warrior and peasant, warfare became the
that have passed down into popular culture paint purview of the warrior caste only. It would not be
a very particular, romantic ideal of the group. until the early 1860s that there were once again
As Nitobe Inazō pointed out in his most famous non-warrior conscript armies.”
work, Bushido: The Soul Of Japan in 1900, they The beginnings of the social stratification that
have much in common with medieval knights in saw the samurai class emerge can be traced back
that their stories dominate the social landscape to the Taika Reforms made by Emperor Kōtoku in
of their era even though they made up only a 645. Based upon the Tang dynasty in China, what
small fraction of the population. They even have followed was several imperial ranks of bureaucrats
in common that they were supposed to live being codified, the sixth ranks and below being
as examples of their warrior codes: chivalry in named samurai. It’s believed that this name was
Europe, Bushido in Japan. then inherited by the generations that followed.
But who were the samurai exactly? Well, it’s The Heian period (794–1185) had seen the title of
important to point out that they were not just shogun emerge as a means of controlling regional
soldiers, conscripted or otherwise, but an entire areas with local officials on behalf of the emperor,
social class. From the 12th century to their and from 1185 in the Kamakura period samurai
abolition in 1870 the samurai were the military started being employed to defend the estates of
nobility of Japan, employed as retainers by the shogun. This gradual process would greatly
wealthy landholders or warlords (called daimyo) change the balance of power throughout Japan.
to manage their lands. It was not, however, as rigid How it was that the samurai came to dominate
as it would become. the military landscape of Japan from this point on
“The warrior caste was more poorly defined comes down to some fairly basic human instincts.
before 1600, so you could have some people not “The old court nobles were lazy, leading up to the
just become samurai but rise to become lords and 12th century,” explains Bakkalian. “They held titles
even de facto rulers of Japan,” explains Dr Nyri and estates from which they drew their income,

30
 EXPERT BIO
Dr Nyri A
Bakkalian
Dr Nyri A Bakkalian received her PhD from
the University of Pittsburgh and has produced
nonfiction, fiction and photography content for more
than a dozen publications, including two newspapers
Illustration by: Joe Cummings

and five anthologies. Her first book, Grey Dawn,

was released in August 2020 from Balance Of Seven
Press. You can follow Dr Bakkalian’s work on Twitter,
Facebook, Substack and Patreon at @riversidewings

31
 but they were living in the flowering culture of the
imperial capital, Kyoto, and enjoying the delights
of culture and literature it offered. I can’t blame
them for not wanting to be as involved with the
provinces! Going out to the provinces from Kyoto
isn’t just a drain on resources and time, in an era
before ubiquitous roads and bridges, but to people
used to poetry and parties in the capital it’s also
no fun. So they hired samurai in order to oversee
and guard those lands. Eventually, the samurai
realized they had the swords and thus had the
power to be taken seriously by the men in Kyoto,
and eventually Minamoto no Yoritomo, himself
of warrior roots, was appointed shogun by the

Image source: wiki/Rijksmuseum

emperor in 1185. His was the first shogunate.”
With shoguns emerging with more power and
samurai able to establish power bases of their Katō Kiyomasa fought for Hideyoshi during his
unsuccessful Korean invasion, but later sided with
own, conflict was inevitable between the factions, Ieyasu when he sought to usurp Hideyoshi’s heir
but Japan would also look like a ripe nation for and was richly rewarded in the years that followed
conquest. So it was, for instance, that the Mongol
Yuan dynasty of China under Kublai Khan Hakata Bay in 1281 that decimated the invading or Sengoku period, began and it was here that
sought to invade on two occasions, first in 1274 Yuan army. The Japanese called these winds the the samurai class began to truly define itself. But
when a samurai force of 10,000 repelled 40,000 ‘kami-no-kaze’ or ‘wind of the gods’. The belief what developed was not necessarily the highly
from China, and again in 1281 when 40,000 also began to spread that Japan was under some disciplined warrior style that you might imagine.
stood up against a force of 140,000. On both form of divine protection from foreign invasion. “There wasn’t any one style of samurai warfare,
occasions weather conditions were in favour of the During this time two important elements of Japan doesn’t border any other country by land,
defending Japanese forces, with a typhoon hitting what would become the heart of samurai life and there wasn’t a warrior class other than the
began to emerge. Zen Buddhism became prevalent samurai,” Bakkalian explains. “So what we might
among the warrior class, teaching as it term as samurai fighting style varies wildly
did that they should not fear death depending on the era, the weapon, and
or the taking of life. Zen would the region. It has many influences
go on to play a major part “The both brought about by
in the Bushido code that innovation borne out of battle
developed in later years.
samurai – as with Miyamoto Musashi’s
It was also during the realised they brute force, usually a two-
13th century that the had the swords and sworded fighting style
blacksmithing art of immortalised in his treatise
thus had the power
Image source: wiki/Capital Collections

laminating steel of A Book Of Five Rings – as

varying types to create to be taken seriously well as outside influences
an incredibly
strong and
by the men like guns (from Portugal) and
heavy polearms (from China).”
sharp in Kyoto” In many ways, the samurai
blade was valued pragmatism over all
developed. things. The fastest way to victory,
This formed the regardless of weapon, was what a warrior
basis of the daishō, the should care about. Even so, many did specialise
two blades that samurai in a specific weapon and could make their
would always be seen name doing so. “There were samurai who had
carrying. The more exceptional skill with a particular weapon – one
well-known sword, needs go no further than Yagyū Munenori’s skill
the katana, was with the sword, or Nasu no Yoichi’s skill with the
the long blade and bow,” Bakkalian reveals. “But generally speaking,
most used. The especially before the Edo period, there seems to
smaller wakizashi have been an understanding that you train with
blade was anything you can get your hands on, because the
intended for use idea is to win. It’s only in more peaceful times,
in tighter spaces, as in the Edo period, where there’s the room to
such as indoors. specialise particularly deeply. But even there, if a
The years that samurai knew how to fight, it was generally with
followed were more than one weapon, along with some measure
dominated by of understanding of unarmed grappling.”
Samurai continued to hold a great deal of
power and influence long into the 19th internal conflict. This relatively broad approach to weaponry
century, but gradually had their privileges From 1467 the ‘Age also extended to firearms, which might come as
stripped away from the 1860s onwards
of Warring States’, a surprise to some in the face of the puritanical

3232
 The many ways of the sword
Eight of the most common samurai fighting styles

Image source: wiki/Walters Art Museum

Image source: wiki/muian.com

Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryu
Tenshin Shoden Katori The two swords used by samurai were
Shinto-ryu alternated depending on the closeness of the
The oldest school of swordsmanship in opponent. This school taught a dual-wielding
Image source: wiki/Waseda Theater Museum

Japan, dating back to 1447. Pupils were given technique that attacked with one blade while
multidisciplinary training using swords, spears, defending with the other.
staffs, and jujitsu hand–to–hand combat. Many
pre-Edo warriors would go into this bracket.
Image source: wiki/Unterwegs in die Vergangenheit

Muso Jikiden
Eishin-ryu
This sword-fighting style placed great
emphasis on awareness and speed. Its
most famous move, seen often in modern
depictions of samurai, is the quick drawing
and cutting action with a katana.
Mugai-ryu
Combining both kenjutsu (sword-fighting)
and iaijutsu (quick-drawing), this school was
most interested in duels and making sure its
practitioners were highly skilled in one-on-one
combat, very different to battlefield experience.
Image source: wiki/Walters Art Museum
Image source: wiki/visipix.com
Image source: wiki/tsubaki.lix.jp

Image source: wiki/visipix.com

Yagyu Ono-ha Itto-

Shinkage-ryu ryu
This style was all Translating as ‘one
about subtle, flowing sword’ this style
movement and put focused on achieving
Jigen-ryu more emphasis a single, powerful Tamiya-ryu
This school of swordsmanship was all about on disarming your strike to take out Developed in the later stages of the Muromachi
getting an instant kill with a powerful first opponent rather than the adversary in one period, this style of sword-fighting utilised
strike. Practitioners of this style tended to hold striking them down. go. Its 150 specific a katana with a longer hilt, which gave the
the sword high and vertically so they could Its name means techniques also form sword more stability – perfect for the big, but
sweep down through the body. Shadow School. the basis of kendo. accurate, movements involved.

33
 Image source: wiki/National Museum of Denmark
Image source: wiki/visipix.com

Tales of the samurai Samurai were more

and their heroic deeds than just fearsomely
are deeply rooted in skilled warriors – they
Japanese culture were an elite social class

reputation that samurai would gain in later Of course, this also meant that changes needed the Edo period and perhaps partly the inspiration
fiction. The first matchlock rifles, made in to be made to traditional armour manufacturing, for the stricter social structures that would follow
Portugal, arrived in Japan by way of Chinese something that Bakkalian has been digging into for samurai. Unlike the other daimyo and so
pirates in 1543 and it didn’t take long for them to in her work. “My own research has focused on many of the samurai class, Hideyoshi was born
be incorporated into the tactics of samurai on the the house of Date, a clan in northern Japan in this a peasant retainer to the Oda clan who had risen
battlefield. Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu period which founded the modern city of Sendai, up through the ranks, earning his class status. But
were two men who did just that, and went on to and they didn’t just extensively use firearms, they after his passing, as Ieyasu looked to cement the
be known as two of the three great unifiers of also had a mass-produced, customisable type work of his forebears to unite the nation under a
Japan, Ieyasu himself becoming the first shogun of armour. This customisable nature facilitated single ruler and with a single national identity, the
of the Edo period, ruling over all Japan. Bakkalian recognition in battle, and its ease of production concept of social mobility was massively curtailed.
picks out one instance of their innovation as let the Date clan equip its army uniformly; the In a subtle way Hideyoshi had actually started
particularly interesting: “If I had to pick one latter point being something that Date Masamune, that process when he passed laws making it legal
really salient example focused on Tokugawa the Date lord contemporary to Tokugawa, is on only for the samurai to carry weapons in public
Ieyasu’s time, it would be the use of rotating record as having emphasised. Because this armour and had then ordered the samurai to leave the
volleys of gunfire employed by the Oda-Tokugawa was popularised by the Date clan of Sendai, it’s countryside and reside in the major cities. This
combined force that faced the Takeda clan at sometimes called ‘Sendai-do’ (‘Sendai cuirass’).” was intended as a way to disarm the peasantry
Nagashino in 1575. This cut down the vaunted Nobunaga was the first of the warlords to begin and make maintaining the peace easier, but it also
Takeda cavalry at a frightening pace! So I think the process of unifying Japan and Ieyasu was the reinforced the class divides of the nation.
we’d do well to remain mindful of the fact that third who would ultimately complete that journey. This was a state of affairs that would last for
despite their veneration of the sword, in the Edo Between them came Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who most of the Edo period. “After 1600, most of the
period especially, gunnery remained a fixture of is an interesting case study because his life is an time, you had to be born a samurai,” explains
Japanese warfare from the 16th century on.” example of some of the fluidity that existed before Bakkalian. “Closer to the end of the Edo period, in

34
 the 19th century, there was a resurgence of people
from other castes becoming samurai, sometimes A warrior’s Datemono/tatemono
These crests often adorned the top of a samurai’s
even by buying the status from their local lord
or from the shogunate. Mind you, if you bought armour helmet. This decoration could vary and could be
of family crests or mottos, while some of the more
the status, you became a vassal to that lord, and Key details of the samurai’s elaborate had small sculptures of animals or mythical
with that came responsibilities, so it wasn’t always creatures. Horns however became particularly
attractive. Just before the caste’s abolition it got to
iconic uniform
popular and especially those that resembled stylised
where it was a matter of buying a second sword deer horns, called kuwagata. These horns could be
and maybe changing your name and hairstyle.” used to identify a commander on the battlefield.
It was under the leadership of Tokugawa Ieyasu
as the first shogun of the Edo period that the
samurai began to more firmly cement the identity
that has come to be known today. In many ways,
Ieyasu himself embodied many of the
traits that we associate so closely Do
with the warrior class: calm A ‘do’ was the breastplate
under pressure and quick to of a samurai’s armour. Early
do were constructed out
strike when the opportunity
of numerous iron ‘scales’,
emerged. “The biggest
sometimes up to 250
thing to remember about “After 1600, individual pieces. Later tosei-
Tokugawa Ieyasu is that most of the time gusoku style armour was
he was patient,” says constructed from iron plates
Bakkalian. “He was skilled you had to be as opposed to scales. There
in battlefield command, born a samurai” were many different types,
sure, but he seems to including some that opened
have understood that one at the back and others that
doesn’t just win wars on the opened at the side.
battlefield. He was also good
at building coalitions and waiting
out rivals, which only strengthened
Han kote
Armoured gloves, these
were a variation of kote
Since samurai armour was custom- that would sometimes
made, armies would use heraldry in the
extend to the shoulder.
form of flags called sashimono strapped
to their backs to identify their allies Made initially from
cloth, they were then
covered with numerous
small iron plates in order
to provide protection.
Others were quilted
with either the metal or
animal hide sewn inside.

Daisho
Yari The pairing of a
The samurai often katana with another
carried a yari into often smaller sword
battle. These was referred to as
spears were usually daisho. Prior to the
topped with a 17th century, only
straight blade the longer of the
that could vary in two swords was
length from several typically used in
centimetres to one combat. It was only
metre more. There after swordsman
were numerous Miyamoto Musashi
types of yari blade. introduced the
each with its own use of the single-
name and history. handed grip that
The most popular
Image source: wiki/Utagawa Kuniyoshi

this changed. Only

design was shaped samurai were
like a dagger and permitted to wear
had a razor-sharp daisho as it was
© Getty Images

edge that allowed a symbol of both

it to cut as well as social class and
stab enemies. personal honour.

35
 the odds of his ultimate victory. There’s an
apocryphal poem attributed to him that says ‘If
the nightingale doesn’t sing, I’ll wait for it to sing’,
which illustrates this perfectly. He couldn’t have
done what he did alone – Oda Nobunaga and
Toyotomi Hideyoshi set the stage for Tokugawa
Ieyasu’s ultimate victory and final unification
of Japan – but his patience and his skill at big-
picture thinking allowed him to reach that point
rather than fizzle out or self-destruct as many of
his contemporaries did. I highly recommend the
late Professor Conrad Totman’s short biography
Tokugawa Ieyasu: Shogun for an eminently
accessible account of this fascinating man’s life.”
Ieyasu would officially be made shogun by
Emperor Go-Yozei in 1603, abdicating in 1605
as was tradition and then continuing as ogosho Their legendary bravery
(retired shogun), still essentially running the in battle was a rich
country. After the Battle of Sekigahara brought source of inspiration for
Japanese artists
him to power and the Osaka campaigns crushed
the last of the resistance to his rule, the Edo
period entered into a long age of relative peace.
It was during this time, without war to occupy
them, that a unified samurai identity alsobegan to
take shape.
What is a warrior to do when they have no
wars to fight? Well, as an aristocratic class,
many sought positions of power in the new
administration. “Without regular warfare, the
samurai caste’s warrior obligations became more
theoretical, though some modicum of training
in the martial arts was still expected,” Bakkalian
tells us. “Samurai were warriors by birth but
were government functionaries or teachers or
engineers, or any number of other occupations
that formed the ranks of either the shogunate’s
or the feudal domains’ governments. Meteoric
2x © Getty Images

rise and promotion, which was more common in Samurai were held up as
exemplars of morality
the 16th century, became uncommon, and status for the rest of the
within the samurai caste became less flexible. population to look up to

The Battle of Sekigahara would

ultimately seal Ieyasu’s control of
Japan and begin a long era of relative
peace for Japan in the Edo period
Image source: wiki

36
Especially in the middle and later parts of this era,
some domains even had strict codification of what
religion) the concept of Bushido, meaning ‘the
way of the warrior’ took shape. Being a samurai The
colours a samurai of a given rank could wear. It had to become about more than just being a good
wasn’t until the era’s last century, when the
US Navy’s gunboats broke Japan’s isolation,
fighter, since opportunities to prove that began to
thin out.
importance
that the status quo was shaken – and barely 15
years later, the Tokugawa shogunate came to an
There were still conflicts, as Bakkalian
explains: “There were many peasant uprisings
of masks
end altogether.” during the Edo period, in which the shogunate’s Samurai face coverings came in
Those lower down the ranks unable to rise forces or the local lords’ forces were again many designs and sizes
up like they might have done in the past sought called into action. But for the most part, after
other avenues and businesses. “Without increases the Shimabara Uprising of 1638, there were no Hanbo
in stipend many samurai, especially of regular large-scale military operations by This variation covers
lower rank, had to find other ways samurai again until the 1850s.” So only the lower part
of supplementing their incomes,” Bushido came to revolve around of the face, from the
Bakkalian continues. “I think “It wasn’t respecting martial acts, being mouth downwards. As
my favourite case is one prudent and measured in the masks were steel
company of ashigaru (foot
until the era’s last word and deed. Samurai and therefore could
soldiers) in Sendai domain, century, when the boys were given swords become incredibly
who had guard duty over US Navy’s gunboats from as young as five years hot, a small hole was
a certain bridgehead old and taught to respect located underneath
east of the castle town.
broke Japan’s these dangerous tools. the chin to allow
They supplemented their isolation, that the Bushido, the image and for the drainage of
meagre stipends by selling
okoshi, which is a pastry
status quo was culture of the samurai,
became the heart of the
sweat. The interiors
of the masks were
that resembles modern puffed shaken” new, united Japan of the usually lacquered in
rice squares.” In other times Edo period. It was an image stark reds and golds.
and places, such large numbers that would ultimately be rejected
of warriors might have caused internal during the rapid westernisation of the Menpo
conflict or sought glory through empire building Meiji Restoration in the mid-19th century and The majority of
abroad, but Japan instead closed itself off from the would reemerge to drive the war effort in the samurai masks were
world and it seems the samurai didn’t waste this 20th century. Ultimately, the samurai were of this type, covering
chance for self- reflection. Buddhism had already so much more than just warriors, as Japanese the nose and face
been an influential philosophy as mentioned author Nitobe Inazō puts it in Bushido: The Soul directly below the wearer’s
before but Confucius and Mencius, with their Of Japan: “What Japan was she owed to the eyes. This helped protect
teachings about loyalty and honour, became samurai. They were not only the flower of the the majority of the face
required reading for samurai in the mid-16th nation but its root as well. All the gracious gifts of while still providing clear
century too. The idea that samurai could be living Heaven flowed through them. Though they kept and uninterrupted
examples of moral virtues began to take shape themselves socially aloof from the populace, they vision. They would
and from this combination of Zen Buddhism, set a moral standard for them and guided them also help secure a
Confucius and a little Shintō (Japan’s indigenous by their example.” samurai’s helmet to
his head – this would
also shield the upper part
of the face.

Somen
A somen is a type of mask
that covered the
warrior’s entire face.
Developed during the
Muromachi period,
they then evolved to
incorporate human
features, before the
masks of the Edo
period became wildly
more imaginative.
3x Image source: Metropolitan Museum of Art

The example here

shows a tengu, a form of of
malevolent demon.

37
 Japanese feudal era

Ōnin War
1467-1477
Due to controversy
over who would
succeed Ashikaga
Yoshimasa, civil war
breaks out. Yoshimasa
originally names his
Did brother as his chosen
successor, however
you know? the unexpected birth
In the shōgunate, the of a son causes the
samurai (military family to fracture into

Image source: wiki/Archive.org

nobility) had political two sides. Eventually
power over the it escalates into war,
aristocracy ending with no clear-
cut winner.

Minamoto Yoritomo begins Wokou pirates Southern and Northern

the Kamakura period 1192 become rampant 1350 Courts reunited 1392

Image source: wiki/David Luizo

After winning the Gempei War (between Raids from pirates become particularly After being split between the Southern
Fujiwara No Takanobu

the Taira and Minamoto clans) Minamoto fierce. Attempts are made to fight Court (four emperors who claimed
Image source: wiki/

Yoritomo establishes the feudal military back, including the Ōei invasion of 1419. sovereignty) and the Northern Court (six
government: the Kamakura Shōgunate. General Zhu Wan becomes known for his pretenders) an agreement is reached
fierce stance against the pirates. for reunification.

1192 1274 1333 1457

Jinno Shotoki Construction
Image source: wiki/Asahi Shinbun-sha

Kemmu Restoration
1333 written 1341 of Edo Castle 1457
Yosai

Kitabatake Chikafusa writes the Jinnō A flatland castle built by Ōta

: wiki/Kikuchi

Emperor Go-Daigo restores imperial

Shōtōki, mostly as an attempt to justify Dōkan, it's one of the first
power, bringing back a civilian
the importance of an emperor. This foundations of what would
Image source:

government after a century and a half

wiki/Marco
Image source

book formalises the transition from become modern-day Tokyo.

of military rule. But this fails and is
ruler to mystical symbol.
replaced with the Ashikaga Shōgunate.

Muromachi
First Mongol period 1338
Overthrowing the Kemmu
invasion of Japan 1274 Restoration, Ashikaga
Wishing Japan to become a vassal
Takauji proclaims himself
state, Kublai Khan dispatches
shōgun, beginning the
emissaries requesting tribute.
Muromachi period.
However, when the emissaries
Takauji is known for his
return time and time again empty
lack of fear, his mercy
handed the Khan declares war. The
and generosity to those
Mongolian army makes significant
below him. In 1467,
Image source: wiki

progress but is defeated with heavy

during the Ōnin War 
losses at the Battle of Torikai-Gata.
the shōgunate has all
A second invasion is defeated in 1281.
but collapsed.
shi
: wiki/
Tsukioka Yoshito
Image source

38
 Japanese feudal era

Honno-ji incident 1582

At Honno-ji temple in Kyoto, Oda Nobunaga is
surrounded only by officials and servants. The
Akechi army marches on the temple in a coup.
Unable to repel the attackers, Nobunaga commits
suicide and his young page sets fire to the temple.
Nobunaga’s remains are never found.

Did
you know?
A samurai had to be
prepared to commit
seppuku – suicide by
disembowelment
Battle of Miyajima 1551 with a sword
In 1551 Sue Harukata rebels against his lord Ōuchi
Yoshitaka. Mōri Motonari, a vassal of the Ōuchi clan,

Image source: wiki/Yoshitoshi

seeks vengeance and the two forces clash on the island
Miyajima. The island is a shrine, with no birth or death

© Getty Images
allowed, and so is extensively cleansed afterwards.

Invasion of Korea Beginning of

Image source: wiki/Utagawa Toyonobu

Battle of
Okehazama 1560 1592 the Edo Period 1603
Oda Nobunaga defeats Imagawa Toyotomi Hideyoshi attempts to Tokugawa shōgunate officially
go.kr

Yoshimoto and establishes conquer the Korean Peninsula and founds the Edo period following
Image source: wiki/cha.

himself as one of the leading China, however the invasion fails. the Battle of Sekigahara in
warlords, with many samurai A second invasion begins in 1597, but 1600, and takes three years to
pledging allegiance to him. this too ends in failure. consolidate his power.

1543 1582 1603

Battle of Yamazaki Invasion of San Felipe Incident
Image source: wiki/ morimiya.net

1582 Shikoku 1585 1596

Toyotomi Hideyoshi invades the
Toyotomi Hideyoshi meets Akechi The Spanish ship San Felipe is
retabloceramico.net

island of Shikoku, the smallest

Image source: wiki/

Mitsuhide (who rebelled against shipwrecked on the island of Shikoku.

of Japan’s main islands, and
Oda Nobunga) in battle, having The Japanese accuse Christian
seizes it from rival warlord
allied himself with the Mōri clan, and missionaries in Japan of being ‘fifth
Chōsokabe Motochika.
defeats him. Hideyoshi takes control. columnists’ – 26 are crucified.
© Getty Images

Nanban trade Construction of

1543 Osaka Castle 1586
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
The first Europeans arrive
commences the building
in Japan and establish
of Ōsaka Castle. Modelled
a long-distance trade
after his predecessor Oda
route. This begins with
Nobunaga’s headquarters,
a group of Portuguese
Azuchi Castle, he seeks
explorers, missionaries
to surpass it. The castle
and merchants who
Image source: wiki/Hokusai

features a five-storey main

introduce refined sugar,
tower, with gold leaf on
galleon-style ship
the sides. Having been
building, Christianity and,
reconstructed, it stands to
of course, firearms.
this day.

39
 Himeji
Castle Main keep
The core part of the castle became the main keep (or tenshu),
dominated by a tower 46 metres tall. Although looking like a
five-storey building from the outside, that’s an illusion of sorts – it
was built with six floors and a basement, with what looks like the
fourth floor from the bottom having an extra level above it. This

Himeji,
would help to confuse any potential enemies.

Japan White plaster

The castle was built using a combination of stone and
pine from the surrounding mountains, but it got its

H
imeji Castle is a Japanese National predominantly white exterior from a coating of lime plaster
Treasure as well as a UNESCO World called shikkui that, in combination with the structure’s
Heritage Site. It’s also one of Japan’s Smaller towers resemblance to a bird taking flight, earned it the nickname
12 original castles, with the current There were three ‘White Egret Castle’. The plaster fireproofed the castle and
complex completed in 1618 and widely subsidiary towers – the helped to protect against enemy attack.
considered to be a fine example of early 17th West Tower, Tower Inui
century Japanese castle architecture. and East Tower – each
accessible from the
Ikeda Terumasa was the brains behind what we
main keep via corridors
see today. As the shōgun of west Japan and the
and passages. This was
son-in-law of the Japanese warrior and statesman not unusual: Japanese
Tokugawa Ieyasu, he was handed the castle in castle architecture
1600 as a reward for his support in the Battle would typically connect
of Sekigahara. Within a year, he’d ordered its towers and they’d
demolition and a new structure was commissioned usually be of different
to take its place. heights. Indeed, the
By 1609, the new castle was completed, although wings were far smaller
additions were made towards the end of the than the main keep.
following decade. The end result was on a much
grander scale than the 16th century structure it
had replaced. It was also a far cry from the fortified
building that originally occupied the site in 1333, for
here was a complex of 83 buildings (one of which
towered over the rest), connected by winding paths
and constructed with defence in mind.
There were three moats, walls that were up to
26 metres high and many heavily fortified gates in
unexpected places that would slow any advancing
army. Concerted attempts were also made to ensure
that the enemy would have to twist and turn if they
were to make their way towards the main tower,
with the steep, narrow paths being deliberately
confusing to follow.
As much attention was paid to the castle’s
elegantly balanced appearance, too. The multiple
roof layers were a mix of the curved and the
triangular, and the protective white plaster adorning Castle complex
the walls ensured the buildings stood proud. Even In total, 83 buildings were constructed, spread across an
so, the castle has not always been appreciated and area of 107 hectares. These included turrets, corridors,
storehouses and gates, enclosed by walls and protected
in the late-19th century it was on the verge of being
further by three defensive moats: an inner, middle and
demolished and replaced with army barracks.
outer. The outer moat was located a mile away and it has
It has survived earthquakes and the Second since been buried. The castle’s primary focus was on the
World War, however, and the castle remains intact. main keep, however, built on a hill overlooking the plain.
Today it’s Japan’s most-visited castle and a recent
renovation means it’s back to its best.

40
Fish-shaped ornaments
Eleven statues of a shachihoko – a folkloric animal that has a carp’s body and a
Himeji Castle
tiger’s head – were placed on top of the main keep’s distinctive hip-and-gabled
roofs (irimoya-hafu), proving as strikingly decorative as the building’s patterned
dormer gables (chidori-hafu). They served a purpose, in theory at least, since
there was a strong ancient belief that the ornaments would protect the castle
Wooden interiors
The first floor provided the largest
from fire by spouting jets of water from their mouths.
space and contained more than 300
tatami mats, as well as racks for
firearms, spears, gunpowder bags
and fuses. Further up, the rooms grew
ever smaller and there were many
hidden spaces, including a hiding place
on the third floor from which enemies
could be ambushed should they
successfully get inside.

On the lookout
Holes of various shapes
were created in the thick
castle walls and on the
towers so the defenders
could keep lookout and
fire at their enemies. They
would be large enough to
shoot arrows out of, but
because they were bigger
on the inside than on the
outside, enemies were less
likely to get a successful
shot themselves.

Defensive drops
To guard against
potential attack (luckily
this never happened),
defenders would have
dropped stones onto
their enemies below
through a series of slim
openings positioned
The inner court Creating strong foundations at the north and south
A consequence of connecting the Two huge pillars were placed inside the main keep windows on the third
towers was the formation of an for support. One to the east was originally made floor of the main keep,
inner court. A kitchen was located from a single fir tree. The other, to the west, was as well as on the fourth
there, enabling the inhabitants to made of a 26-metre Japanese cypress taken from the floor. When they were
Illustration by: Adrian Mann

stockpile and prepare food should Kiso Mountains. They were created to run from the not in use, the holes
invaders seek to starve them out. basement to the ceiling of the near-windowless fifth were covered internally
There was also courtyard in the floor. The sixth floor, incidentally, offered panoramic by long wooden planks.
southeast corner known as the views and was the location of the Osakabe Shrine.
Harakiri Maru, which was a space
for ritual suicide.

41
 The anatomy of a Head for performing
Noh actors have, historically, been male, although
women have also performed since the 1940s. One

Noh theatre way to show gender and social status has been the
use of items worn on the head, including intricate
headdresses (tengan), wigs (kazura) and hats (eboshi).

performer
These can also represent a character’s nature – heavenly
beings may have worn a crown, for instance.

JAPAN, 14TH CENTURY

Their many fans

Facing the audience Fans were a popular prop
Masks carved from blocks of and almost all performers
Japanese cypress were worn by would carry one. They could
a Noh drama’s main performers symbolise other objects such
to represent characters such as as a weapon, instrument or
demons and monks, and genders lantern depending on how
of various ages. Treated with they were handled. They could
reverence and believed to be also express actions or natural
inherently spiritual, some of the forces, like the setting of the
60 or so original types contained sun, by the extent they were
hidden emotions that were unfolded, waved or pointed.
revealed by tilting the head so the
mask captured light and shadows.

Learning their lines

Actions were believed to speak
louder than words during a
Bulk up Noh drama, which is why the
Although actors originally wore performers have traditionally had
their everyday clothes during very few lines to say. Gestures
a performance, their costumes were favoured for the conveying
became more elaborate, regardless of emotion, head turns suggested
of their on-stage role. The direction, and silence was mainly
performers – whether the principal filled by music and the chanting or
actor (shite), secondary actor singing of the chorus, with pauses
(waki) or companion (tsure) – used for dramatic effect.
would also wear items in multiple
layers, starting with the inner
garments (kisuke), giving them
a bulky appearance.

Colourful stage presence

The silk costumes (shōzoku), including
the outer garments (uwagi) and the
trousers (hakama), were coloured
gold, yellow and red in the main,
Slide away and they were also intricately woven
Performers would wear stockings and embroidered. Some would be
rather than shoes, which would patterned with gold leaf designs, and
assist in the art of suri-ashi, or the items were historically based on
‘sliding feet’. The actors would the clothes worn at the medieval
use slow, controlled movements imperial court.
to glide their feet across the
stage in alternating sequences,
Illustration by: Kevin McGivern

keeping their heels on the floor.

The fluidity of a Noh theatre
performance has always been
highly choreographed.

42
 A Noh theatre
performer plays
the role of an oni
demon, the samurai’s
folkloric foe

Image source: Schenking van Kunsthandel Saru Gallery

43
 Hall of Fame
FAMOUS WARRIORS
Many samurai, outlaws and military leaders
are revered to this day for their exploits
BENKEI 1155-1189
A warrior monk, Benkei has entered popular
Japanese legend and there are many stories
about his life and exploits. When he was
born he’s said to have had wild teeth and
long hair like a demon, and when he was 17
he was said to be over two metres tall. He

Image source: wiki/Los Angeles Museum of Art

spent many years working for Minamoto
Image source: wiki/Kikuchi-Yosai

Yoshitsune, famously being killed defending

him. Legend has it his dead body, riddled
with arrows, was still standing as Minamoto
Yoritomo’s forces attacked.

MINAMOTO YOSHITSUNE
1159-1189 ASHIKAGA TADAYOSHI
A military commander of the Minamoto clan, 1306-1352
Yoshitsune led a series of decisive battles during The well-known military tactician is considered by
the Gempei War and was integral in helping some to have been a genius on the battlefield. He’s
his half-brother Yoritomo consolidate power. thought to have engineered all the major victories
Image source: wiki/Kikuchi-Yosai

He would eventually turn against Yorimoto, of his brother Ashikaga Takauji, who despite being
incurring his wrath. Yoshitsune was betrayed de facto ruler proved to be practically useless at
but managed to hold back the invading warriors the necessary administrative tasks. He eventually
until he was forced to commit seppuku. He was
entered into a feud with his brother when Takauji
then decapitated, his head preserved in sake and
gave a key role to a samurai Tadayoshi despised.
sent to Yorimoto.
Tadayoshi joined his brother’s enemies before he
died, some suspect from poisoning.
Image source: wiki/Unatawa Kuni

ISHIKAWA
GOEMON
1558-1594 YASUKE
A famous outlaw hero, Goemon
C.1530-C.1580
is similar to Robin Hood in that A servant or slave of
he stole from the rich and gave African origin, Yasuke
to the poor. Like many of the was possibly brought to
figures featured here, there is Japan by a Portuguese
much dispute between what trading vessel. He entered
is fact and what is folklore. the service of Oda
Upon capture, he and Nobunaga and became
his son were boiled Nobunga’s personal
alive in a public weapon bearer. He was
Goemon has execution, during given his own lodgings
been the subject which Goeman held and a short ceremonial
his son above the
of many kabuki katana. Yasuke would
Image source: wiki/Kenneth Trotter

water in defiance of have been present

plays, some of which his enemies. Before at Nobunaga’s forced
are performed to his death, he wrote suicide, with accounts
a famous poem saying that he bravely
this day stating there’d always fought to hold back the
be thieves. attackers before escaping.

44
 In
1182 Gozen
supposedly
commanded a force
TOMOE of 300 samurai to
GOZEN victory against
1157-1247 2,000 enemies

Image source: wiki

The leading
commander in the
Gempei War, Tomoe was
famed for her skill with a bow
and long sword. She remained loyal to her leader
Image source: wiki/Utagawa Kuniyoshi

Minamoto no Yoshinaka at the Battle of Awazu.

One story states that, commanded to leave the
field due to their depleted forces, Gozen reached DATE MASAMUNE
a compromise, offering to leave only after she 1567-1636
had engaged in one final battle to redeem her Known as the One-Eyed Dragon, Masamune was
honour. Riding straight into 30 enemy warriors, a regional ruler during the Azuchi-Momoyama
she picked the worthiest opponent and promptly and Edo periods. His army had a fierce reputation,
TAKEDA SHINGEN beheaded him. She is remembered as a brave and wearing black and gold armour while he himself
fearless warrior with numerous stories detailing had the emblem of a crescent moon on his helmet.
1521-1573 His vicious reputation began when a retainer of
The fierce leader of the Takeda clan, Shingen her exploits.
his clan named Sadatsuna defected to the Ashina
had a ruthless reputation. At the early age
clan. Infuriated, Masamune hunted him down,
of 15 he helped his father win the Battle of
conquering many lands on his way. He initially
Un no Kuchi. It would be a mere four years
refused to serve Hideoyoshi (who was virtually ruler
later, when he was 19, that he would rebel
of Japan) and arrived in his best clothes expecting
against his father and take control of the
to be executed for his insolence. His bravery was
clan. Following this he led many legendary
noted and he remained a powerful figure.
campaigns, his feud with Uesugi Kenshin
of Echigo in particular was infamous. One
story has Kenshin’s forces clearing a path
through the battlefield so the two men could
engage in single combat. His influence was
not purely military, however, he also ordered

wiki/Utagawa
Image source:
the damming of the Fuji River – one of the

Yoshitora
major domestic projects of the time.
Image source: wiki/Museum of Fine Arts Boston
Image source: wiki

TOKUGAWA IEYASU
1543-1616
HATTORI HANZŌ Founder of the Edo period and one of
three unifiers of Japan, Tokugawa was
1542-1596 a famous and feared warrior. As a child
Hattori Hanzō became a samurai at 18,
he was held hostage by several clans
gaining his first battlefield experience a mere
but appears to have been treated well
two years later when he led 60 ninja on a
due to his use as a potential future ally.
daring night-time raid into Udo Castle. Other
He won the Battle of Sekigahara, one of
legendary missions include rescuing his
the most important battles in Japanese
clan leader’s daughters from enemy hostage
history, and developed a reputation Myths
takers and laying siege to Kakegawa Castle.
As skilled as he was in battle, he was also an
as a cautious and wise leader. He was abound that
known for having the ability to be both
expert tactician and political mover, closely
bold and calm, and for his staunch
Ieyasu was at some
observing how nobles moved in social and
political circles. His prowess at stalking and
loyalty. However he could be ruthless point replaced with
hunting his prey earned him the nickname
– ordering the execution of his first an imposter, but
wife and oldest son.
Oni no Hanzō, meaning ‘Demon Hanzo’. historians can find
no firm
evidence 45
 Q&A With... Pirates, or sea lords,
played a significant
role in shaping
Japanese society for
years to come

Dr Peter
Shapinsky
Exploring the role and influence
of piracy in late medieval Japan

Dr Peter Shapinsky is an Associate Professor of

History at the University of Illinois Springfield. He
has written extensively on medieval and early
© Getty Images

modern East Asian history, including topics such

as Japan, piracy, maritime history, cartography and
gender history.

46
 Dr Peter Shapinsky

Why do you use the term sea lords instead of commercial one as entrepreneurs in shipping would proactively request the assistance of the
pirates in your research? and maritime products. During periods of civil Noshima. The Noshima would then bestow a flag
Words from East Asia that we translate as ‘pirate’ war, they designed warships and tactics, fought bearing their crest to be flown at the masthead.
represented the interests of land-based states, battles, and ensured the safe delivery of soldiers The flags marked much of the Inland Sea as
not mariners themselves. The term sea lord and materiel. As mercenaries, sea lords switched Noshima territory.
highlights the agency of seafarers in late medieval among patrons to secure the
Japan (c.1300-1600), who exploited their ability most favourable terms, even What led to the decline of sea
to move between lands and cultures. Among serving competing warlords lords towards the end of the
their strategies was a choice to cloak themselves simultaneously at times. 16th century?
in rhetoric redolent of legitimate dominion in Sea-lord bands continued to
Japan while maintaining a distinctly maritime How did the Japanese sea lords expand their maritime domains
powerbase. In the Seto Inland Sea region, for legitimise their control over until the 1590 unification of
example, mariners learned to present themselves their maritime domains? Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
as warrior lords in order to attract patrons and Legitimising control required (1537-98). The Noshima and
to administer the array of littoral inhabitants devising practices for several others convinced
in their domains. These domains consisted administering maritime space Hideyoshi of the advantages in
entirely of nautical populations, from shipping to inspire a perception among negotiating a settlement with
merchants to salt-makers to boat people. Sea travellers, land-based authorities them. By performing warrior
lords devised distinctive practices of sea tenure to and domainal inhabitants that lordship, they secured privileged
demarcate, rule and transform their regions of the portions of the sea belonged to a positions in the early modern
sea into territories. given sea-lord family. Protection order as local lords or high-
businesses served such sea- ranking vassals. In return, these
How were these sea lords depicted by those on tenurial ends for many sea-lord sea-lord houses suppressed
land and how did this compare with the way bands. They fortified maritime those their overlords deemed
that they portrayed themselves? chokepoints, islands and ports, Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence pirates, extending Japanese
The meaning of pirate shifted across Japan’s which they transformed into and Commerce in Late Medieval sovereignty off-shore, and
Japan is out now from The University
medieval period from ‘sea bandit’ to ‘maritime boundaries by launching ships of Michigan Press served Hideyoshi in his invasion
mercenary’ as the power of the land-based to intercept passing vessels. of Korea (1592-98). However,
authorities to control the seas waned. In China and They forced passing travellers to accept their unification also transformed perception of the
Korea, terms for Japanese pirate signified illicit suzerainty through the negotiation and imposition seas from autonomous sea-lord space into an
trade and devastating assaults from overseas. of protection payments. In the 16th century one appendage of the unified land. In the Edo period
‘Pirate’ thus also signified the inseparability of band, the Noshima Murakami of the Inland Sea, (1600-1868), former sea-lord houses cooperated in
commerce and violence in this period. Sea lords developed a reputation and domain sufficiently this conceptual transformation by surrendering
exploited such representations, developing extensive to institutionalise protection payments large-scale warships and castles and rewriting
reputations as local warrior lords and essential into a system by which voyagers and their backers their own histories. As a result of their efforts,
providers of naval services, including protection for the term ‘pirate’ in early modern Japan took on
domestic and international trade and diplomacy. commemorative valences as loyal ‘naval vassals’,
They transformed perceptions of the medieval seas which rewrote sea lords’ medieval pasts as
into autonomous, piratical space that needed to be autonomous mercenaries and entrepreneurs.
negotiated with in order to achieve safe passage.
In turn, their ability to take on different identities What problems have you found while dealing
caused the Chinese and Koreans to characterise with sources on late medieval Japanese pirates?
Japanese pirates as chameleons who changed One important question concerns interactions
ethnic characteristics, such as clothes and hair, between different pirate groups in late medieval
in contrast to the land-based societies, where Japan. For example, in the mid-16th century
identities were stable and ordered. Kyushu hosted thousands of Ming Chinese
expatriate merchants who led multi-ethnic bands
Why were patronages offered to sea lords and of ‘Japanese pirates’ consisting of mariners from
what were they expected to do in return? China, Korea, Europe and Southeast Asia, as well
In late medieval Japan, the land-based ruling as Japan. Figures such as Wang Zhi, whose array
authorities — the Imperial family, shōgun, of guises included calling himself ‘King of Hui’,
warlords, aristocrats and religious institutions — led invasions of the Chinese mainland. Contacts
lacked naval resources of their own. They relied between Inland Sea sea lords and Chinese sea
on hiring local maritime magnates for a variety merchants in the courts of shared patrons,
of peaceful and military naval services. Such including Japanese warlord families such as the
magnates developed specialized skills in providing Ōuchi, Ōtomo and Matsura, potentially brought
such services and exploited patronage to secure these populations into each other’s orbit. Chinese
recognition as legitimate rulers of maritime and Korean literati collected extensive intelligence
territories. Beyond guarding and guiding domestic about the Japanese littoral from envoys and
Image source: wiki/Shouzou.

and international trade and diplomacy, sea-lord escaped and captured pirates. Their writings
The role of sea lords
bands administered island- and port-based estates changed thanks
suggest that Inland Sea bands participated in
to ensure rents were delivered. Over time, they to the unification raids and trade in China, but details of the scope
seized control of these territories and contributed of Japan led by of interaction and modes of communication
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
to the shift from a tribute-based economy to a remain unclear.

47
 Places to explore
Historic Japan
Five locations that will transport you back to the feudal period
1 Samurai Museum
Shinjuku, Tokyo
For anyone who wants to immerse themselves in
over 700 years of Japanese warfare history, then look
no further than the Samurai Museum. Opened in
September 2015 and with over 70 exhibits to explore
across two floors, there are various samurai weapons,
armour and helmets to see, with plenty of information
on the artefacts and the era they’re from. A perfect 1
starting place for those who know little about the 4
samurai, there are also guided tours of the museum 2
provided in English for visitors who want to learn
5
3
more about samurai history. The museum offers
experiences including a professional sword performance
and a photo session where you can try on samurai
armour or iro uchikake, a traditional type of wedding
kimono. (Both are included in your admission fee). At

© Getty
extra cost, there are also samurai calligraphy lessons,
a Japanese sword lecture and a samurai live music
show available. With a wide variety of things to do,
the Samurai Museum is ideal for a family day out.
2 Ginkaku-ji
Open daily from 10:30am to 9pm. Average adult ticket is
1,800 Yen. samuraimuseum.jp/en Kyoto The Silver Pavilion
This Zen temple was is a must-see
The museum has a range of originally built in
samurai armour on display
1482 as a retirement
villa for shōgun
Ashikaga Yoshimasa,
who was inspired by
the Golden Pavilion
(Kinkaku-ji), the
retirement villa that
had been built by
his grandfather,
Ashikaga
Yoshimitsu. It was
initially supposed
© Getty

to be covered in
silver gilt and so it
became known as
the Silver Pavilion, but this plan was disrupted by the Ōnin War from 1467 to 1477 and
it was never followed through. Ginkaku-ji became a centre for Higashiyama culture,
which influenced the arts across Japan, but it was eventually converted into a temple
following Yoshimasa’s death in 1490. After undergoing restoration, Ginkaku-ji has
various sights for tourists to see, including a second temple, Togudo, which dates back
to the site’s foundation. Ginkaku-ji is also known for its dry sand garden and moss
garden, the latter of which offers beautiful views of the temple and the city.

Open daily, 8:30am to 5pm from March to November, and 9am to 4:30pm from
©

December to February. Average adult ticket is 500 Yen. shokoku-ji.jp/en

48
 Historic Japan
Kamakura is home
to the second-tallest

© Getty Images
Buddha in Japan

©
The stunning Golden Pavillion

3 Kinkaku-ji
Kyoto
Kinkaku-ji was originally a Kamakura era villa subsequently been burnt down three times,
5 Kamakura
owned by an aristocrat named Saionji Kintsune. most recently by a monk in 1950 (it was rebuilt Kanagawa Prefecture
It fell into disrepair as the Saionji clan lost their five years later). In 1987, the top two floors were Today, Kamakura may just be a
influence with the collapse of the Kamakura decorated with gold leaf and in 1994, Kinkaku-ji small coastal city but it was once the
shōgunate, and the villa was subsequently was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. most important location in Japan. It was
purchased by shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in Today, it’s a popular tourist destination thanks here where Minamoto Yoritomo decided
1397. He transformed it into his own retirement to its stunning architecture and Japanese Zen to base his new military government in
villa and complex, with the villa becoming gardens, which reflect the style of the Muromachi 1192, which subsequently became known
known as the Golden Pavilion as it was covered period. Visitors will be able to see statues of both as the  Kamakura Shōgunate as a result.
in gold leaf. Kinkaku-ji soon became the centre Yoshimitsu and the Buddha, as well as the golden Kamakura remained as the centre of
of Kitayama culture, which incorporated Ming- phoenix at the top of the pavilion. The site also political life in Japan for over a century
dynasty Chinese culture into Japanese society, features a small temple dedicated to the Buddhist until the fall of the government and the
and played host to important visitors such deity Fudo Myo-o. beginning of the Muromachi government,
as Emperor Gokomatsu. In accordance with based in Kyoto. The city is home to
Yoshimitsu’s wishes, Kinkaku-ji was turned into Open daily, 9am to 5pm. Average adult ticket is over 100 temples and shrines, including
a temple following his death in 1408, but it has 400 Yen. shokoku-ji.jp/en the Hasedera Temple and Tsurugaoka
Hachimangu, a Shinto shrine which was
founded in 1063 — the current building,
dating back to 1180, was commissioned by
The battlefield
at Sekigahara is
worth a visit
4 Sekigahara Yoritomo himself.
Kamakura also famously boasts the
Gifu Prefecture Great Buddha statue, which dates back
A visit to the town of Sekigahara is a must for anyone to 1252, and at 11.4m tall it’s the second-
truly fascinated in the history of Japan. Although it’s tallest in the country. Located less than
known today as a tranquil location, it was here where an hour from Tokyo and with numerous
the pivotal Battle of Sekigahara was fought in 1600, historical monuments to see, including
marking the end of the Azuchi-Momoyama era. Just what’s believed to be Yoritomo’s final
three years later, the Tokugawa Shōgunate and the resting place, the city is a popular day trip
start of the Edo period were ushered in, a significant with tourists and can easily be reached
moment in Japanese history. Visitors can explore the by train. Time your visit right and it may
large monuments at the site and the many landmarks coincide with one of the many festivals
that remain from the battle, including the army base held in Kamakura, some of which are
camps of the Tokugawa and Ishida clans, a graveyard linked back to Japan’s first shōgun.
and, of course, the battlefield itself. The site covers a
vast area, so make sure you rent a bicycle! If you want The Great Buddha of Kamakura is open
to learn more about the battle, head to the Sekigahara daily, 8am to 4:30pm. Average ticket is
Town History & Folklore Museum, which has various 20 Yen. kotoku-in.jp/en/
items excavated from the battle site on display. (For other sites, please check opening times
and ticket prices before travel.)
© Getty Images

The Museum is open 9am to 4pm between November

and March and until 4:30pm between April and October.
Average Adult ticket is 350 Yen. kanko-sekigahara.jp/en

49
 Historical treasures
Maple Viewers
Capturing the natural beauty of feudal Japan, mid-16th century
FOUR SEASONS BUDDHIST TEMPLE
To the left of the painting, the gate and path to the Atago Shrine is covered The roofs of Jingo-ji can be seen among the thick clouds at the
in snow, foretelling the arrival of winter. It is thought that Hideyori probably top-right of the painting, next to a red pagoda. Jingo-ji dates
painted another byōbu depicting spring and summer to accompany this one. back to the 9th century and it is located on Mount Takao.

AUTUMNAL BEAUTY TIME TO RELAX

The Kiyotaki River at Takao, depicted in this painting, is These women and children are shown enjoying the view as they sit
located north of the city of Kyoto. To this day, the area under the maple trees. Next to them is a man serving cups of matcha
is famous for the vivid red leaves of its maple trees. tea, which were sold during the Muromachi period.

hroughout history art and culture have This particular painting, titled Maple Viewers, is by portraying contemporary entertainment and

T been used to legitimise regimes, and it

was no different in feudal Japan. Under
the Kamakura Shōgunate, founded by
the first shōgun Minamoto Yoritomo,
art combined samurai culture with Zen Buddhism,
which had become increasingly popular in Japan.
This was carried on by the Ashikaga Shōgunate
a celebrated piece of art created sometime during
the Azuchi-Momoyama era, which succeeded the
Muromachi period and spanned the final three
decades of the 16th century. It has been painted
on a six-section folding screen, known as a byōbu,
which were used to decorate wealthy homes
during this era. Currently housed at the Tokyo
clothing, predating the use of Ukiyo-e woodblock
printing, which became popular during the Edo
period and focused on scenes from everyday life.
Due to the red stamp located on the far left
of the painting, the artist is believed to be Kanō
Hideyori. Little is known about his life, although it
is thought that he was either the son or grandson
Image source: wiki/Google Cultural Institute

during the Muromachi period, a time known National Museum and named a National Treasure of Kanō Motonobu, a Japanese painter whose
for its artistic innovation, where the continued of Japan, Maple Viewers depicts the Kiyotaki River father was the founder of the famous Kanō school
affiliation with Zen Buddhism led to Chinese-style at Takao surrounded by maple trees with different of painting. Often considered to be the most
techniques and themes becoming prevalent in art. groups of people, including warriors and Buddhist influential school of painting in Japanese history
This style of painting, known as ‘kanga’, was often priests, enjoying the view. This unique painting and known for producing innovative artists, the
monochromatic and contrasted with the more is widely regarded as a piece of pioneering Kanō school was later patronised by the Tokugawa
colourful style of traditional Japanese art. artwork which differs from the trends of the day Shōgunate during the Edo period.

50
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 The war for
Japan’s
throne
When a power vacuum left Japan without an
emperor, two brothers prepared to fight to the
death for the ultimate prize
Written by Charles Ginger

oba closed his eyes and slowly inhaled in his own frustration until 1123, when he insisted

T the scent of the blossom swirling in the

palace courtyard. In his younger years
he would not have stopped to appreciate
such a small pleasure, moved as he was
by the ceaseless tides of power. But he was no
longer young, and when one was confronted with
a decision such as the one troubling his weary
Toba make way for his son Sutoku. Toba only did
so begrudgingly (rumour had long claimed that
it was in fact Shirakawa, and not Toba, who had
fathered the infant emperor with the beguiling
Taikenmon-in). However, Toba’s days sulking in
his grandfather’s shadow would soon come to
an end, and with Shirakawa’s death came the
mind, the little fragments of peace that the gods influence that evaded Toba for so long.
deigned to offer seemed all the more precious. Gripping the reins of power as Shirakawa had
His body had been failing him for some time, done, Toba ruled from behind the scenes. In 1142
just as Konoe’s had failed him, both brought low he convinced Sutoku to move aside for his brother
by the treachery of a fox lurking inside the royal Konoe (Toba’s eighth son). It would prove to be his
coop. If only Konoe had been given more than first fateful manoeuvre.
his 16 years to sire an heir, a child that could have Constantly sick, Konoe died in August 1155
spared all this. But no, the gods had not seen fit at the age of just 16, leaving no heir behind.
to make Toba’s final years easy. Japan required a Assuming that his son would now ascend to the
new emperor, and Sutoku’s progeny would likely throne, Sutoku prepared to effectively replace Toba
be as trustworthy as his father. No, it had to be as the true power behind the new ruler of Japan.
Shirikawa. Sutoku would have to accept that. For He was therefore apoplectic when news reached
the good of the nation, Toba’s favoured child had him that Toba intended to place his favoured
to sit the Chrysanthemum throne. son, and Sutoku’s half-brother, Go-Shirakawa, in
command of Japan.
THE PILLARS OF POWER For a time it appears that Sutoku’s rage was
The fateful choice that faced the former emperor held in check, for Go-Shirakawa (‘Go’ meaning
Toba shortly before his death in July 1156 was ‘later’) ascended the throne without incident. And
not without precedent. In imperial Japan, fathers then, on 20 July 1156, Toba died. With the buffer
often fashioned the destinies of their sons. Known between them removed, Sutoku immediately
as insei (cloistered or monasterial rule), a sitting began scheming to overthrow his sibling and
emperor would abdicate the throne to be replaced reclaim the crown. To do so, he would need the
by a son. However, this was no accession of power, help of some influential allies.
as the ‘cloistered’ former emperor would continue
to wield power from within the confines of a THE EAR OF THE EMPEROR
Buddhist monastery. For much of Japan’s history, a clan known as the
In 1107, Toba’s meddling grandfather Shirakawa Fujiwara had enjoyed an intimate closeness with
stepped aside for his son, yet offered him little the country’s emperors by marrying them to their
say in the government of Japan, much to Toba’s daughters. However, upon the rise of Shirakawa
chagrin. Having married his son to a woman (Toba’s grandfather), these mighty regents had
named Taikenmon-in, Shirakawa left him to stew found themselves sidelined by a distrusting new

52
 Tametomo
the Terrible
Not all war stories are about the
victors – some tell the tales of
power-hungry men
The eighth son of Minamoto no Tameyoshi,
Tametomo earned a reputation as a ferocious
warrior. Said to have been almost seven feet tall and
heavily muscled, he was an awe-inspiring sight on
the battlefield armed with his war bow. Impulsive
and fearless, he assaulted several castles in Kyushu
en route to mastering the island.
Having carved out his own kingdom, in 1156
Tametomo journeyed to Kyoto to support the former
emperor Sutoku’s bid for power alongside his father,
Tameyoshi, who had disowned Tametomo when he
was just 13 years old.
Equipped with a metre-long sword and a bow
that took five men to string it, Tametomo battled
valiantly, vowing to shoot his own brother if the
chance arose. In the end, the lethal archer found
himself on the losing side. Tortured and then exiled,
he was initially left in peace. However, he couldn’t
resist his violent desires for long, and soon he was
being hunted by a force backed with an imperial
decree. Realising that his cause was utterly lost,
Tametomo brutally murdered his nine-year-old son
before plunging his blade into his stomach.

53
 A scene from a scroll depicting
the attack on Sanjō Palace

The nine-
tailed fox
Uncover the story of
Tamamo-no-Mae
When a couple walking through a woodland
stumbled upon a baby girl wrapped in
swaddling, they immediately resolved to
take her home and raise her as their own.
It wasn’t long before they realised that she
was no normal child. Blessed with a razor
wit and the ability to read advanced texts
at a rapacious speed, young Tamamo-
no-Mae earned the right to recite poetry
before Emperor Konoe. Fascinated by the
child, he made her an imperial servant.
In time she blossomed into a beautiful,
charming young woman, one able to
pass any scholarly test. Besotted, Konoe
promoted Tamamo-no-Mae to the role of
his consort, spending every free moment
with her. And then he fell gravely ill.
Desperate to save the young emperor,
imperial servants summoned a priest
to pray for his recovery, but to no avail.
Increasingly frantic, they resorted to hiring
a sorcerer to uncover the truth. It didn’t
take long for the spell weaver to point the ruler, setting the clan’s ambitions back severely. The roots of the Minamoto and Taira Samurai
finger of blame at Konoe’s consort. When Yet by the time of Konoe’s death the Fujiwari, led clans lay in the cost-cutting policies of previous
Tamamo-no-Mae inevitably denied any by Tadazane, were once more in the ascendancy. emperors. During the rule of Emperor Saga (809-
involvement, the sorcerer insisted that she In fact, in many ways they mirrored the imperial 23 CE), Japan’s virile monarch had deemed it
partake in a holy ritual. No evil spirit could family in that Tadazane’s sons both longed to financially prudent to demote the majority of
hope to survive it. become the clan’s new leader. his 49 children to the position of nobles, thereby
However, initially everything went Despite being the eldest, Fujiwara no offloading the considerable burden of
well, with Tamamo-no-Mae remaining Tadamachi was powerless to stop subsidising their privileged lifestyles.
unchanged. Suddenly, a tail sprouted from his father favouring his younger However, Saga wasn’t so ruthless
her rear, followed by another, and another, brother, Fujiwara no Yorinaga. as to leave them with nothing,
until nine red tails shimmered behind her. Appalled at the prospect of
Yorinaga seizing control,
“Both sides giving his shunned offspring
the label ‘Minamoto’
Exposed as a fox-like demon, she fled, only
to be hunted down by the emperor’s men a desperate Tadamachi now prepared (meaning ‘origin’) to signify
and shot. As she lay dying, her spirit passed resorted to the most to settle the that they shared the
desperate of measures, imperial lineage.
into a boulder called sessho-seki (the killing
stone). To touch it was fatal. Here she informing a grief-stricken
dispute over The Taira had emerged
remained until a passing monk heard her Toba that Konoe had the throne with from a similar bout of child
cries and listened to her confession, upon been killed by Yorinaga blood and steel” shedding when Japan’s
which he released her. As one of the three (and not Tamamo-no-Mae, 50th emperor, Kanmu,
evil Yōkai (ghosts) of Japanese myth, her Toba’s favourite courtesan) demoted his grandsons. It was
soul still stalks the wilderness to this day. via an act of malicious sorcery, a move that would be mimicked
sticking pins into the eyes of a by successive occupants of the
statue of the emperor in order to drain Chrysanthemum throne.
his life in reality. Evidently half mad with sorrow, Despite rivalling each other for decades, by the
Toba believed Tadamachi’s wild claim, instantly time of Go-Shirakawa’s rise to power, the leaders
devastating Yorinaga’s prospects. It would be a of the two Samurai clans found themselves
betrayal he would remember. back the same man: Sutoku. The ousted former
emperor enjoyed the support of key figures in
CALL THE BANNERS Fujiwara no Yorinaga, Minamoto no Tameyoshi,
As well as the divisions within the imperial and his son Tametomo (a legendary archer said to have
Fujiwara families, splits were simultaneously once sunk a Taira ship with a single arrow) and
opening among the kuge (aristocratic) clans. Yet Taira no Tadamasa. Yet while the loyalty of these
arguably the most telling rift was the one pulling seasoned dogs of war could be relied upon, the
the families of Japan’s most formidable entities same could not be said of their ambitious pups,
apart: the Samurai. for behind Go-Shirakawa’s bid to maintain power

54
 The First Samurai

Riding at the head of 600 cavalrymen (each

one accompanied by two foot soldiers), Yoshitomo
and Kiyomoro rode to the enemy’s palace in Kyoto
under the cover of darkness.
The men watching the palace walls would not
have appreciated the threat they faced until the
first arrows began thumping into flesh and wood.
As they scrambled to return fire (led by the valiant
Tametomo, who is believed to have been able to
draw a bow further than any other man due to his
left arm being several inches longer than his right),
Kiyomori threw his forces at the west gate of the
compound. A fierce struggle ensued as Sutoku’s Emperor Go-Shirakawa was Japan’s last
absolute monarch before the shogunate
much smaller force fought back. Eventually,
under a rain of arrows, Kiyomori was forced back.
Yoshitomo then suffered the same fate. attendant), Fujiwara no Michinori. Nobuyori even
As the battle raged, a contingent of had the audacity to proclaim himself as imperial
Go-Shirakawa’s troops penetrated the palace chancellor. But the pair hadn’t reckoned on
defences and set the compound ablaze. Shielding Kiyomori’s swift return.
their eyes from the flames, Sutoku’s men had little Upon reaching Kyoto, Kiyomori confronted
choice but to flee. Go-Shirakawa had managed to the unfolding crisis with his usual calm, offering
emerge victorious. Nobuyori pretend peace terms. While the hubristic
The cost of rebellion proved to be extortionate new chancellor prevaricated Kiyomori engineered
for the men who had supported Sutoku. Fujiwara Nijō and his father’s escape. With the emperor
no Yorinaga had perished from an arrow wound now safe, Kiyomori commanded his eldest son,
shortly after the battle. Tameyoshi and Tadamasa Shigemori, to finish the rebels. He duly led 3,000
were both executed, their son and nephew cavalry in an all-out assault on the palace.
respectively – but reluctantly – giving the orders. Unsurprisingly, Nobuyori fled at the first hint
stood Minamoto no Yoshitoma (Tameyoshi’s son) Tametomo suffered having the tendons in his bow of a struggle. Fortunately for Yoshitomo, his
and Taira no Kiyomori (Tadamasa’s nephew). arm severed before being cast into the wilderness, son Yoshihira fought back, pursuing Shigemori
The rebellious youngsters could count on the where he committed the first recorded act of through the corridors of a now blazing palace
guidance of Fujiwara no Tadamachi, evidently still seppuku (harakiri) – suicide by disembowelment. while the Samurai sons duelled a savage battle
a supporter of Toba and his son dispute his lies As for Sutoku, he was banished to Sanuki raged beyond the walls. As both sides slashed and
about Konoe’s death. But then treachery was rife in Province, where he is said to have died and shot at each other, Kiyomori effected a feigned
12th-century Japan. become an evil ghost hell-bent on revenge. withdrawal in order to lure the Minamoto soldier
When the first drums of war had started His enemies dead or scattered, Go-Shirakawa out into the open. His ploy worked, allowing
beating, Minamoto Tameyoshi (previously quickly mopped up the remnants of Sutoku’s a detachment of Taira troops to occupy the
expelled from the imperial court due to a mix of army. By way of thanks, he promoted Yoshitoma royal compound. Cut off, the Minamoto rushed
incompetence and an unhelpful habit of shielding to Provisional Head of the Left House (imperial) Kiyomori’s position but were beaten back. Their
criminals) had entrusted Yoshitomo with the Guards. Kiyomori fared even better, elevated as he lines soon buckled as panicked men quit the field.
recruitment of an army to aid Sutoku. Yoshitomo was to the post of governor of Harima Province. Yoshitomo died likewise, making it as far as
had fulfilled the task with enthusiasm – and then Go-Shirakawa had every right to be pleased, but Owari Province before his retainer tired of his
pledged the horde he’d amassed to Go-Shirakawa. unbeknown to the emperor, his generosity had company and killed him while he was taking a
Remarkably, once he’d spent sufficient time being in fact sowed the seeds of further bloodshed. By bath. Two of Yoshitomo’s sons followed him into
comforted by his concubines, Tameyoshi asked thanking the Minamoto and Taira clans in such the afterlife, including Yoshihira, but three were
another son to gather a fresh army. Fortunately unbalanced fashion, he’d unwittingly set them on spared, among them a boy named Yoritomo, who,
for the apparently exhausted Tameyoshi, this son a path to war. 25 years later, would establish the Kamakura
remained loyal. Both sides now prepared to settle shogunate, the first to rule Japan. Minamoto
the dispute over the throne with blood and steel. THE HEIJI REBELLION territories and wealth were snatched by a vengeful
On 5 September 1158, Go-Shirakawa abdicated Kiyomori, who then formed the country’s first
TO WAR his throne to make way for his son Nijō. As was samurai-dominated government.
Tametomo stared blankly across the table at custom, the cloistered emperor remained in The legacy of the Heiji disturbance was far more
Yorinaga, a smug expression contorting the charge. Even so, the presence of a 15-year-old important in determining Japan’s trajectory than
Fujiwara clansman’s face. It had seemed only boy on the throne may have emboldened the the event itself. A simmering rivalry between the
moments ago that the rest of the war party backed Minamoto clan, for when Taira no Kiyomori two most formidable Samurai clans had boiled
Tametomo’s proposal for a nocturnal assault on embarked on a pilgrimage the following year, they over once more into open war, and it wouldn’t be
Go-Shirakawa’s palace. Then Yorinaga intervened wasted no time in pouncing on the opportunity for the last time.
in his high-handed way to dismiss the notion as before them. In 1180 the clans would clash again in the
dishonourable. Meanwhile, in an identical meeting In league with Fujiwara no Nobuyori, Minamoto Genpei War, a conflict that would result in one
held inside Go-Shirakawa’s stronghold, Yoshitomo, no Yoshitomo laid siege to Sanjō Palace in dynasty standing on the ashes of the other and
sharing his brother’s martial intelligence, made Kyoto, placing Go-Shirakawa and Nijō under change the way in which Japan was ruled for
© Alamy; WIKI

the same suggestion. The emperor’s war party house arrest. For good measure, they torched centuries. Only one thing was certain in the wake
immediately sanctioned it. the palace and murdered Nijō’s retainer (a royal of the Heiji rebellion: Japan would know no peace.

55
 The Way
of the Warrior
Cultivated over centuries, the samurai developed a philosophy
where honour, loyalty, discipline and a noble death were more
important than life itself
Written by Hareth Al Bustani

ew acts better encapsulate the spirit of was not a self-justifying force, but waiting to be

F the samurai than the ritualistic form of

suicidal belly-cutting, known as seppuku,
or harakiri. The ultimate extension of
martial virtue, honour suicide formed a
thread of DNA, was woven through the gradual
development of samurai culture. It represented an
embrace of an agonising death over dishonour, an
grabbed by whoever was bold enough to seize it.
Despite committing an egregious crime
in rebelling against the emperor, Masakado
legitimised his power-grab with a sort of Robin
Hood reputation. On one occasion, when ordered
to arrest an outlaw, he refused, proclaiming it his
duty to protect the weak against the strong.
oath of loyalty to one’s lord unto the grave, and After capturing one of his rival uncles, he
the ultimate form of discipline. allowed him to escape unharmed – lest he break
The act was also incredibly subjective in intent; the social taboo of slaying a family member. That
for those who had disgraced themselves, it was a same uncle went on to attack Masakado, erecting
grotesque form of baptism by pain, through which images of his father and grandfather at the front
warriors could purify their transgressions. Like of his army, knowing that Masakado’s men would
Cato, who killed himself to deny Julius Caesar the be reluctant to attack images of his ancestors.
satisfaction of pardoning him, it was also practised Coupled with his martial prowess, this reputation
as a form of protest. drew 5,000 soldiers to his banner like moths to
Ritualistic suicide in Japan can be traced the flame.
back to the act of junshi – a form of ‘voluntary’ Simultaneously, on the opposite end of the
human sacrifice, where servants were buried alive archipelago, the governor-turned-pirate king
alongside their dead masters. Although junshi Fujiwara no Sumitomo began raiding the Inland
was outlawed in 646, it reared its head again just Sea with a fleet of fishermen and seamen. When
three years later, when a prominent official, Soga offered a senior post in return for peace, he
Kurayamada, was falsely accused of plotting to kill refused, capturing a vice-governor and cutting off
his son-in-law. his ears and nose. Although both rebellions were
Denied the opportunity to defend his honour, he eventually quashed, their violent obstinance had
proved his innocence by strangling himself inside a seismic impact on the emerging proto-samurai
a temple he had built for the emperor. In a show of philosophy – raising dangerous questions about
solidarity, his wife, children and servants followed the role of the warrior, and the nature of loyalty.
suit. Yet, although Kurayamada certainly died like In the mid-12th century, as power shifted into
a true samurai, his example was merely a prelude the hands of the royal offshoot clans, the Taira
of things to come. The samurai order did not begin and Minamoto, the nature of loyalty became
taking shape until the Heian era, particularly with increasingly complicated. When the Taira-backed
the rise of the man dubbed the ’first samurai’, emperor went to war with his brother, Minamoto
Taira no Masakado. no Yoshitomo sided with the emperor, against his
The most renowned warrior, or ‘tsuwamono’, of own father. However, when ordered to execute his
his time, after defeating his rival family members, father, Yoshitomo refused. Instead he left the task
he broke out in rebellion, declaring himself the to one of his officers, who later committed suicide
‘New Emperor’. When his own brother denounced in shame.
In samurai society, sometimes the only way for
him for acting against the Mandate of Heaven, he Decades later, yet another Minamoto clan warriors who disgraced themselves or their lords
spat back: “Our age dictates that those who are member broke out in revolt, this time triggering a to redeem themselves was through the ritualistic
belly-cutting suicide, known as seppuku
victorious become rulers”. In other words, power wider civil war. Although recently retired 74-year-

56
 The Way of the Warrior

old poet Minamoto no Yorimasa had previously Taira but relegated the emperor to a figurehead, Yoshitsune. Yoshitsune’s most-trusted general,
sided with the Taira, when the Taira leader’s establishing a new order, known as the bakufu, Benkei, single-handedly staved off the attackers,
son stole his own son’s horse – and mockingly or ‘tent government’. Henceforth, the ruling clan buying his master enough time to kill his own
named it after him – honour dictated that he seek leader would serve as a military dictator known as family before committing seppuku, declaring it
vengeance. Joined by just a few hundred followers, more noble to die by his own hand than by that
he mounted a suicidal last stand at the Battle of
Uji, where, as his men held the attackers back,
“The emerging warrior of an obscure soldier. Yoshitsune stabbed himself
under his left nipple, “stretched the incision in
Yorimasa calmy knelt down and wrote a final class known as the three directions” and ripped out his intestines.
poem on his fan: “Like a fossil tree from which we Japan’s quintessential samurai, his death raised
gather no flowers, sad has been my life, no fruit to samurai finally formed the bar for all future acts of seppuku.
produce.” With that, he calmly removed his dagger
and carved open his own belly; ordering his
a unique identity of One can scarcely imagine the willpower, or
ideology, that would drive a sane man to leave
men to cut off his head and throw it in the river,
denying the enemy a coveted trophy.
their own” the world in so gruesome a manner, and to
violate every war-hardened survival instinct.
Thus the tone was set. Although the subsequent shogun, who presided over a new feudal system, Like his fellow Genpei War samurai, Yoshitsune’s
Genpei War only lasted five years, it dragged splintered into a network of provincial lords, clans philosophy brought together elements of the
the entire realm into a great bloodletting of and vassals. The samurai were now the ruling indigenous Shinto faith with Buddhist and
violence, creating a crucible in which the class in an intricate hierarchy in which loyalty to Confucian values; such as accepting one’s lot in
emerging warrior class known as the samurai one’s feudal lord was paramount. life, and duty to one’s superiors. The warriors
finally formed a unique identity of their own. However, one of the shogun’s first acts was to infused these values and teachings with a deeply
The victorious Minamoto not only wiped out the betray his half-brother, the hero Minamoto no martial mentality, which saw death not as an

Illustration by: Joe Cummings

57
 how it is done!” He then
maniacally hurled his guts “Saigō
over the enemy, set fire Takamori
to his lord’s room, slit
his throat and crawled
was said to
onto his master’s have committed
corpse to die. seppuku, the great
When the Samurai
were not ripping
swansong of
out their guts, they the samurai”
embraced the finer
pleasures of high culture.
While poetry had always
been a celebrated pursuit, even
the gruff Hideyoshi could appreciate Sen
Rikyu’s mastery of the Zen Buddhism-inspired tea
ceremony – making him the tea master of Japan,
before ordering him to commit suicide in a fit of
paranoia. While many of Buddhism’s major tenets
may have long been lost to the ultraviolence of
samurai society, the tea ceremony offered grizzled
samurai a rare opportunity to bask in peace. Sen
Rikyū elevated the tea ceremony to a process
where the tea-preparation ritual was in many
ways more important than the act of drinking
Before going into a particularly risky battle, or it – drawing one’s attention to the impermanence
committing suicide, more literate samurai might write of life, while rejecting shallow materialism, and
a death poem
appreciating the beauty in the pedestrian aspects
end, but as a transition. From childhood, they of life.
were raised to devote themselves entirely to the Such pleasantries became all the more
principles of loyalty, honour and courage. important when Tokugawa Ieyasu brought peace
In a world where loyalty to one’s master was to the realm, ushering in a sweeping set of social
the most defining role of one’s life, the loss of a reforms designed to kick out the ladder that he
Between bloody
lord was tantamount to spiritual death. After the had climbed to reach the top of the pecking order. bouts of death
death of Kiso no Yoshinaka, one of his followers Building on Hideyoshi’s social policies, he oversaw and chaos on the
clenched a sword between his teeth and jumped a series of increasingly pervasive reforms, which battlefield, samurai
elites took great
headfirst from his horse onto the frozen ground segregated the four classes of citizen – peasants, pleasure in the
below. When the ruling Hōjō clan were defeated artisans, merchants and samurai – more than philosophical
stillness of the
in a civil war in 1333, the leader Hōjō Nakatoki ever. Peasants were forbidden from leaving their Zen-inspired tea
gathered 500 of his warriors and apologised for villages, and samurai were confined to their ceremony
being unable to repay their loyalty – “I shall kill appointed castle cities.
myself for your sakes, requiting in death the In this time of peace, the samurai underwent
favours received in life” – before committing somewhat of an existential crisis. Just years
seppuku. Alongside the Hōjō leadership, around before, they had been the vanguard of a system of
6,000 clansmen followed suit in an act of mass perpetual warfare; now they had become reduced
honour suicide. to bureaucrats and administrators. The Tokugawa’s
In 1441, when Akamatsu Mitsusuke was strict caps on local retinue sizes also forced
attacked with a huge force for murdering the many lords to lay off huge numbers of soldiers.
shogun, rather than fight a losing battle, his men These masterless samurai, known as rōnin, found
committed mass suicide. One of them, Asaka, themselves unemployed, desperately searching for
jumped down from a tower, butchered numerous work or food.
enemies, climbed back up and roared: “Weaklings, Among the most famous rōnin was a martial
watch me cut my stomach and I will show you arts instructor named Musashi Miyamoto, who
was said to have never lost a duel. Miyamoto was
“These masterless also a writer, and penned a seminal work, The
Book of Five Rings, celebrating the techniques and
samurai found ideals of the warrior code, which writers were now
beginning to refer to as ‘bushidō’, or ‘The Way of
themselves the Warrior’.

unemployed, He wrote: “The martial way of life practiced by

warriors is based on excelling others in anything
desperately searching and everything. Whether by victory in an
individual duel or by winning a battle with several
for work or food” people, one thinks of serving the interests of

58
 The ritual act of
suicide by belly-
cutting, known as
seppuku, offered
disgraced warriors
an opportunity
to cleanse their
shame through an
honourable death

Masaki Kobayashi’s 1962 film, Harakiri, tears

apart the mythos of bushidō, presenting it as
a form of propaganda used to perpetuate a
hypocritical power structure

Bushidō
today
After World War II, Japan
disavowed war for pacifism,
disbanding its army and creating
the Self-Defence Force
Japan’s post-war constitution prohibited
the country from fighting offensive wars,
relegating the Self-Defence Force (SDF)
to a form of reserve defence force.
In 2014, amid growing tensions with
China and North Korea, Shinzo Abe’s
Japanese parliament began broadening
A samurai commits the SDF’s powers. However, the vast
seppuku in battle
majority of the Japanese populace
oppose this revision and remain
one’s employer, of serving one’s own interests, of embrace this with defiance by making a second committed to pacifism. The samurai
becoming well known and socially established.” gruesome cut, carving an agonising X-shaped values of honour, discipline and martial
In reality, the word ‘samurai’ literally translated wound across their abdomen. skill remain hallmarks of the country’s
to ‘one who serves’; and there was little meaning However, under the Tokugawa, the act was most popular martial arts, such as karate,
in being a servant without a master. While reduced to a shell of its former self; a metaphorical kendo, judo, jujutsu and aikido. However,
some rōnin went on to become bandits and reflection on the hollow nature of bushidō in these are largely taught as forms of
brigands, others sold off their swords and became an age of peace. One’s suffering was usually cut self-defence and personal development,
merchants, physicians or priests instead. Many short by a second person who, after the initial rather than preparation for war.
could not handle the tumble from grace and had cut, would decapitate the samurai, ending their Some analysts see other aspects of
no choice but to commit suicide with dignity. In misery. Some petty nobles might only be handed samurai culture – formality, respect for
fact, mass suicides became so endemic that by a symbolic wooden sword, or a fan, and have their hierarchy and discipline – in Japan’s
1663, the Tokugawa had to outlaw it, seeing it as a heads cut off as soon as they reached out for it. modern work culture, especially among
serious drain of labour and experience. Reflecting In one particularly telling case, after being the country’s ‘salarymen’. Fuelling
the mood of the time, the samurai-turned-monk mocked by a drunken group of footsoldiers, a the stereotype, in 1999, a disgruntled
Yamamoto Tsunetomo explained: “The way of the young samurai called Suga Kozaemon killed manager at Bridgestone committed
samurai is found in death.” six of them, before wounding several more and seppuku with a fish knife after a heated
For the samurai who remained employed, tying them to a boat. The authorities forced the argument with the company’s president.
their class entitled them to a series of exclusive surviving warriors to commit seppuku for being so Yet, for the most part, the samurai
privileges. They were not only allowed to thoroughly disgraced, while allowing Kozaemon to code of bushidō has been relegated
bear arms, but had the right to cut down any commit suicide in honour of his martial ability. to the confines of history. Although
commoner who disrespected them. However, this After the Meiji government crushed the Japanese pop culture tends to embrace
status was a double-edged sword, for the Samurai Satsuma Rebellion, wiping out the samurai class, an idealised interpretation of the
were held to far higher moral standards than the the rebel leader Saigō Takamori was said to have samurai, some – such as Kobayashi’s
lower classes. Any soldiers caught gambling were committed seppuku, the great swansong of the 1962 film, Harakiri – have reframed the
exiled from the capital, and a samurai who killed samurai. Some even speculated that his head virtue of blind loyalty unto death as
their parent would be dragged through the streets flew off into the heavens, landing on Mars, or that an unjust social contract used by the
and crucified. he died attaining Nirvana, circled by weeping powerful to enforce immoral decisions
The most shameful punishment reserved for disciples. In truth, Takamori may have been felled on the powerless.
the most dishonourable samurai was a public by a bullet. Either way, although the samurai were
beheading. For lesser offenses, those condemned gone, the code of bushidō lived on.
to death were offered the opportunity to commit Upon creating a new conscript army in
seppuku. The most valiant of victims would 1871, Japan’s Ministry of War issued a set of

59
 “As
instructions, listing seven martial ideals required time of Pearl Harbor, the bushidō Japan
from each soldier: loyalty, decorum, faith, code lived on. “The fact that desperately
obedience, courage, frugality and honour. It
explained, “This spirit made up the substance of
the code was not incorporated
into Army Regulations did not
attempted to
the bushidō of old.” invalidate it, for it existed on a modernise, this new
In the subsequent decades, as Japan desperately superior plane – an ideal, a faith, form of bushidō
attempted to modernise, this new form of bushidō a creed, and a key to the ultimate
grew increasingly important. Military victories things of life and death.”
grew increasingly
over China and Russia only further fuelled As a living god, the emperor important”
its conceptual role in the country’s cultural served as a hyper-concentrated focal
homogenisation. As World War II drew nearer, point of the Japanese spirit, to whom
politicians revived a bastardised form of bushidō the Japanese must remain loyal unto death.
to drum up ultranationalist militant fervour This force manifested itself in a tidal wave of
among the country’s youth. Historian Arthur ultraviolence, driving the Japanese army to
Swinson says that even though the samurai commit unspeakable atrocities across China
system had been abolished for 74 years by the and southeast Asia. Like the days of the Pirate

The 47 Rōnin
In 1701, Asano Naganori, the lord of rōnin spent nearly two years hanging out
Akō province, was asked to take part in dive bars, drinking with prostitutes and
in formalities at the shogun’s court in feigning unemployment. In 1703, with Kira’s
Edo. There, he fell out of favour with his guard down, they attacked his mansion,
assigned supervisor, Kira Yoshinaka, the overpowered his men and surrounded
master of ceremonies, who began to him. Although they offered him the chance
publicly humiliate and harass him. to commit seppuku, he declined; so they
After one disgrace too many, Asano decapitated him, using the same blade
ambushed Kira in a hallway and sliced him their lord had killed himself with. They then
with his short sword, wounding him. For carried his head to their master’s tomb and
committing the capital offence of drawing turned themselves in.
his sword in the shogun’s castle, Asano was Ordered to commit seppuku, the rōnin
ordered to commit suicide. His domain was gladly complied, and they were buried
seized, and his 47 most loyal bodyguards alongside their lord. Their story inspired
suddenly became masterless rōnin. an iconic stage drama that, despite being
Furious at the unjust treatment of banned, lived on. Centuries later, it would
their master, they began plotting their find itself adapted into several movies and
revenge. In order to avoid suspicion, the TV shows.

The story of the 47 Rōnin

inspired one of the seminal
Japanese theatrical
traditions, known as
Chūshingura, The Treasury
of Loyal Retainers

60
 The Way of the Warrior

Yoshitoshi Tsukioka created a series of wood block In many ways, Yoshitsune and his comrade Benkei,
prints based on the gruesome sights he saw during the represented the pinnacle of samurai ideals: loyalty,
Meiji Restoration, such as this act of honour suicide martial brilliance and dying with honour

King Sumitomo, violence became a purifying was it that only the locals had to commit suicide
expression of the Japanese spirit. In time, even a while Japanese soldiers were allowed to survive?
shallow, propagandised image of the samurai was We felt betrayed. After the war, I coined the
incorporated into this death cult. phrase, ‘Gunsei, Minshi,’ which means ‘the army
Vice-Admiral Ōnishi used this idea of the survives, the people die’.”
‘Samurai spirit’ to indoctrinate young kamikaze This mentality also manifested itself in Japan’s
pilots, who were trained to launch suicide attacks, dogged refusal to surrender – even after the
flying into enemy naval vessels. Some young men first atom bomb was dropped over Hiroshima,
wept tears of joy at the prospect of performing
these suicide attacks. As the war turned and the
Allies clamped down on Japan itself, the imperial
“Men were handed
army only became more frenzied. At Saipan, the grenades, clubs and
Americans were on the receiving end of a ‘banzai’
charge, where waves of suicidal Japanese infantry scythes to kill their
charged at the enemy.
Things only escalated when the Japanese
own families and
prime minister announced that every citizen
should be prepared to die, rather than face defeat.
themselves with”
In Okinawa, civilians leapt from the cliffs with immediately incinerating 66,000 civilians. After
their children to evade capture, and scores of his the war, although Hirohito remained emperor,
generals performed seppuku. Local resident Kinjo he was forced to renounce his divinity, and his
Shigeaki recalled the Japanese army gathering his sovereignty. However, he continued to cast a
700 to 800 fellow villagers, compelling them to shadow over the nation.
yell “Banzai!” or “Long Life (to the emperor)!” three In 1970, one of the country’s most acclaimed
times – an unspoken indication they must commit writers, Yukio Mishima, barricaded himself inside
mass suicide. the headquarters of Japan’s Self-Defence Force.
Men were handed grenades, clubs and scythes After a lengthy speech denouncing the country’s
to kill their own families and themselves with. post-war military decline and constitution, in full
After killing their mother and younger siblings, view of heckling troops, he committed seppuku
Image source: Getty Images, Alamy

Shigeaki and his brother decided to die in a with a dagger, with his followers cutting off his
In 1970, after hijacking the Self- suicide attack against the American soldiers. head, as his guts spilled out. It was a last desperate
Defence Force headquarters Shigeaki recalls, “However, the first person we met gasp of the samurai, roaring out in one final act
and delivering a lengthy speech
denouncing Japan’s post-WWII was not an American but a Japanese soldier. We of defiance. However, Japan had moved on; the
military decline, acclaimed author were shocked and wondered why he was still alive country had seen enough death and war; this was
Yukio Mishima committed seppuku
when we had been told to kill each other. Why the time for life and peace.

61
 A 19th-centur
y
woodblock of
a
samurai abou
t to
commit suici
de,
with his farewe
ll
poem placed
in
front of him

Jisei:
Death
poetry
In preparation for their death in battle, or as part
of ritual suicide, samurai composed a traditional
poem bidding farewell to life
Written by Tim Williamson

oughly translated as a ‘farewell poem lifeless tree, reflecting upon his regret at having

R to life’, a jisei is a poem traditionally

composed in preparation for one’s
death. Drawn from a mixture of Zen
Buddhism, Chinese Confucianism and
Shinto traditions, jisei poems frequently contain
natural imagery, as the writer reflects on their life,
their place in the world, and their transition to the
not produced an heir (2, right).
Before the Battle of Shijōnawate in 1348, the
young samurai general Kusunoki Masatsura had
a premonition of his own death and composed
his jisei by carving it onto the door of a temple. In
it he expresses his wish to take his place among
fellow fallen warriors. He was then defeated in
afterlife. Often in the tanka form – 31 syllables over single combat during the battle, and committed
five lines – jisei were written by scholars, poets, seppuku as a result (3, right).
monks, but also samurai, whose poems frequently In 1912, General Nogi Maresuke and his wife
reflected on duty, clan loyalty and the core tenets Shizuko committed suicide on the day of the
of bushidō. Meiji Emperor’s funeral, following the old samurai
Centuries ago, samurai would compose their tradition of not outliving one’s master, known as
jisei and carry it with them into battle, but they junshi. In preparation for his death, Nogi wrote his
were also written as part of ritual suicide, or own jisei (4, right)
seppuku. One famous jisei comes from Asano While Nogi carefully composed his poem to
Naganori, lord of the famed 47 Rōnin, which express his enduring loyalty to the emperor,
inspired Japan’s most famous folktale. Sentenced many jisei were not so deliberately planned, and
to death after attacking a government official at often were spoken aloud, or sung spontaneously
the shogun’s palace, Naganori wrote poem 1 (in the by the dying. The 15th-century warrior-poet Ōta
box to the right) in farewell. Dōkan was assassinated in 1486, and with his final
Flowers, particularly Japan’s national flower, breaths he’s said to have composed poem 5 (right).
the cherry blossom or sakura, often appear in Yamaoka Tesshu, a celebrated 19th-century
jisei poetry to symbolise the beauty but also samurai, swordsman and calligrapher, composed
the brevity of life. However, many other natural his jisei in the haiku form. While he was painfully
images, as well as seasonal motifs, were used to dying of stomach cancer, his poem describes the
express the writer’s meditations. After his defeat immediate experience of agony, interceded by
at the Battle of Uji in 1180, the poet and warrior the calling of a bird outside – birds and ravens
Minamoto no Yorimasa prepared to commit have always been closely associated with death in
seppuku. His jisei compares himself to a rotten or Japanese tradition (6, right).

62
 Famous
jisei
Discover the lyrical, allusive
stanzas of death poetry. For the
authors and the context of each
poem, see the text to the left

[1]
More than the cherry blossoms
Inviting a wind to blow them away,
I am wondering what to do
With the remaining springtime.

[2]
Like a fossil tree
From which we gather no flowers,
Sad has been my life
Fated no fruit to produce.

[3]
I have a feeling
I will not be returning,
so among the names
of those who died by the bow
I inscribe my own.

[4]
The Master of the world
Has passed away –
And after him,
Eager to serve my lord
Go I.

[5]
Had I not known
That I was dead
Already,
I would have mourned
the loss of my life.

[6]
Tightening my abdomen
against the pain.
The caw of a morning crow.
© Getty

The samurai Akashi

Gidayū prepares to
commit suicide, with
his farewell poem lying
beside him

63
 Philosophy
of the
samurai
The common view of warrior classes from
history is one of bloody violence and rough
manners – but the samurai turned their
lives into works of art
Written by Ben Gazur

hen many people think of the are considered national treasures today. Several

W samurai they think of bushidō

– the Way of the Warrior. This
moral code that governed the
actions of samurai was never
actually a single philosophy as different clans
followed different rules. By examining Japanese
culture, however, we can see how the samurai
of his advisers in the collecting of art works were
born samurai but devoted their lives to beauty.
The artworks gathered in the Silver Pavilion were
not mere decoration however. The Silver Pavilion
embodies the philosophy and aesthetics that
moulded later samurai thought.

grew from simple soldiers to become the warrior WABI-SABI

poets and philosophers we know them as today. The Silver Pavilion as planned by Ashikaga
Yoshimasa was intended to be covered in glittering
HIGASHIYAMA CULTURE silver. Yet as we see it today it has no gilding. The
Much of what we consider as distinctively pavilion is unfinished, weathered and, to Japanese
samurai is derived from Higashiyama Culture as sensibilities, perfect in its imperfection. It is an
developed in the Ashikaga shogunate in the 15th example of the Japanese ideal of Wabi-sabi.
century. Under Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa there Wabi had originally referred to the miserable
was a harmonisation of the cultures enjoyed at state of living in nature, far away from other
court and those of the warrior samurai. It was people but it shifted in the 15th century towards
no longer sufficient to be a bold fighter. Samurai a wistful melancholy. Sabi was a term meaning
were now expected to cultivate the arts and act in thin or withered. Together these two words might
accordance with philosophical principles. conjure up a bleak outlook but when placed
Yoshimasa planned his own retirement in the together they turned into a notion that the wear
Temple of the Silver Pavilion in the Higashiyama and damage objects receive as they are used could
hills outside of Kyoto, from which this pinnacle be beautiful.
of Japanese culture derives its name. The Wabi-sabi is a sense of aesthetics based on the
construction of this building and the life of acceptance of transience and imperfection in the
contemplation and artistry Yoshimasa enjoyed world. A flawless object may attract our attention
there shaped Japanese aesthetics for generations. for a moment, but a ceramic bowl with a drip in its
Yoshimasa patronised Noh theatre, employed glaze gives us pause to consider how it was made
talented ink painters, celebrated ikebana flower and the art of the maker. Age and individuality in
arranging, and raised the Japanese tea ceremony an object is respected. The tides of time should
to an art. The small room constructed at the leave their mark on an object just as waves on the
Silver Pavilion for drinking tea is the oldest tea beach mark time on sand.
room in Japan and a model for all that came later. Wabi-sabi was an important principle for
The Silver Pavilion can be seen as a response to samurai because they lived hard lives. They were
the ornate and glittering Gold Pavilion built to likely to bear scars from their battles and wield
celebrate the warrior culture of earlier generations. old and repaired weapons. An acceptance of the
Yoshimasa was creating a new, simpler, ideal for fleeting nature of perfection, and life itself, spurred
the samurai. warriors into battle. Wabi-sabi was described in the
The works of art Yoshimasa gathered around Letter of the Heart that set out the principles of the
him formed the basis of the Higashiyama tea ceremony. It noted that “however cultivated
Treasure – priceless paintings and artefacts that one’s manner, a painful self-awareness of one’s

64
 65
© WIKI
 The shortcomings is crucial. Remember that self-
assertion and attachment are obstructions”. Even a
tranquillity cup of tea could remind a samurai of how to face a
battle without fear.
of tea Wabi-sabi also taught samurai that some
things are out of their control. It is perhaps best
Japanese samurai had a special expressed in the story of Sen no Rikyū when
relationship with tea he asked a servant to prepare his tea house. The
servant scrubbed it top to bottom and scoured the
The Japanese tea ceremony, known as cha- garden in preparation. When Sen no Rikyū arrived,
no-yu, is inextricably linked to Buddhism. he shook a maple tree to randomly scatter some
The first reference to the ceremony comes leaves. Wabi-sabi was thus achieved in joining
from the 9th century when a monk called human efforts with the transience of nature. In
Eichū brought tea to Japan from China. battle you cannot expect the fight to be as neat as
After preparing tea for Emperor Saga, it your plans.
was ordered that tea plantations should be The same cup of tea that might give a samurai
set up. Other Buddhist monks refined both pause to consider the nature of life could also give
the cultivation and serving of tea. them hope. Their sense of aesthetics meant that
Tea remained a luxury available only repairs to a damaged vessel should be seen and
to the court and samurai classes, and the not hidden. It can even become art as in kintsugi,
ceremony surrounding it became complex. where pottery is repaired with gold so that the
In the Letter of the Heart, written in 1488, cracks show. Even a battle scar could be beautiful.
Murata Juko codified the philosophy and Wabi-sabi developed during the Warring States
actions performed at the tea ceremony. period. When there was so much conflict it was a
The tea was to be central to the event, and comfort to find peace in the passing of all things
gaudy or gilded vessels were abandoned and a joy to treasure venerable objects that may
for simple pottery. The 16th-century Zen have been damaged.
tea master Sen no Rikyū used the tea
ceremony to popularise the aesthetic MONO NO AWARE
philosophy of wabi-sabi. Mono no aware is another term that has no easy
Ginkaku-ji, known as the Silver Pavilion,
Samurai who entered the tea house translation into English. It can broadly be defined was the centre of the Higashiyama culture
would leave their arms and weapons as the wistful realisation that all things are of Japanese aesthetics
outside so that their differences and impermanent and it developed from the Buddhist
conflicts could be shed too. They accepted idea of non-attachment. more beautiful because they do not last. For the
each other as individuals and not as When your feelings for the passing of a thing samurai who faced death every time they drew a
warriors during the ceremony. Yet the match the appearance of decay, you are feeling sword, non-attachment helped them to cope with
tea ceremony was not an idle relaxation mono no aware. It’s why looking at blossom is so their fears. There is a saying in Japan that “among
for samurai – it trained them in focus and important in Japan; the flowers realise a brilliance blossoms the cherry blossom [is best], among men,
allowed them to gain insights into others for just a few days, but soon wither and pass the warrior”. Both may glitter for a time, but the
that might be of benefit on the battlefield. away. You can curse the flowers as they die or you warrior can be cut down just as easily as a blossom
can enjoy their brief beauty. And maybe they are blows away.

The Japanese tea

ceremony was about far
more than just drinking
tea – it inculcated values
samurai treasured on and
off the battlefield

66
 Philosophy of the samurai

The austere and

rigorous lifestyles
of Zen monks
appealed to
samurai – as did
their teachings
that banished fear

“Even a cup of tea could remind

a samurai of how to
face a battle without fear”
SHINTO AND ZEN IN the Buddha with the art of war. Battle, properly you could be trusted to stand your ground when
SAMURAI THOUGHT entered with a clear mind, now becomes a form it mattered most in a fight.
The adoption of Zen Buddhism led to great of meditation. The influence of Buddhism was opposed by
changes in 12th-century Japan. This must have “Although you see the sword that moves to some. During the Momoyama period (1573-1603),
left some aristocrats with a deep sense of mono strike you, if your mind is not detained by it and the warlord Oda Nobunaga attacked monasteries
no aware when they saw their way of life passing. you meet the rhythm of the advancing sword… and put Buddhist monks to the sword. The
The samurai were beginning to grow in the sword that was going to cut you down relative decline in Buddhism saw a return to the
importance in society. will become your own, and, contrarily, ancestral worship of Shintoism.
Shimazu Yoshihiro, the leader will be the sword that cuts down Shintoism is the indigenous faith of Japan that
of the Shimazu samurai who your opponent.” sees the landscape and world as being full of
lived in the 16th century, The samurai often used the spirits called kami. It was Shinto that rounded
wrote a poem reflecting “It was Shinto term ‘mushin’ – ‘no mind’. It out the ethical philosophy of the samurai. While
the Zen belief in the that rounded comes from a Zen phrase Buddhism taught warriors self-control and to
transience of life that the meaning ‘the mind without confront problems with calm resignation, it was
Samurai were adopting:
out the ethical mind’. It is a state where Shinto that taught them their strict loyalty to
philosophy of instinct and training take their masters. The duties of the samurai, their
“In the spring – flowers the samurai” over and the mind is free reverence for ancestors and filial piety were all
And in the fall – foliage, from worry, doubt and ego. derived from Shinto.
Everything is fleeting. It was employed by martial The Meiji Restoration of 1868 saw Shintoism
This is the human race – artists and was useful on the become one of the foundations of the new
Gatekeepers of the void.” battlefield where there is no time Japan. By providing a sacred core to Japanese
for thought. A fighting Samurai nationalism, it supported the administration and
Many samurai were followers of Zen sought to exist within the moment. hierarchy of the state.
and other forms of Buddhism. The 17th-century The rigorous mental and physical training Of course the Meiji Restoration also witnessed
sword master Takuan Sōhō wrote a treatise called that Zen monks underwent was thought to be the dissolution of the samurai as a class.
The Unfettered Mind that was influential in how helpful to young warriors. If you were able to bear From then on, only some of the virtues and
later samurai would view the world through hardship and starvation without complaint, then philosophies of the samurai would be cultivated
a Buddhist lens. Addressed specifically to the you were a useful Japanese soldier. If you could among the populace – provided they benefited
© WIKI

samurai class, it marries the pacific world of face an enemy without fear or perturbation, then the nation.

67
 Daimyo:
The warlords
of Japan
In the bloodsoaked chaos of nationwide civil war, the daimyo,
the powerful samurai lords of Japan, battled for supremacy
Written by Marc DeSantis

apan has a long history of feudal warfare. daimyo of later years, the shugo were the authority of the Ashikaga was largely ruined

J Such conflict reached its apogee during

the Sengoku Jidai, ‘the Age of the Country
at War’, that stretched from 1467 until
1615. The warlords of this fractured Japan,
riven by civil wars, were known as daimyo, the
‘Great Names’, that ruled over large territories of
the country.
lords of their own domains.
The power of the Ashikaga
Shogunate declined
precipitously in the late 15th
century. The country had
been shaken by a series
of devastating peasant
“The
14th century
witnessed the rise
along with it.

HOJO SOUN:
THE FIRST
DAIMYO
The disruption of traditional
lines of authority that
The daimyo proper, as opposed to the
traditional aristocrats of medieval Japan, traced
revolts. Then the ten-
year Ōnin War (1467-77)
of a new samurai followed the Ōnin War
opened up opportunities
their origin to the heyday of the Ashikaga between two rival clans, aristocracy known for ruthless samurai to grab
shoguns. The 14th century witnessed the rise of the Hosokawa and the as the shugo” a share of power using any
a new samurai aristocracy known as the shugo. Yamana, was fought over means they possibly could. Old
Originally, shugo were military governors serving the control of Kyoto, Japan’s families of ancient lineage could
the prior Kamakura bakufu (military government) capital, and the seat of the be knocked from their perches by
and they were subsequently integral members emperor himself. Much of Kyoto aggressive underlings, or perhaps they
of the following Ashikaga Shogunate. Like the was destroyed in the conflict, and the could even be annihilated altogether.

68
 Daimyo: The Warlords of Japan

Victory at the 1600 Battle of Sekigahara

paved the way for the Sengoku Jidai
daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu to become
the overlord of all Japan

This era of instability and civil war that THE RIVALS: TAKEDA
engulfed Japan, the Sengoku Jidai, allowed for the SHINGEN AND UESUGI
true daimyo to come to the fore. The subversion KENSHIN
of lordly aristocrats by persons substantially lower The Sengoku Jidai would see the rise of several
on the social scale was termed gekokujō, ‘the low legendary daimyo. Among the foremost of these
overcoming the high.’ warlords were the great rivals Takeda Shingen and
Thus, the prototypical daimyo, Hōjō Sōun Uesugi Kenshin.
(1432-1519), had himself initially been only an Takeda Shingen (1521-73) was the master of Kai
ordinary samurai. He put down a rebel leader province in modern-day Yamanashi prefecture,
in Ise province in 1491 and for his good work while Uesugi Kenshin (1530-78) ruled Echigo
was put in charge of the region. He and his sons province in north-central Japan. Both were, in
relentlessly enlarged their holdings in ensuing addition to being daimyo, Buddhist monks. Each
years. In addition to being an excellent soldier, had shown ruthlessness in achieving power in
Sōun, who would live until the ripe old age of 88, their respective domains. Shingen had mounted
showed a flair for good governance. The law code a coup against his own father, a daimyo who had One of the greatest of Japan’s Sengoku era warlords,
he promulgated would provide a legal template for planned to pass over him and give his lands to in 1582 Oda Nobunaga committed ritual suicide as the
Honnoji temple in Kyoto burned around him
other daimyo. another, younger son.

69
 The 47
Rōnin
In 1701, a lesser daimyo of Harima
province, Asano Naganori, was goaded
into wounding Lord Kira Yoshinaka, an
obnoxious government official of the
Tokugawa Shogunate. Merely unsheathing
his blade in the shogun’s palace in Edo was
a grave crime carrying a penalty of death.
Even though he had been provoked by
Kira’s insults, Asano’s offence could not be
excused. He was made to take his own life
by committing seppuku, ritual suicide, and
his territory was seized.
The death of Asano left his former
samurai without a master. They had
become rōnin, and 47 of them would not
allow his death to pass unavenged. They
devised a plan to strike back at Kira. To
prevent him from learning of their intent,
they went their separate ways, pretended
to have dispensed with being samurai, and
had no contact with one another.
Then one snowy December evening in
1702, the 47 Rōnin mounted a surprise
The Takeda clan horsemen were cut
attack on Kira’s townhouse inside Edo. down by Oda Nobunaga’s arquebusiers
Kira’s own samurai fought the rōnin hard at the Battle of Nagashino in 1575
in defence of their lord, but at last, Kira
was captured. The leader of the 47, Oishi
Yoshio, beheaded him with the very dagger An excellent general, Shingen was also known of a central government for over a century. The
that Asano had used to commit seppuku. as a wise and generous civil administrator. The civil wars would come to an end only with the
Kira’s head was carried to Asano’s tomb in peasant farmers of Kai were relatively well treated appearance of three remarkable daimyo. The first
the city and placed on it. in comparison to those ruled by other daimyo, and of these was Oda Nobunaga.
The plan had succeeded, but the 46 they gave Shingen their loyalty. The son of an unimportant daimyo in Owari
surviving rōnin could not be allowed to get Kenshin’s ascent was even more dramatic. province, Oda won a surprising victory over a
away with murder, no matter how much Originally named Nagao Kagetora, he was a vassal much stronger opponent in 1560 at the Battle of
their actions may have accorded with the of the more powerful Uesugi clan. However, the Okehazama. In 1568, he was in control of Kyoto,
ideal of samurai loyalty. Each man was Uesugi fell on hard times during the Sengoku and the shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, was his own
himself made to commit suicide, and join Jidai, and this opened the door for Kenshin to creature. In 1573, Yoshiaki made the mistake of
their lord in death. step through. After a series of defeats had left the going against Oda, who drove him into exile. A
Uesugi clan prostrate, its chief, Uesugi Norimasa, good portion of Kyoto was burned in the process.
appealed to his vassal for succour. The Ashikaga Shogunate, for so long toothless,
This was granted, but Kagetora did so on the was now truly finished.
condition that he be adopted as the Uesugi heir Oda was an enthusiastic adopter of firearms,
and also be made the lord of Echigo. He changed the first of which had been brought to Japan by
his name to Uesugi Kenshin. Portuguese traders. His arquebusiers, deployed in
Shinano province lay between the domains lines and firing in disciplined volleys, decimated
of Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen, and it the charging cavalry of the Takeda clan (the
became their battleground. They would meet formidable Takeda Shingen was now dead) at the
in five separate battles at Kawanakajima, a Battle of Nagashino in 1575.
strategically important piece of land, between 1553 Oda’s control over Japan increased over the
and 1564. These were fought with large doses of next few years, and he would eventually corral 22
chivalry. The greatest and most dramatic of the provinces into submission. However, in 1582 he
encounters, the fourth battle, was fought in 1561. would be betrayed by one of his own vassals while
When news reached Uesugi that Takeda’s salt in Kyoto’s Honnō-ji temple. The building itself was
The 47 Rōnin went to extraordinary lengths supply had been disrupted by another daimyo, he aflame, and like a true samurai, Oda committed
to obtain vengeance for their dead master, delivered some of his own to his enemy, saying seppuku (ritual suicide) so that he might die by his
the ill-fated Lord Asano
that he battled with a sword, not salt. own hand.

ODA NOBUNAGA TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI

After the unraveling of the Ashikaga Shogunate One of Oda’s subordinates, Toyotomi Hideyoshi,
following the Ōnin War, Japan would be bereft seized the chance brought into being by Oda’s

70
 Daimyo: The warlords of Japan

with each man the lord of his domain, but all them money, always welcome, and also gave
would acknowledge the Tokugawa shogun as his them the chance to take vengeance on the
supreme overlord. enemy. In the end, Osaka Castle was doomed,
and the rōnin inside along with it. After it fell
RŌNIN: MEN OF THE WAVES in 1615, many were beheaded by the victorious
The samurai, so strongly linked to his daimyo, Tokugawa.
might well find himself without a lord, Rōnin might come into existence even after
depending upon the fortunes of war or other the end of the Age of the Country at War. In
vicissitudes of life. These samurai without the late 19th century, when the forces of the
masters were known as rōnin, ‘men of the waves’. resurgent emperor moved to supplant the
Though they may have lacked masters, they still Tokugawa shogunate as the central government,
possessed their superlative military skills, and they sought the support of the peasantry. To this
they were a ready source of recruits for a daimyo end, rōnin were used to disseminate the news
who wished to quickly bulk up his army. that taxes would be slashed in half if the imperial
One daimyo, for example, named Kuroda side gained power, and the message did not fail
Yoshitaka, shrewdly advised his officials to to gain adherents for the imperial party.
overlook it if the coins paid to the ronin were too The memory of the rōnin persists among
heavy or if the rōnin pilfered some of them. He modern Japanese. The story of the 47 Rōnin who
needed to bring rōnin to his banner, and having took vengeance for their master is justly famous,
a reputation for generosity was the surest way to and even their title is still used. High-school
do this. graduates who fail to secure admission to the
At the end of the Sengoku Jidai, many rōnin universities of their choice, and choose to wait a
made their way to Osaka Castle to defend it year to take the entrance examinations again, are
against Tokugawa Ieyasu. Such service brought called rōnin.

Arguably the first of the

true daimyo, Hōjō Sōun
exemplified the Samurai
who had risen from
obscurity to a position
of power in Japan’s
unsettled Age of the
slaying to take vengeance on the perpetrators. Country at War
An extremely capable general of low birth,
Hideyoshi vaulted to the pinnacle of power, and
he set about bringing Japan’s daimyo under his
own domination.
With an army of a quarter-million soldiers, he
extended his power over the southern Japanese
islands of Kyushu and Shikoku in 1587. By 1590, he
had secured the submission of the last remaining
independent daimyo in Honshu, Japan’s main
island. The country had at last been unified. All
daimyo swore loyalty oaths to Hideyoshi, getting
in return acknowledgments of their rights to their
own fiefs.

TOKUGAWA IEYASU
Hideyoshi’s 1592 invasion of Korea would last
several years and prove to be a bloody, costly
failure. His death in 1598 created a path to
paramount power for the greatest of the Sengoku
daimyo to arise. Tokugawa Ieyasu, a leading vassal
of Hideyoshi, had his base at Edo (the future
Tokyo). He first defeated a powerful alliance of his
enemies at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. The
last embers of rebellion were finally stamped out
with Tokugawa’s capture of Osaka Castle in 1615.
These military successes made Tokugawa the
unchallenged master of all Japan. Having taken
the moribund title of shogun in 1603, he made
Edo the seat of the national government. For
him, and his descendants who would become
shoguns after him, the goal was a stable, peaceful
Japan. The land would still be ruled by daimyo,

71
 Who were
Japan’s
lady
samurai?
We delve into Japanese
history to reveal the so-called
onna bugeisha – fearsome,
skilled female warriors who
took to the battlefield
Written by Dr Nyri A Bakkalian

72
73
Image source: wiki/Floating World Gallery
 Image source: wiki/morimiya.net

ar and combat is not the

W province of men alone.

Throughout history,
regardless of gender,
women have survived war
and been combatants. And while many of
the household names in Japanese military
history are male, women have always been
© Getty Images

part of Japanese warfare, despite their Japanese schoolgirls

frequent erasure from popular history. The show off their prowess
common term one often encounters today with the naginata, 1935
for women combatants in Japanese history
is onna bugeisha, which we’ll translate of helping reclaim the inner ‘light’ of Edo period who were notable practitioners
here as ‘women martial artists’. women’s independence in an era that of their martial arts. Chiba Sanako (1838-
Who were these women, and how do was seeking to force women into the role 96), part of the famed Chiba family of
their stories fit into the broader story of of “good wife, wise mother”. Seeking the instructors in Hokushin Itto-ryu, is a good
pre-modern Japanese military history? If story of women at war in pre-modern example of this. But to apply ‘bugeisha’ to
we’re to seek out these stories, we need to Japanese history is, to this writer, one people in Heian or Sengoku era warfare is
be mindful of where and how to search. way of seeking out that light. a bit of a stretch.
And we need to seek out women’s stories The first thing to bear in mind with The term, as it tends to be used
on their own terms, rather than as an the term onna bugeisha is that it’s a particularly in English, is looking not only
extension of the men. In the opening modern day catch-all term used more in at skill in systematised martial arts but
words of the first issue of early feminist non-Japanese writing than in Japanese more broadly at the histories of women at
magazine Seito (Bluestocking) in 1911, writing. Martial arts, as they exist today as war. So where are these women ‘hiding’?
author and activist Hiratsuka Raicho (1886- systematised schools of practice in which We must try to think more broadly, to find
1971) famously wrote, “In the beginning, one can become licensed, have not always more of their stories. Rather than bugeisha
woman was the sun.” She was evoking existed. If you search for ‘onna bugeisha’ (martial artist), where there may or may
the image of the sun goddess Amaterasu online you’ll certainly find modern writing not have been practical application, we
as she explained the magazine’s aims on some women, especially those in the think it’s worth approaching the subject

74
 Japan’s lady samurai

Famous warriors
Some of the better-known
Japanese women of war
Empress Jingu
A legendary figure said to have
bloodlessly conquered Korea
while pregnant with her son
Ōjin. The story tells of her son
remaining in the womb for three
Female warriors years so she could wage war.
© Alamy

were eulogised for

their bravery
Tomoe Gozen
the first Kamakura shogun, she also Japan’s most famous female
ensured her birth family’s continued warrior, she was renowned for
political influence in the shogunate for her strength and skill, most
the rest of its existence. Several decades particularly as a mounted archer
after her death, it was a Hojo regent in the Genpei Wars.
Hojo Tokimune (1251-84) under whose
leadership the Kamakura Shogunate rallied Nakano Takeko
Japanese forces in their defence against Taking up arms with her mother
the Mongol Empire’s two attempted Koko and sister Masaki, she was
invasions of Kyushu. part of an all-female unit, or
But of course, Tomoe Gozen and Hojo Joshigun, that fought in defence
The Battle of Awazu Masako are far from the only women in of Aizu (now Fukushima) against
would be the final stand Japanese military history. This writer’s the Meiji regime.
of the rebellion Tomoe
Gozen helped to fight
research into women at war in Japanese
history only made headway because of
a focus on, and drawing from sources in,
Hangaku Gozen
Mounting the tower of Echigo
of women combatants more broadly, local history. Bear in mind, the perspective
Castle in 1201, she rained down
whatever form that may take. of Japanese-language scholarship by
arrows on attackers. Legend
Some women combatants in Japanese Japanese scholars is going to be different
claims she slew men and horses,
history are particularly well known, even from the work of a non-Japanese scholar
blocking their attack until an
in English-language writing – they’re using Japanese and English sources and
archer wounded her.
likely to be the first ones you encounter if writing in English. With that caveat, here
you do a little searching even in English. is just a bit of what we have learned.

Image sources: wiki/LACMA, wiki/British Museum, wiki/Torstein Barnhardt, wiki/Library of Congress, wiki/Kikuchi Yosai, wiki/DWCLA
Tomoe Gozen (c.1157-c.1247) is at or near Some women combatants we learned Hojo Masako
the top of that list. She was a combatant in about were at the top of the samurai Wife to the first shogun of
Japan Minamoto Yoritomo, she
“Tomoe Gozen and Hojo Masako retained a massive amount of
power and influence upon his
are far from the only women in death in 1199. She would go on
to lead the further conquest of
Japanese military history” Japan with her second husband.

the Genpei Wars of the late-12th century, caste – women who came from the
under the command of Kiso no Yoshinaka, families of daimyo and their highest Niijima Yae
one of the Genji generals. And she appears retainers. Occasionally, especially when Another warrior who defended
in the classic text Heike Monogatari, which there were no other heirs to inherit a Aizu during the Meiji Restoration,
offers us one of our best descriptions of lineage, there were some among them she was a master marksman in
her appearance and her skill at arms. who were, in effect, daimyo themselves, the Boshin War aged 22. She
Off the battlefield, but no less important a position typically the preserve of men. later served as a nurse in both
in the shaping of military and civil policy, Two examples worth considering are the First Sino-Japanese War and
was Hojo Masako (1156-1225), remembered Date Onami (1541-1602) who became Russo-Japanese War.
as the Nun-Shogun (Ama Shogun) for the castellan of Sukagawa after the death of
significant political power she wielded in her husband Nikaido Moriyoshi (1544-81),
the early Kamakura shogunate. Through while Tachibana Ginchiyo (1569-1602)
her marriage to Minamoto no Yoritomo, inherited the leadership of the house

75
 of Tachibana in Kyushu after her father in the martial arts was expected from was a skilled and certified martial artist in
Tachibana Dosetsu (1513-85) died without women born to the warrior caste. This is peacetime, is Aizu’s most famous woman
a male heir. Not all of those women went not something separate from the world combatant. Her affiliation to the Aizu
into battle themselves, but there were that the samurai caste built and inhabited, domain was by proxy, as she was from
plenty of (male) daimyo who did not but rather was part and parcel of it. a family of Aizu vassals permanently
personally take to the field either. Even in domains like the northern assigned to the domain’s estates in Edo
Being a regional governor of this sort Aizu domain (modern Fukushima (now Tokyo). She joined the fighting
did not require your engagement Prefecture), where women’s outside the castle walls during the siege
in battle. participation in politics was in 1868, dying in combat there. Yamamoto
Others were skilled prohibited by law, women Yae (1845-1932) came from a family of
politicians and teachers of still pursued training in the gunnery instructors and was a skilled
men who have become martial arts. This was at the sharpshooter and artillerist renowned
household names. Katakura very least perfunctory, and for her physical strength even at a young
Kita (1538-1610), whose for some, in greater depth. age. She too took part in the fighting at
male relatives were senior In times of emergency, the Aizu siege and was noted for her use
vassals to the house of they were some of the of the Spencer cavalry carbine, a surplus
Date, was a well-read, well- first on the street in the weapon imported from the recently ended
trained, well-connected castle town to ensure American Civil War. After the war, she
person, arguably better the protection of their went to Kyoto and devoted herself to the
educated and prepared for community. cause of women’s education. Later, Yae
leadership than many of the The Aizu women were married Niijima Jo, an American-educated
men she knew. She helped another excellent example pastor, and together with him was a
guide the clan’s policy and as they also famously put co-founder of Doshisha University, which
outside relations at Toyotomi their training to practical still stands in Kyoto today.
Hideyoshi’s court in Kyoto, and application in the Boshin War Finally, there are those women about
ensured that the clan stayed on of 1868-69. Nakano Takeko whom our historical picture is the most
Hideyoshi’s good side amid the (1847-68), who like Chiba Sanako incomplete. One of them was a female
politicking and wars of the 1590s. Kita
was also a wet nurse and first teacher in
both literature and fighting arts to Date
Masamune (1567-1636), the famed one- An actress poses in
the armour of the
eyed xenophile warlord who founded the Taira clan in the
modern city of Sendai (now Sendai, Miyagi late 19th century
Prefecture). Kita thus had a critical role
in building not only the clan’s future but
also, by extension, the future of northern
Honshu. There are many more women like
her in the histories of any major clan of
that era, with or without skill in handling
deadly weapons.
Other women in premodern Japanese
military history were not quite so high
in the samurai caste, but nonetheless
established reputations for themselves
as skilled practitioners of the martial arts Tomoe Gozen was
2x © Alamy

as well as combatants. In some parts of famous for her skill

as a mounted archer
Japan in the Edo period, basic proficiency

A Warrior’s Weapon
A closer look at the naginata

While this blade looks similar to

The naginata is believed to have been The blade of a naginata could that of a sword, the blade could
Tendo-ryu bujutsu remains a popular the preferred melee weapon for female be up to one metre long and also be much wider and curved,
Image source: wiki/ Rama

form of martial art in Japan, primarily warriors as it allowed them to use their could also be mounted on a ideal as a cutting weapon to
with women, with a number of public centrifugal force to equalise any fight shorter handle to be used like be swung around and used for
displays given in the form. against stronger opponents. a more traditional sword. middle-distance combat.

76
Image source: wiki/Yoshitoshi
Japan’s lady samurai

Women defended their city during the Kagoshima

rebellion against the Meiji government

warrior in Kokura domain. We don’t Shisetsu (1824-78). Again, our picture Aizu, a place with which she had no prior
know her name for sure, nor do we know is incomplete, but in this case it was affiliation? What prior experience did she
whether she was of samurai birth and because she lived a wandering life. She have in handling a weapon, if any? These
what, if any, training she’d accrued in the was born in Kaga (modern-day Ishikawa are worthy questions, and since she’s never
martial arts. What we do know is that Prefecture) and was actually an artist had more than a brief biography in various
when Choshu troops took the northern by training, specialising in a Chinese- biographical dictionaries, Shisetsu is one
Kyushu castle town of Kokura during influenced style of ink painting called historical figure whose story remains
the Second Choshu War in 1865, she was nanga. Perhaps even more interestingly fascinating, and for which we will need to
the only person the Choshu men found is our discovery that, in modern terms, continue to search for further clues.
in the evacuated and torched town. This she might be considered a member of In short, the historicity of the term
onna bugeisha notwithstanding, women
“She was the only person the combatants have always been part of
military history, be it in Japan or anywhere
Choshu men found in an evacuated in the world. Their place in the world of
the samurai caste, in peacetime as well
and torched castle town” as at war, was integral. Their stories are
there for the finding, if only we do due
woman, who waited in the estate of a the LGBTQ community. But when the diligence in searching for them, especially
senior Kokura clan retainer, was armed civil war of 1868 broke out, Shisetsu went in rich local histories and abundant local
with a sword. A Choshu rifle squad raked north, taking part in the defence of Aizu records. And in our search for those stories,
the building with gunfire before entering, alongside women like Nakano Takeko. it behooves us to ask why these tales
and she killed at least one before being Captured by the imperial army, she was seem to have been buried and why there
mortally wounded. One story has it that released when it was discovered that she are biases in both the source material as
she looked the men in the eye before was not otherwise affiliated with the Aizu well as in modern interpretations of that
ending her life with her sword, denouncing domain. Shisetsu went to Toyohashi, part source material. This, too, will help guide
them for their cowardice. of modern Aichi prefecture, and lived our further study and return these brave
Another woman who took part in there for the rest of her life, continuing warriors to the place in history that they so
the battles of 1860s Japan was Koike her work as an artist. Why did she go to clearly deserve.
Image source: wiki/Waseda University Theatre Museum
Image source: wiki/British Museum
© Alamy

Tomoe Gozen depicted taking on military commander Tomoe Gozen defeats a Taira warrior during the The legend of Empress Jingu tells the story
Wada Yoshimori Yoshinaka campaign of a warrior queen

77
 Timeline of…
Japan’s
Sengoku Period
Source: Wiki / Utagawa Toyonobu

Early Modern Japan is consumed by internal warfare as rival clans fight

each other in a prolonged power struggle that gradually unifies the country

15th century 1467-77 16 October 1555

Source: Wiki / Tosa Mitsunobu

ONIN WAR BATTLE OF MIYAJIMA 01

EMPERORS, SHOGUN
AND DAIMYO A dispute between the Hosokawa and Yamana clans The powerful Ouchi clan is defeated by the
During the late medieval period, the emperor escalates into a nationwide civil war involving the numerically inferior forces of daimyo Mori
is officially the ruler of Japan but his role is Ashikaga shogunate and several daimyos across Motonari on the sacred island of Miyajima in Aki
largely ceremonial. Real power lies in the Japan. The war turns the Ashikaga shoguns into Province. The Mori clan are subsequently able to
hands of the shogun, a noble warlord who puppets of the Hosokawa until the 1550s and also establish a foremost position in western Japan.
forms a feudal military government. In the initiates the Sengoku period.
15th century the shogunate gradually
The forces of Motonari arrive by ship to Miyajima
loses control over the subordinate
© Alamy

The
daimyo lords who proceed to
magnificent
© Alamy

plunge the country pagoda of

into disorder. Daigo-ji
Buddhist
temple in Kyoto
Ashikaga Yoshimasa
was built in
(1436-90) is
951 and is one
the ruling shogun
of the few
at the beginning of
buildings to
the Sengoku period
have survived
the destruction
of the Onin War

78
 Japan’s Sengoku Period

BATTLE OF NAGASHINO 03
Nobunaga and fellow daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu lead a large army
to relieve Nagashino Castle, which is besieged by Takeda Katsuyori.
Using defensive positions, harquebusiers and spearmen, Nobunaga
staves off a charge by Katsuyori. His samurai then engage in a
fierce melee with the Takeda clansmen. Nobunaga’s decisive
outcome is hailed as Japan’s first ‘modern’ battle.

BATTLE OF 02
© Alamy

An 18th-century painted screen

depiction of Nagashino
OKEHAZAMA
2,000-3,000 Oda
clansmen led by
daimyo Oda Nobunaga SIEGE OF 04
dramatically defeat SHIGISAN
the combined forces of Forces of Nobunaga take
25,000 warriors from the Shigisan Castle from the
Imagawa and Matsudaira Matsunaga clan to consolidate
clans. Using gathered power in the Kansai area.
intelligence, Nobunaga The Matsunaga commander,
wins by launching Danjo Hisahide, commits
a surprise attack. A ritual suicide with his son
significant turning point upon his defeat. Before he
in Japanese history, dies, Hisahide (a master of the
Nobunaga earns the fealty tea ceremony) smashes his
of many samurai and favourite tea bowl so that it
minor warlords. does not fall into the hands of
his enemies.

© Alamy
Ukiyo-e of the Battle of Okehazama
by 19th-century antiquities artist Danjo Hisahide prepares to
Utagawa Toyonobu commit suicide

May-June 1560 28 June 1575 1577

August 1570-August 1580 2 July 1582

ISHIYAMA
HONGAN-JI WAR
The fortress wall of Osaka Castle is built on the
former site of the Ishiyama Hongan-ji Temple
BATTLE OF YAMAZAKI 05
Oda Nobunaga’s forces Akechi Mitsuhide, a retainer of Nobunaga, forces his
fight a ten-year war against master to commit ritual suicide and then assumes power.
a powerful faction of Nobunaga’s subordinate, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, marches
religious zealots called to confront Mitsuhide and engages him in a fierce battle.
the Ikko-ikki. The Ikko- Hideyoshi wins the battle while Mitsuhide flees and is killed
ikki’s’s central base is by bandits in the aftermath.
the cathedral fortress
of Ishiyama Hongan-ji.
Nobunaga and his allies
attack Ikki communities
and fortifications in nearby
provinces to weaken their
support structure. Much
of the fighting occurs at
© Alamy

three sieges of Nagashima

© Alamy

while Ishiyama Hongan-ji

surrenders to Nobunaga. A war council meets before the Battle of Yamazaki

79
 Major engagements
“Hideyoshi intends to conquer Ming China
and plans to invade through Korea. When the
Koreans refuse to grant passage, Hideyoshi
makes Korea the first stage of conquest”

SIEGE OF ODAWARA 07
BATTLE OF SHIZUGATAKE 06
09 BATTLE OF SEKIGAHARA
08 JAPANESE INVASIONS OF KOREA
BATTLE OF OKEHAZAMA 02
03 BATTLE OF NAGASHINO
05 BATTLE OF YAMAZAKI
10 SIEGE OF OSAKA
SIEGE OF SHIGISAN 04
BATTLE OF MIYAJIMA 01

21 April 1583 May-August 1590

BATTLE OF SIEGE OF 07
SHIZUGATAKE 06

© Alamy
Odawara is later
ODAWARA reconstructed
Hideyoshi is now the most Hideyoshi aims to into its present
powerful man in Japan but a eliminate the threat form by one of
line of his fortresses (including of the Hojo clan to his Tokugawa Iesayu’s
retainers. It is now
Shizugatake) above Lake Biwa power. The Hojo hastily designated as a
are attacked by opposing improve the defences of National Historic
Oda forces. Hideyoshi swiftly Odawara Castle before Monument
advances on Shizugatake and Hideyoshi’s forces
the Oda are defeated after besiege it. The siege sees
being forced to adopt a hasty very little action with
defensive posture. the besiegers enjoying
entertainments while
Hirano Nagayasu is one of the
the defenders sleep on
‘Seven Spears of Shizugatake’ the ramparts. The castle
who are mounted bodyguards surrenders after three
for Hideyoshi. They months of siege.
successfully charge at a
© Alamy

decisive moment
of the battle and earn much
fame and honour

80
 Japan’s Sengoku Period
Honda Tadatomo, one of
Ieyasu’s commanders, leads an
attack against Hideyori’s men

BATTLE OF TENNOJI
The Siege of Osaka climaxes with a battle outside the castle.
Hideyori plans to lead the garrison against Iesayu’s numerically
superior force with other attacks elsewhere from his allies Akashi
Morishige and Sanada Yukimura. The battle goes awry when
Yukimara is killed and Morishige’s encircling force is intercepted.
When Iesayu’s men enter the castle, Hideyori commits suicide in the
keep. The last resistance to the Tokugawa shogunate is eliminated.
© Alamy

BATTLE OF
SEKIGAHARA 09
Hideyoshi’s death leads to a power
struggle between Tokugawa Ieyasu
and an alliance led by Ishida
Mitsunari. At Sekigahara, Mitsunari
is betrayed during the battle by his
ally Kobyakawa Hideaki. Mitsunari
is killed and Iesayu’s victory
eventually leads to the Tokugawa
shogunate, which is the last to
control Japan until 1868.

The decisions Japan’s warlords made

at the Battle of Sekigahara would
determine the fate of their clans for
centuries to come

21 October 1600 3 June 1615

23 May 1592-16 December 1598 8 November 1614-22 January 1615, May-June 1615

JAPANESE SIEGE OF OSAKA 10

INVASIONS OF 08 The Tokugawa shogunate is contested by a daimyo
KOREA alliance led by Hideyoshi’s son Toyotomi Hideyori.
Hideyoshi intends to conquer Ming His followers gather at Osaka Castle, which is then
China and plans to invade through besieged by Ieyasu. After a winter bombardment
Korea. When the Koreans refuse to a peace treaty is organised but Hideyori soon
grant passage, Hideyoshi makes declares Ieyasu to be a rebel to the imperial throne
Korea the first stage of conquest. and the siege resumes.
Two invasions are launched in the
samurai’s only assault on a foreign
country. The Japanese even reach A detail of
the fighting
Manchuria but the Koreans and at Osaka from
Chinese vigorously fight back. After a folding
Hideyoshi’s death, Japanese armies screen that is
withdraw from Korea. commissioned
by Kuroda
Nagasama, a
Japanese forces perform an general who
© Alamy

© Alamy

amphibious landing before besieging participates at

the fortress at Busan, Korea the siege

81
 Toyotomi Hideyoshi
was both a military and
political genius, totally
reforming Japanese
society under his control

Legends of
the Sengoku
This period of perpetual warfare gave rise to some
military giants – samurai, puffed up with bravado, who
embodied a rigid warrior code

Toyotomi Hideyoshi
ODA AND TOYOTOMI CLANS 1558-1598
Born the son of a farmer and part-time before installing a puppet emperor.
soldier in a backwater village, Hideyoshi left After crushing the Shimazu and Hojo
home in his mid-teens, eventually joining clans, Hideyoshi completed Nobunaga’s
the ranks of the up-and-coming warlord, spectacular unification of Japan. A master
Oda Nobunaga, in 1558. administrator, he oversaw a dramatic
Originally serving as Nobunaga’s sandal centralisation of power, reforming the
bearer, he rose through the ranks on his tax system, dividing society into warrior,
wit, charm and martial merit – eventually merchant, artisan and peasant groups,
proving himself a spectacular general. He setting strict rules and rights for each. He
was instrumental in Nobunaga’s conquest, went on to confiscate weapons from all
helping his lord seize a third of the country farmers and warrior monks.
– for which he was awarded his own fief. Having delivered peace to Japan,
When Nobunaga was betrayed in 1582 fuelled by delusions of grandeur,
and committed seppuku, an outraged Hideyoshi directed the country’s war
Hideyoshi avenged his master at lightning apparatus outwards. Bragging of his
speed – killing the traitor at the Battle of plans to conquer China, he launched
Yamazaki, and cementing his own position an enormous 200,000-man invasion
as Nobunaga’s spiritual successor. After a of Korea in 1592 – a campaign that
brief conflict with Tokugawa Ieyasu, the turned into a stalemate once
latter acquiesced. Eager to reinforce his China came to its vassal’s aid.
might with the right to rule, Hideyoshi Growing increasingly erratic
had himself adopted into the Fujiwara in old age, Hideyoshi died in
clan – which had held a monopoly over 1598, bringing his campaign to
the imperial regency – allowing him to a rapid close, and ushering in a
become the first ever non-Fujiwara regent, last deadly stage of civil war.

Oda Nobunaga
ODA CLAN 1551-1582
Oda Nobunaga was just a teenager when his father, the chief of Owari, died,
and he spent the next eight years battling his family for control. In 1560,
he was attacked by a neighbouring warlord’s army of 25,000, which he
defeated in spectacular fashion with a ragtag bunch of just 3,000 peasants
and ruffians.
Emboldened, Nobunaga struck up a series of alliances and conquered
his way to the capital in just eight years, installing a new shogun, before
waging a ruthless war against the country’s powerful warrior monks.
He was an early adopter of the arquebus, perfecting its use at the
1575 Battle of Nagashino. Here he used three lines of mass volleys to
Source: Wiki/Utagawa Kuniyoshi

devastate the Takeda’s notorious cavalry charge.

Ever an innovator, he not only built the revolutionary Azuchi
Oda Nobunaga was a Castle, but designed Japan’s first ever armoured ships. However, in
ruthless general, making 1582, having conquered a third of the country, he was betrayed by
friends of his enemies, one of his own vassals – forcing him to commit suicide by seppuku.
or else destroying them
without mercy

82
82
 Legends of the Sengoku
Tokugawa Ieyasu Kato Kiyomasa
TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE 1558-1615 TOYOTOMI AND TOKUGAWA CLANS 1573-1611
Tokugawa Ieyasu was thrust onto the grand stage after his Kato Kiyomasa was raised in the fire Korea, where Kiyomasa became the
lord was killed while invading Oda Nobunaga in 1560. The two of war, by Hideyoshi himself. In 1583, only general to push all the way into
young generals struck up an alliance, and as Nobunaga emerged at the Battle of Shizugatake he fought China itself.
the pre-eminent warlord, Ieyasu grew immensely wealthy and on horseback, killing so many with After Hideyoshi’s death, he returned
powerful – dealing the Takeda their final death knell in 1582. his cross-bladed spear, he was dubbed to Japan, siding with the Tokugawa,
After Nobunaga’s suicide, Ieyasu briefly fought his successor one of Hideyoshi’s ‘Seven Spears while Konishi picked the opposing side.
© Alamy

Hideyoshi, before swearing fealty to him. of Shizugatake’. After the battle of Sekigahara, Konishi
Under Hideyoshi’s rule, Ieyasu was the country’s Hideyoshi rewarded his was executed, and Kiyomasa seized
wealthiest lord, ruling the eight provinces of Kanto, brilliance with a fief in Higo, his holdings. Ever loyal, he sought to
bringing in 2.5 million koku annually – food for 2.5 million where he developed a long- protect Hideyoshi’s son and Ieyasu’s
people; more than Hideyoshi himself. When Hideyoshi died, standing rivalry with another rival, Hideyori, from harm, but died
although he appointed his five-year-old son Hideyori his of Hideyoshi’s favourites, during negotiations – perhaps
successor, as the senior-most member of the council of Konishi ‘Agostinho’ poisoned on Ieyasu’s
elders, Ieyasu finally made a bid for power himself Yukinaga. orders.
– culminating in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, A fanatic Buddhist,
where he emerged victorious. Kiyomasa loathed having
Three years later, following decades of patient to share with a Christian.
political manipulations, Ieyasu was declared The two both played leading
shogun, formalising his authority over the country roles in Hideyoshi’s invasion of
he and his two successors had fought so hard to
unite. After centuries of war, Japan was finally at Aside from hunting
peace. Korean tigers, Kato
Kiyomasa was said to
Tokugawa Ieyasu was the have stopped one in its
most patient of Japan’s tracks with just a glance
three unifiers, restoring
his newfound authority
to the shogunate
Source: Wiki / Utagawa Yoshitora

Source: Wiki / LAMCA

Takeda Shingen
TAKEDA CLAN 1536-1573
Born in 1521, Takeda Shingen proved his brilliance at the age of 15,
using subterfuge to capture a fortress his father had failed to take
by brute force. Five years later, he flat-out seized the province of
Kai for himself, leading the Takeda clan to bold new heights.
Brutal in victory, he entered a legendary rivalry with the
neighbouring Uesugi clan, fighting five successive battles at
Kawanakajima. He not only boasted the most powerful cavalry charge
in Japan, but was an early adopter of firearms, hiring hundreds of
Source: Wiki / Utagawa Kuniyoshi

arquebusiers to tip the odds in his favour. A brilliant warrior, he even

engaged in single combat against the Uesugi leader, Uesugi Kenshin.
After allying with Oda Nobunaga he was convinced by the shogun
to attack the upstart warlord, dealing him and Tokugawa Ieyasu Takeda Shingen came
a devastating defeat with a masterclass in cavalry warfare at the closer than anyone to
defeating Oda Nobunaga
Battle of Mikatagahara. However, he died soon after, leaving his
and Tokugawa Ieyasu
clan’s fortune in the hands of his less capable son, Katsuyori.

83
 Shogun showdowns
Broadcaster and author of A Brief History Of Japan, Jonathan
Clements, shares his thoughts on the changing nature of power,
authority and legitimacy during the Sengoku period
What was the nature of the shogunate during several occasions where ‘shogun’ itself becomes and show him how to use it, and you could have
the Sengoku period? a figurehead position, because the real power is him battle-ready in two or three days.
Our more ‘modern’ sense of what the word somewhere else, and I think that’s what you get A lot of the politicking in the Sengoku period
‘shogun’ means comes in the late Heian period, with the Ashikaga collapse. often cloaks machinations behind the scenes
when you have emperors and retired emperors about who has access to foreign contacts.
prepared to use the samurai houses as pawns in Throughout the Sengoku period, what were Sometimes, it’s about religion – either for real
their own struggle over power. So, a shogunate the most potent new sources of authority? or for show. You get the Christian daimyo,
gets confirmed because an emperor wants some After the Portuguese arrive on Tanegashima, the particularly in the south, striking deals with
samurai muscle, and it’s a title that can either Japanese suddenly acquire access to firearms, the Jesuits over silk trade and arms, and you
reflect who the top dog is among the samurai, and that transforms the nature of modern get entire domains converting en masse to
or who the top dog is among the contending warfare. The samurai hated matchlocks, because Christianity. Sometimes it’s truly heartfelt belief
emperors and retired emperors. We do get you could literally pick some peasant at random from people who are prepared to die for it, and

84
 Shogun showdowns

that really spooks the samurai, because the last all the samurai dancing around them with their
thing they want is a bunch of fractious domains, “After the Portuguese compulsory attendance, which sapped up to 30
united by a shared religious belief, paying homage
to a foreign leader.
arrive on Tanegashima, per cent of a domain’s annual budget and ensured
that there were always family hostages in Edo as
the Japanese suddenly collateral against rebellion.
How successful was Hideyoshi’s attempt to
legitimise his authority? acquire access to What do you think the shogunate would have
I think the most important issue there is that
Hideyoshi didn’t become shogun. He’s a new man,
firearms, and that looked like with Hideyori in charge?
If he had won, possibly Edo would have declined,
he can fight and claw his way up the ranks, and transforms the nature of and the centre of power in Japan would have been
amass power and wealth, but he’ll never be one of Osaka instead. But then the Kanto plain would
the old samurai families. modern warfare” have formed a potential power base for some
Class and old money always try to hang on. new upstart, and we would have been plunged
There were periods when the samurai were just because of the absolute lock-down that Ieyasu into another bunch of regional conflicts. It is
expendable pawns, used by the elite in Kyoto to imposed on everything. He could switch out lords just speculation, but maybe we should consider
fight over distant holdings and to keep themselves and shutter provincial ruling houses. He could, the degree to which geography created the
on top in court politics. The samurai era, such as and did, order only a single castle, so there was way Japanese history would unfold during the
we know it, begins when those pawns suddenly nowhere for people to fortify if they rebelled. Tokugawa period. The Tokugawa had Edo, which
come back and demand to be let into the capital, to When the Shimabara Rebellion broke out in 1637, was the largest area of exploitable land. They were
enjoy the court life themselves. They take over the you have the bizarre sight of the warlords in the able to create a new centre for themselves. So, it
court, they take over the capital, and they ruin it. next domain literally waiting on the border, unable should perhaps come as no surprise that in the
to leave their own province to make a counter- 19th century, when the emperor was ‘restored’
Was the shogunate stronger at the end of attack until specific permission arrives from and the Tokugawa finally brought down, the new
the Sengoku period? Edo. Ieyasu and his successors shut out foreign official power centre of Japan was declared in Edo,
The Tokugawa Shogunate was stronger, I think, influences, to the best of their ability. They kept and it was renamed To-kyo, the eastern capital.

Despite amassing unprecedented

power and authority, Hideyoshi’s
obscure origins meant he was never
able to secure the position of shogun,
instead relying on imperial prestige

Source: Wiki / LACMA

85
 Armour,
blades &
gunpowder
Soldiers of the Sengoku period used a variety
of weapons and protective equipment that
reflected the military and cultural changes
within Japan

S
engoku Japan was known with an emphasis on swords, shields
as the ‘time of battles’ and and armour. However, the European
the martial character of the Renaissance arrived on Japanese KABUTO
Japanese clans who fought shores with the Portuguese and they The helmet is made
each other represented a introduced artillery and firearms that from iron and leather
plates with a shikoro
watershed in military technology. Many would revolutionise the way warfare
neck guard. Worn
aspects of soldiering were still medieval conducted on the island and abroad. by samurai and their
retainers, the kabuto
ARMOUR played a symbolic
Highly distinctive and recognised as some of the most famous as well as protective
military protective clothing ever created, Japanese armour role, with frontal
was noticeably elaborate. Nevertheless, Sengoku armourers decorations known
also needed to quickly produce practical suits to match the as maedate often
depicting animals.
demands of the battlefield.

SODE
These large, rectangular pieces are made from iron and acted as
shoulder protection. Formed into scales, sode could also be made from
leather and protected the arms from the elbows to the shoulders.

TACHI
One of the most recognisable Japanese swords, the
tachi was used extensively by samurai warriors.
With its prominent curve, the tachi was most
effective when used by cavalry. However,
Sengoku combat against infantry HAIDATE
spearmen led to the development Designed with a similar purpose
of a more disposable sword to the sode, the small, metal
called the uchigatana. plates of the haidate protected
the thighs. It could also protect
other parts depending on the
Source: Wiki / Metropolitan Museum of Art

A tachi blade dating from length including the knee and

the late 16th century. Some upper calf.
high-ranking warriors DO
would wear their sword
Strongly influenced by
with the edge downwards
rather than with edge European cuirasses, the do was
upwards through the largest part of the armour.
Source: Wiki / Sukkoria

a scabbard Designed to protect the

chest, it was made from iron
plates with decorated straps.
The pictured do is a haraate
(‘protection of the abdomen’).

86
 Armour, blades & gunpowder

With a blade

Source: Wiki / Kakidai

measuring WAKIZASHI
between 30- In use from the 15th century, the
60cm, wakizashi wakizashi was used as an auxiliary
is an abbreviated
sword for close-quarters fighting or
form of wakizashi
no katana to behead a defeated opponent. It
(‘sword thrust at was one of several short swords used
The Portuguese first brought one’s side’) by the samurai and was sometimes
guns into Japan on the island of
Tanegashima, which gave its name used by warriors to commit seppuku
to the Japanese guns (ritual suicide).

TANEGASHIMA
First introduced by the Portuguese in 1543, the tanegashima was a matchlock
arquebus. It was soon manufactured by the Japanese and used extensively
during the later Sengoku period. Because the tanegashima was slow to load,
various techniques were developed to improve the firing quality as well as
staggered firing tactics. The tanegashima came to symbolise the military
revolution that swept through Japan at this time.
© Alamy

The swivel gun was developed in Europe and

introduced into Japan by the Portuguese
© Alamy

TATE BREECH-LOADING SWIVEL GUN

Made from wood, riveted iron plates or even lacquered rawhide, tate were rectangular shields. Introduced into Japan by the Portuguese from the
They were used by ashigaru infantry units. Firearms and cannon could easily destroy a tate but 1550s, this gun had a high rate of fire and swivel for
new designs were developed to cover ranged units on the battlefield. The shields were often easy rotation. Daimyo Otomo Sorin used them at the
supplemented by taketaba, which were thick bundles of rolled bamboo. Siege of Moji in 1561 and they were later deployed at
the Battle of Takjo in 1587.

HWACHA
The hwacha were early multiple rocket launchers
developed in Korea. Some could fire 100 rocket
Ashigaru gunners position
themselves behind a line of
arrows or 200 small ‘Chontong’ bullets. They
tate. There is also a section of were extensively used by the Koreans during the
wet straw placed in front of the Japanese invasions of the 1590s. At the Battle
shields that was supposed to of Haengju, 3,400 Koreans repelled 30,000
slow down bullets and prevent
the wooden tate from breaking
Japanese with the help of 40 hwacha.

A reconstruction of a Korean hwacha. At Haengju,

the samurai infantry inadvertently assisted the
hwachas’ performance by advancing in dense
battle formations
Source: Wiki / Draq

ques
danti
/ Worl
rce: Wiki
Sou

87
 Sekigahara
In 1600, after 150 years of perpetual violence, Japan’s warlords
united behind two coalitions for a samurai battle to end them all
hen Toyotomi Hideyoshi died valley. Utilising a crane-like formation, he The Red Devils were supported by Eastern

W in 1598, he left a unified Japan

in the hands of his five-year-
old son, Hideyori – appointing a
council of regents. However, as
the samurai returned home from the disastrous
invasion of Korea, the regents split into two
factions – one led by the Hideyori loyalist, Ishida
planned to draw the Eastern Army in, before
attacking both flanks, and then the rear, sealing
the enemy in a rectangular tomb. With Ieyasu
fielding 88,888 soldiers, and Mitsunari 81,890,
this would be a battle of epic proportions.
Among the most unpredictable of allies was
Kobayakawa Hideaki, a 19-year-old general, and
Army arquebusiers, firing volleys, as 20,000 of
Tokugawa’s men rushed into the fray. As the
two sides clashed, Mitsunari wheeled out five
cannons, pushing the Easterners back.
As more generals hurtled themselves down from
the mountaintops, crashing into the Western
flank, one soldier wrote, “Musket fire and the
Mitsunari, and the other by their senior-most Hideyoshi’s foster son. Though he bore a grudge shouts echoed from the heavens and shook the
member, Tokugawa Ieyasu. against Mitsunari for disrespecting his efforts earth. The black smoke rose, making the day as
Having spent decades helping to unify the in Korea, he assured him he would join his side, night.” With only 35,000 of his men committed
realm, Ieyasu had sacrificed too much to leave it once the signal fire was lit. so far, Mitsunari asked his rearguard, led by the
in the hands of a child. In August 1599, Japan’s As the fog lifted at 8.00am, Ieyasu ordered elderly Shimazu Yoshihiro, to join in, only to be
warlords were forced to pick a side. After a the attack. The gregarious general Ii Naomasa told, “In this battle, each unit must look to its
series of sieges, the two coalitions finally met took it upon himself to initiate hostilities, own affairs and fight its own battles with all its
along the Nakasendo Road. hurtling into the heart of the Western Army, might. There is no time to be concerned with
followed by his legendary Red Devils – 3,600 the affairs of others.” Just as the two armies
DRAWING BLOOD shock cavalry dressed in red lacquered armour, lined up perfectly, he finally lit his signal flare
Mitsunari’s Western Army arrived first, setting with red-shafted lances. They punched all the – it was time for his allies to smash into the
up favourable positions along a foggy mountain way through to their enemy’s rear line. enemy’s two flanks. To his horror, however, the

88
 Sekigahara

An Edo period depiction of

Sekigahara from the 1620s

19-year-old Hideaki, and his 15,000 men, did not

Honour on the battlefield

© Alamy
budge – paralysing several more allies.
For samurai, maintaining proper manners and etiquette was
THE VICTORS AND even more important on the battlefield
THE VANQUISHED The samurai commitment to formality if the young Hideaki was going to turn
Ieyasu sensed the battle would be won and
and manners bordered on the surreal. in his favour, the panicked messenger
lost on Hideaki’s next move. Desperate to force
Although Ieyasu wanted his general made the mistake of addressing the
the young man’s hand, he had his gunners fire.
Fukushima Masanori to lead the charge, high-ranking samurai by his province
It worked. Hideaki leaped onto his horse and
glory notwithstanding, Naomasa felt it name, calling, “Koshu, Koshu, do you
ordered his men to attack the Western Army’s
was not appropriate for a man who had know, will Lord Hideaki join us or not?”
flank. There was little the grizzled general
been so close to Hideyoshi to strike the With typical samurai swagger, Nagamasa
Otani Yoshitsugu could do, but order a sobbing
first blow against the forces of his son. spat, “Even if he doesn’t join us, we
retainer to cut off and hide his head from
Honour itself played a crucial role can cut through Ishida and eliminate
the enemy. Other Western generals followed
in the outcome. While Kobayakawa’s men and Ukita’s easily.
Hideaki’s lead, turning on Mitsunari, until
they were drawing out Now if you don’t mind, I have my
his forces were utterly decimated and routed.
their battle plans, had men to look to.” Once the
Ieyasu finally donned his helmet, booming,
Mitsunari not spoken messenger left, he scowled,
“After victory, tighten the cords of your helmet.”
over the elderly Shimazu “That man has no understanding of
After Sekigahara, Ieyasu put his enemies to
Yoshihiro, dismissing his what manners are. Yes, we are in
the sword, forgiving those who had returned
contribution, perhaps he combat, but there is
to his side during the battle, and generously
would have found him no cause to
rewarding his loyal supporters. As a Christian,
a more committed neglect
Konishi Yukinaga tuned down the chance
ally. When etiquette. How
to commit ritualistic suicide by seppuku.
Ieyasu sent rude, calling out
Mitsunari was not even offered the opportunity
a follower to ‘Koshu, Koshu!’
– both were beheaded in Kyoto. In 1603, Ieyasu
ask Nagamasa like that!”
was appointed the shogun, and 12 years later,
launched an almighty siege of Hideyori’s castle
at Osaka – compelling him to commit suicide,
and cementing a dynasty that would rule over a Mitsunari’s failure to pay
proper respect to his allies
peaceful domain for centuries. may have been his downfall

89
 The fourth battle of Kawanakajima
opened with a ferocious Uesugi
charge against the Takeda lines

Opposing
forces

Takeda
clan
LEADER: Takeda Shingen,
Lord of Kai & Shinano
provinces
TOTAL FORCES: 20,000
VS
Uesugi clan
LEADER: Uesugi Kenshin,
Lord of Echigo province
TOTAL FORCES: 18,000

90
Kawanakajima
In 1561, warlords Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin had
one rare chance to prove their mettle and claim dominance
over Japan's largest island
Written by Miguel Miranda

91
 domain, surpassing that which he inherited

THE KAWANAKAJIMA PLAIN IN SHINANO 16-17 OCTOBER 1561 from his kinsmen, whom he had imprisoned
and usurped to secure his own leadership
over the landlocked province of Kai. Barely
t was the height of the Sengoku Jidai (1467 ends of Kawanakajima waiting 15 years old during his first battle, by the

I CE-1603 CE), the terrible age when Japan’s

imperial system nearly collapsed among
feuding warlords. As powerful samurai families
vied for supremacy, either by supplanting
their betters or conquering enemy domains, one
particular rivalry echoed through the centuries to
be hailed as an indelible part of Japan’s national
several months for the perfect
opportunity to conclude a siege.
Despite the fact that the Takeda were on the
defensive and had the advantage of possessing
firearms, no decisive chance came and the
armies withdrew at the onset of winter. Years
passed, and in September 1861 Uesugi Kenshin
age of 40 Takeda Haronobu’s hard-earned
experience and temperament made him feared
throughout Japan. Like Kenshin, he chose to rebrand
his public persona with the Buddhist appellation
‘Shingen’ to embellish his stature as a local ruler.
Although an unrelenting taskmaster to his own
samurai, Shingen cultivated a reputation for fairness
heritage. At the time of the Sengoku, two great was confident enough to once again mobilise when dealing with his subjects. But since he was
houses, one led by a relentless military strategist his samurai and march from his fortress by never content with just the province of Kai, Shingen
and the other by a pious warrior, sought to expand the sea, Kasugayama. Echigo had prospered thought it paramount to seize a larger swathe of land
their territory along the western edge of the Kanto under his rule and he was well-regarded for in the west nearer the sea. This meant subduing the
Plain on the main island of Honshu. The struggle his courage and loyalty. Born under the name province of Shinano and the idyllic Kawanakajima
would drag on for 11 years. Nagao Kagetora into a family of samurai plain with it, since it could be used as a viable route
In the province of Shinano there was an empty retainers, the future Daimyo was made an for commercial and logistical traffic.
plain called Kawanakajima where the Sai and honorary member of the Uesugi clan and Despite his successful attacks on Shinano that
Chikuma rivers met. It was over this terrain that adopted the name ‘Kenshin’ upon taking a drove its rulers to exile, Takeda Shingen had little
the armies belonging to Takeda Shingen and Buddhist monk’s holy vows. Unlike many control over Kawanakajima and its mountains. For
Uesugi Kenshin faced each other on numerous other warlords in the Sengoku era, he had no the sake of expedience, he maintained a fortress
occasions, but they never committed the full ambitions to vie for Kyoto, the Imperial capital with a commanding view over the Chikuma river.
might of their samurai on a decisive battle. The and seat of the Ashikaga Shogunate that had This stronghold, called Eizo, was a modest affair
reason for their enmity was direct control of perished decades before. Instead, the best years by the standards of the time but it could support
Shinano; the Takeda clan wanted it added to of his life were spent thwarting his nemesis, several thousand samurai and had ramparts strong
their domain while the Uesugi deemed it a useful Takeda Shingen. enough for withstanding a siege. Unknown to Takeda
buffer to protect their own province, Echigo. In Kenchin’s older rival was a formidable Shingen, his arch nemesis Uesugi Kenshin was
1555, the two armies even camped on opposite adversary who aspired to conquer a sizeable already on the march and Eizo’s token garrison was

92
 Kawanakajima

Numerous depictions of the battles for Kawanakajima Takeda Shingen, who initiated the
show a brief duel between Takeda Shingen and Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima to finally
Uesugi Kenshin in a shallow river. Kenshin seems defeat Uesugi Kenshin, is remembered
to have the upper hand until Takeda spearmen as a cunning and ruthless opponent
surround their leader and drive Kenshin away with a fondness for elaborate tactics

insufficient to repel a determined push from the path are at the ready for the ensuing slaughter. intelligence. After all, outsmarting one’s enemies
other side of the Chikuma river. In the beginning The Uesugi should meet the same fate. Once in could produce a greater effect than a mere battle
of October a Takeda army, 20,000 strong, disarray as they escaped the Saijoyama heights, over open ground. So on the same night the
marched to the likeliest site for a decisive clash – the fastest way to the safety of their lands was Takeda army set out from Eizo fortress, Uesugi
Kawanakajima. A nominal alliance with the Hojo over the rivers. Takeda Shingen applauded Kenshin led his army down from Saijoyama.
clan from the province of Odawara to the north, his strategist and decided to lay How exactly Kenshin guessed his rival’s
who were also feuding with the Uesugi in Echigo, the trap himself. From Eizo he plans has never been discovered.
provided a good enough casus belli. would march the bulk of his Perhaps a spy within Takeda
By 15 October both armies were in close enough samurai to the Chikuma Singen’s inner circle had
proximity for valuable intelligence to be gathered river’s western bank “Takeda relayed his latest findings to
by each side. Takeda Shingen even observed the awaiting the Uesugi rout. Haronobu’s the Uesugis. Yet conclusive
march of the Uesugi from his side of the Chikuma Yamamoto Kansuke, on evidence of this betrayal
river. Once secure in the Eizo fortress Shingen the other hand, assigned
experience and is non-existent. It could
was informed by his trusted military strategist 12,000 samurai to a temperament have been a combination
Yamamoto Kansuke that the Uesugi army was trusted general, Kosaka made him feared of decisiveness and wits for
encamped in the Saijoyama heights to the south Masonobu, aiming to Kenshin. Indeed the discipline
east. This was clear proof of Uesugi Kenshin’s own overrun the Uesugi camp throughout Japan” of his army was such that an
intelligence. Holding elevated ground surrounded in a surprise attack. evacuation involving 18,000
by forest, his army was almost impervious from samurai went unnoticed. Before
attack. But the strategist Kansuke convinced his TURNING daybreak the Uesugi army had
master that a narrow pass could be exploited for a THE TABLES traveled down Saijoyama and crossed
raid on the Uesugi camp. Give him the right men, Unknown to the occupants of the Eizo the Chikuma river. Prudence dictated that the
the Takeda strategist explained, and he would fortress their strategy was compromised before it army’s rear must be guarded, so Kenshin left
drive the Uesugi down to Kawanakajima. even began. The daimyo (minor nobles under the 1,000 cavalrymen at a landmark called Amakasu.
Takeda Shingen recognised the tactics at play shogun) and upstarts who bickered throughout Meanwhile, in the early morning of 17 October,
as described by his strategist. It was like a hunt, Japan spent fortunes on their samurais’ an excited Takeda Shingen had arranged his
where the beasts are driven from their woodland equipment – the Sengoku era saw the adoption 8,000 strong blocking force on the Kawanakajima
hideouts to flee. As they rush over open ground of locally made Tanegashima muskets and other plain ready to smash the fleeing Uesugi once
in a brute panic, armed men blocking their firearms – but placed greater value on critical Masonobu effected their retreat from the

93
Kawanakajima 04 No surrender
Trapped between the
Chikuma river and the fierce Uesugi
samurai, Takeda’s army held fast and
refused to be routed. But so great was
the pressure on them that the combat
drove the warriors to the river’s edge
and into the freezing current.
01 Setting a trap
In mid-October 1561, Takeda
Shingen and his favourite adviser
devised a stratagem where they will
fortify the edge of the Chikuma river to
block the escape of Uesugi Kenshin’s
army from the Saijoyama heights. They
hoped to massacre the enemy.

07 Victory?
Another battle was fought
over Kawanakajima in 1564. It too had
no clear winner. While Takeda Shingen
held on to his territory, his fiefdom
wouldn’t survive the Sengoku period
that saw the rise of the Tokugawa
shogunate in the 17th century.

03 A thunder of hooves
To the shock and horror of
Takeda Shingen’s commanders, thousands
of Uesugi samurai on horseback were
arrayed in front of their formation on the
Chikuma river. The battle had commenced.

02 A foiled plan
Uesugi Kenshin had guessed
his rival’s plans. After all, they had
fought on three previous occasions
in the same place. Under cover of
TAKEDA CLAN darkness, the Uesugi cavalry travelled
down Saijoyama and prepared a surprise
UESUGI CLAN attack on the morning of 17 October.

94
 Kawanakajima

Saijoyama heights. The leader of the Takeda was

so confident of victory that he remained seated in
the small enclosure that served as his command
post while deferential subordinates reported to
him. An impenetrable fog had crept down from
the nearby mountains and covered the battlefield
in haze as the Takeda army waited in absolute
silence. Soon, ever so slowly, the fog lifted and a
worrisome noise reached the arrayed samurai. It
was the ominous rumble of approaching cavalry
An old Japanese painting depicting the
and once the banners held aloft by the horsemen

05 The rivals meet

Uesugi Kenshin was
alleged to have charged Takeda
conflict between Kenshin and Shingen
at the fourth battle of Kawanakajima
could be seen it became apparent to the Takeda
their day would not be easy. The Uesugi were
rushing toward them, lances and bows at the
Shingen’s command post at this ready, and Masonobu’s own pursuit was nowhere
location. A duel ensued, where to be seen.
Uesegi on horseback tried to slash What became the Fourth Battle of
at a near helpless Takeda, who Kawanakajima spanned a single dreadful day.
failed to reach for his own sword.
Separated from more than half their number, the
Takeda samurai put up a valiant defence with
their swords and spears. The Uesugi exerted
themselves too, albeit in successive charges at
their stubborn opponents. This tactic meant
the Uesugi cavalry struck the immobile Takeda
until their arrows and stamina were depleted,
compelling a sudden withdrawal. Rather than
allow for a moment’s reprieve, another wave of
cavalry descended on the Takeda, who refused to
scatter in their leader’s presence.

06 Bad timing
Takeda had sent one of his
commanders, Kosaka Masonobu, up
The singular moment of the battle involved
Takeda Shingen’s near death at the hands of
the Saijoyama heights to rout Uesugi’s
Uesugi Kenshin, who had stormed
army. But the camp was deserted his enemy’s command post.
and Kosaka had to hurry down the Still astride his mount, Kenshin
Kawanakajima plain fearing the main led a small retinue of cavalry
Takeda forces were near defeat. and rushed the position. Rather
than face a wall of loyal Takeda
samurai, the enclosure was almost
deserted except for Shingen himself,
who was startled by Kenshin’s
sudden appearance. Not missing
the opportunity, Kenshin slashed
at the Takeda daimyo, hoping to
deliver a mortal blow. But Shingen,
attired in full body armour complete
with ornamental horns over his brow, blocked
Kenshin’s sword with his sturdy two-sided fan,
which functioned more like a commander’s baton.
Before Kinshen could trample on the straining

“Shingen,
attired in full
body armour
complete with
ornamental horns,
blocked Kenshin’s
Map: Rocio Espin

sword with his

two-sided fan”

95
 One of the reasons why the battles over
Kawanakajima are celebrated is their
symbolic importance. What transpired
during the Fourth Battle is considered
the epitome of the samurai ethos, where
cunning strategy and relentless combat
are far more valuable than daring and risk

Shingen or swing his sword again to decapitate Saijoyama. Upon discovering the position vacant, river. Many favoured generals and veterans were
the Takeda daimyo, his horse was wounded by an a worried Mosonobu led his samurai down the among the dead that littered the plain. No proper
attacking spearman. same mountain trail to reach the Kawanakajima account of casualties on either side has ever been
Dramatic reproductions of the Fourth Battle plain below. Their momentum was almost halted tallied in Japanese historical records. Neither did
later contrived a separate episode involving the by a strong detachment of 1,000 Uesugi samurai the Takeda and Uesugi leaders bother to write
Takeda and Uesugi leaders. At an unspecified guarding a crossing on the Chikuma river. Sheer memoirs that detailed their own memories of
moment, Shingen was able to mount his horse force of numbers allowed the Takeda the Kawanakajima campaigns. But the
and lead a counter-attack on the Uesugi, but was to prevail and they soon caught intensity of the showdown near the
chased away by a relentless Kenshin whose head
was wrapped in a white towel. This was atypical
up with the Uesugi. It seemed
as if an encirclement was
“It Chikuma river may have killed
several thousand samurai. Such
for mounted warriors, except that Kenshin was underway, yet before noon seemed as if casualties were well above
a devout Buddhist who donned religious garb the tireless Kenshin had an encirclement the usual battlefield losses
even in combat. Wading into the Chikuma river, reorganised his formations during the Sengoku period,
the two warlords slashed at each other with their and effected a clean
was underway, yet when daimyos preferred
swords. But the youthful Kenshin, who was just withdrawal. before noon Kenshin small clashes over great set
31 years old to Shingen’s 40, overpowered his
rival and struck the Takeda daimyo’s shoulder. NOTHING
had reorganised and piece engagements.
Neither the exhausted
Before the injured Shingen collapsed into the RESOLVED effected a clean Takedas nor the battered
rushing currents beneath him, a fearsome group Distraught at his part in the withdrawal” Uesugis attained a clear
of Takeda samurai surrounded Kenshin and drove failed Takeda plan, Yamamoto victory on the fateful day. Still
him away. Kansuke led a final suicidal brooding over the battle’s outcome,
What almost ended the battle was the charge against the Uesugi in a bid to Takeda Shingen returned to his
shambolic arrival of the 12,000 strong contingent protect his master. Shingen’s own brother province after collecting the severed heads
led by Yosaka Masonobu, who were earlier Nobushige was killed in the ensuing combat when of Uesugi samurai as trophies. But Uesugi Kenshin
tasked with attacking the Uesugi camped at the Uesugi cavalry fell upon the Takeda by the survived and control over the Kawanakajima plain

96
 An example of Japanese
samurai armour

was undecided. Two years passed before another is ambiguous at best. While it ranks among the the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima is useful for
clash occurred near the site of the fourth battle, larger engagements during the Sengoku period, it the lessons it imparts. Foremost is the value of
but the actions that transpired then ultimately had little impact on the course of Japan’s history. sound intelligence for leaders who must decide
proved to be insignificant. The rise of the warlord Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1603 quickly. Whatever methods and resources
Fate rendered cruel judgment on the two marked the definitive end of the Sengoku period were at his disposal, Uesugi Kenshin turned a
warlords. For Takeda Shingen, no conquest was as another Shogunate was established, achieving disadvantageous situation around and surprised
too far-fetched and he perished during a siege for that which Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi his enemy by leading his forces out of the
of a castle held by Oda Nobunaga, then the Hideyoshi strived. The ensuing Edo period, its Saijoyama heights. In the process he deceived one
most powerful warlord in Japan. The Takedas’s name taken from the Tokugawa capital, lasted part of the Takeda army and launched a surprise
power finally ebbed after the disastrous Battle of three centuries and saw a flourishing of the arts. attack on the his rival in the Kawanakajima
Nagashino in 1575 when Shingen’s son and heir Depictions of the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima plain. Another timeless insight is knowing when
led the clan’s legions against their familiar enemy, date to the 19th century when woodblock printing to be flexible in difficult circumstances. Takeda
Nobunaga, and lost countless samurai to musket encompassed different genres, including historical Shingen had been overconfident about his plan
fire arrayed behind palisades. topics. It was in this later period when the drama to entrap the Uesugi, but once his samurai were
However, the Uesugi fared worse. Kenshin died and symbolism around the rivalry between the caught between the Chikuma river and the
in suspicious circumstances at the age of 49. One Takeda and Uesugi was popularised. attacking enemy, adaptation meant survival.
Images: Alamy, Rociio Espin, Osprey

version of his demise recounts how a ninja waited A familiar scene that has been interpreted The Takeda samurai did manage to hold off the
in a lavatory for his target to arrive. When the for generations is the personal duel between a Uesugis long enough to partially encircle them.
chance presented itself, a mortal wound was dealt shocked Takeda Shingen and a furious Uesugi But Uesugi Kenshi was wise enough to not press
to the Uesugi leader – it’s debatable whether the Kenshin. Shingen using his fan to block Kenshin’s on and ordered a withdrawal that saved the bulk
killing blow was a knife to Kenshin’s rectum or sword blows lends a touch of humour and of his army.
some other sensitive part of his anatomy. poignancy in creative retelling yet it’s curious Whether as a cultural artefact or a masterclass
The legacy of the struggle for Kawanakajima, how primary accounts that should describe the in strategic thinking and prudent leadership,
including the celebrated Fourth Battle where the incident as it happened have never surfaced. the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima will be
Takeda and Uesugi armies fought to exhaustion, Even if it had little impact on Japan’s history, remembered for generations.

97
 Clash of clans
A battle that erupted in the centre
of Japan would decide the fate of the nation
Written by Frances White

y the end of the 16th century, Oda military fiefdoms one by one. Slowly but end was put to this unification when his own

B Nobunaga had changed Japan

forever. The samurai warlord had
conquered his way across the country,
taking control of the fractured
surely Nobunaga’s bloody campaign led to the
unification of a third of Japan, forming a mighty
land far removed from the warring states that
existed before. However, a swift and shocking
samurai general, Akechi Mitsuhide betrayed
him and the warlord was forced to commit
ritual suicide, or seppuku. However, Mitsuhide
would not rule for long. Nobunaga’s loyal vassal,

98
 The battle of Sekigahara is known
popularly as the realm divide

SEKIGAHARA, JAPAN, 21 OCTOBER 1600

Who What Where Why Outcome MITO
Western clans A conflict to establish Sekigahara, a town The death of daimyo Tokugawa is
loyal to Toyotomi the ruling dynasty of in the modern Fuwa and “second great victorious and gains
Hideyori led by Ishida Japan, by granting the district, known as unifier” Toyotomi control of all of IRUMA
Mitsunari and Mori victorious clan and its the crossroads of Hideyoshi created a Japan, kicking off
Terumoto, versus the lord strategic control the country as it’s in power vacuum, and over 250 years of the
eastern clans loyal to of the approach to the centre of Japan’s two factions moved Tokugawa shogunate
Tokugawa Ieyasu. the capital of Kyoto. main island, Honshu. forward to fill it. which lasts until 1868.
SEKIGAHARA

✪
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, vowed to avenge his master Toyotomi, came from only humble beginnings. ✪
✪
and faced the usurper in battle – forcing him to Not the son of a samurai or a daimyo, (a feudal ✪
flee just two hours after the fighting began at lord), he was peasant-born and was given no ✪ ✪
Yamazaki. Mitsuhide’s reign as shogun had lasted surname at birth. Nevertheless, Toyotomi was
only 13 days. The man who had defeated him, fiercely loyal to his master and continued the work TOKYO

NAGOYA
KYOTO

99
 The western samurai Otani led his
forces through the battle despite
being blind and crippled

of unifying the warring states of the country. He regents died, so the ambitious lord made his move. took advantage of the chaos, bringing together all
steadily consolidated power until his death in He took over Osaka castle, the residence of the those loyal to the Toyotomi clan.
1598, leaving his clan to take control of the ever- young Hideyori, son of Toyotomi, in a brutal and
growing and powerful Japanese nation. obvious snatch for power. THE TWO ARMIES ASSEMBLE
Many didn’t like the idea of being ruled by a Ishida Mitsunari stood as the main opposition Tokugawa wasn’t the only one with powerful
previously peasant clan, and Toyotomi’s failed to Tokugawa’s aggression. This powerful daimyo friends. While his rival was distracted hunting
invasions of Korea also cast doubts over its power. had a long history with Toyotomi, as well as down a wayward clan that had taken up arms,
With the ruling clan’s right to reign in doubt, fighting side by side with the ruler, he was also a Mitsunari gathered a group of powerful samurai
a huge power vacuum formed in the Japanese top administrator of the regime. A man and government figures, including Otani
government, and one man in particular was very of rigid character with a calculating Yoshitsugu and Mori Terumoto. The
keen to fill it. brain, Mitsunari had trouble force he brought together became
Tokugawa Ieyasu, unlike Toyotomi, had a maintaining relationships “ Wet, the western army to counter
privileged background and was born to rule. His with men whose power he Tokugawa’s eastern army.
father had been a daimyo and his mother the desperately needed.
cold, tired Terumoto took the near-
daughter of a samurai lord – noble blood pulsed He immediately and with damp abandoned Osaka Castle
through his veins. He had been surrounded by recognised Tokugawa as gunpowder, as his base, but when
war and death since the day he was born and a threat to the Toyotomi Tokugawa learned of his
he believed with every fibre of his being that he rule, so headed an
Mitsunari and his enemy’s movements he
was the right person to rule the united land. He unsuccessful plot to have men halted at the split his forces, sending
had caused unrest previously by pledging his
allegiance to Oda Nobukatsu, the heir of Oda
him assassinated. While
provincial regents built up
town of several daimyo to engage the
main western army while he
Nobunaga opposed to Toyotomi, and he decided their military forces amid Sekigahara” marched towards Osaka.
to rise up against the same family once more. For flying accusations of betrayal, Both armies were now marching
two years he plotted, schemed and persuaded outraged condemnations of clans towards Gifu castle, where the roads
various daimyo to side with him against the and families attacking one another, to Osaka converged. Mitsunari intended to
Toyotomi clan. With perfect timing for Tokugawa, Tokugawa finally summoned together all his take the castle and use it as a staging area for his
the oldest and most respected of the Toyotomi supporters into a powerful force. Mitsunari also planned takeover of Kyoto. However, his enemy
got there first, and the general was forced to
retreat south against a violent storm.
Wet, cold, tired and with uselessly damp
gunpowder, Mitsunari and his men halted at the
town of Sekigahara, expecting the eastern army
to attack at any time. He arranged his men in a
defensive position with two streams either side of
them. On 20 October, Tokugawa finally learned
of the disposition of his enemy’s troops after
his advanced guard accidentally stumbled right
upon the awaiting army in thick fog. Both sides
panicked and withdrew before any action was
The arquebuses snuck into the battle by the eastern forces proved to be pivotal to their success

100
 Clash of clans

taken, but pitched battle between the two forces Helmet

was now inevitable. Known as a kabuto, this helmet is comprised of
To many it seemed that Tokugawa’s army was forged plates riveted together. The crescent moon
completely outmatched. Mitsunari’s western army helmet was famously worn by the well-known
numbered some 120,000 men, over 40,000 more warrior Date Masamune.
than the eastern opposition. Mitsunari also held
Mask
all the tactical advantages: he had men positioned Also known as a mempo, samurai would often wear
high on the hills around the terrain, and his a variety of face masks to help support the heavy
own army was placed between two rivers. But helmet, while the fearsome designs played a vital
Tokugawa was no fool, and had managed to sneak psychological role.
in a supply of arquebuses – powerful muzzle-
loading firearms that could easily turn the tide Dou
of battle against a sword-equipped foe. Perhaps Made from a series of steel plates linked together by
most importantly, his scheming has taken root leather thongs. This body armour would be covered
among the ranks of the western army, as he had with lacquer that would make it weatherproof.
promised swaths of land to the daimyo that would
change sides during the battle. First he needed to turn his as yet unscathed centre force. This simple
demonstrate that his was the winning cause. command began to show the cracks in not only
Mitsunari’s army, but also his own leadership.
THE EASTERN Shimazu Yoshihiro, in control of the centre, flat
ARMY ATTACKS out refused to ride to the aid of the right flank,
As soon as the heavy mist masking the field and the powerful daimyo proclaimed he would
lifted, Tokugawa’s vanguard, led by Fukushima only listen to respected commanders. Mitsunari’s
Masanori, charged north, following the Fuji river. stubborn centre remained firmly in place, and
They crashed into the western army’s defensive he could only watch as Tokugawa’s attack sliced
line positioned in the right-centre, where through his men. With Mitsunari’s centre refusing
persistent rain had softened the ground into a
muddy, sludgy mess. The organised lines quickly
descended into chaos and the fighting became
brutal, with men desperately tearing into one
OPPOSING FORCES
another, but neither side gained an advantage in Eastern Army Western Army
the sudden desperate madness of combat. LEADER LEADERS
Tokugawa, witnessing Fukushima’s attack Tokugawa Ieyasu Ishida Mitsunari, Mori
failing to make any ground, commanded his STRENGTH Approx Terumoto
88,890 STRENGTH Approx
right and his centre to charge the enemy’s left,
GAME CHANGERS 81,890
hoping that sheer numbers would overwhelm and
Arquebus: an early muzzle- GAME CHANGERS
Fukushima would finally be able to break through. loaded matchlock firearm Strategic advantage and a
The large number of samurai streaming across the considered dishonorable greater number of troops
field caught Mitsunari’s attention, causing him to by many samurai. stationed at key points.

101
 to move, Masanori’s attack finally gained ground,
but this only served to put them in more danger.

Sekigahara
As the eastern force advanced along the Fuji
river, Otani Yoshitsugu, one of the few powerful
samurai who Mitsunari had somehow managed
to convince to defect to his side, stood positioned
across the river. His forces were able to pounce
on the advancing eastern army, slowing down
Fukushima’s attack once more.

THE SPLINTERED
WESTERN SHIELD Eastern victory. Western retreat
Also positioned across the Fuji river, on Mount
Matsuo, Kobayakawa Hideaki began by fighting
08 Fukushima and Kobayakawa rush towards
the right flank, destroying it easily. Ishida admits
for the western alliance. However, Tokugawa defeat and his forces retreat. The western
had courted the general before the battle and commanders scatter and flee, some manage to
Kobayakawa had secretly promised he would escape, but others are not so lucky.
defect to fight with the eastern army when the
time was right. With Yoshitsugu’s surprise forces
just past him, the time was ideal for Kobayakawa
to act – but he hesitated. With Mitsunari sending
frantic signals for Kobayakawa to aid Yoshitsugu,
and Tokugawa aware that his entire cause could
hang on whether Kobayakawa moved, the general
was frozen with decision. Not a man known for Limited power
patience, Tokugawa decided to take action. He 03 Ishida notices his army
being overpowered so hastily orders
commanded his men to fire their arquebuses
at Kobayakawa’s position, forcing him to make his unscathed center to join his
a choice. As the shots rained down on Mount struggling right flank. However the
daimyo Shimazu Yoshihiro, who is
Matsuo, Kobayakawa’s force finally charged
commanding this unit, refuses as
down the hill into the fray. Kobayakawa’s soldiers
Ishida is not a respected commander.
ignored Masanori and directed their attack at the
western leader, Yoshitsugu. Kobayakawa, although
it had taken some persuasion, held firm on his
promise and betrayed his western allies.
However, Yoshitsugu and Mitsunari already Forcing his hand
suspected Kobayakawa’s potential betrayal long
before the battle, so they had prepared for his
05 Noticing the strong defence of
Otani’s forces, Tokugawa is reliant on the
defection. Kobayakawa’s force of 15,000 men support of Kobayakawa Hideaki, who lies
crashed into Yoshitsugu’s sturdy forces, who close by. However, when he is hesitant
had turned to face the turncoats head-on, and to act, Tokugawa fires at his position and
fought them back bravely with their fresh, dry Kobayakawa finally joins the eastern army.
gunpowder. Although this rendered Kobayakawa’s
charge largely ineffective, Yoshitsugu came under
immense and growing pressure. With these extra
opponents on the field, under the command of
several mighty samurai, there was no denying it –
he was totally outnumbered.
Seeing Yoshitsugu barely holding out against
such odds, one by one four western generals and
their troops switched sides and swarmed upon
the exposed Yoshitsugu forces from all sides. The
effect was decisive – the inflated eastern forces
overwhelmed the western defenders on the left
flank. Seeing this, and that defeat was inevitable, The shield to the advance
Yoshitsugu took the only decision that honour left
him and opened his stomach with his own sword
04 Due to the lack of reinforcements,
Fukushima’s unit overcomes their foes and
to end his life. slowly gains ground. As they are moving along
the Fuji river this exposes them to an attack
FUKUSHIMA’S from Otani Yoshitsugu and his forces, who stand
UNENDING CHARGE strong as a shield to Fukushima’s advance.
With Yoshitsugu’s defeat, his forces quickly
retreated from the field and left the western

102
 Clash of clans

West becomes east

07 Seeing the final buffer unlikely to stay
strong, many western army generals deflect and
switch sides, overwhelming Otani’s forces. He is
forced into a retreat, leaving the path to the western
army’s right flank wide open.
Help arrives
02 Witnessing
Fukushima’s struggling
forces, Tokugawa sends
his right and centre forces
to take down the western
army’s left. They launch
an attack and overwhelm
the western right-centre.

The first charge

01 The leader of
Tokugawa’s advanced
guard, Fukushima
Masanori, charges north
The eastern army overwhelms
06 Kobayakawa and his 16,000-strong force charges
down from Mount Matsuo towards Otani. However,
from the left flank
towards the western
army’s right-centre. The
Otani’s forces fire on the advancing army, rendering
ground is muddy from
their attack virtually useless. However, the buffer he has
rainfall so the resulting
established faces attacks from three other units and he
clash quickly descends
struggles to maintain any semblance of control.
into a manic struggle.
Ed Crooks

103
 army’s right flank free for the taking. Fukushima into the mountains. Although some managed
and Kobayakawa, now united in one huge, to escape unscathed, Tokugawa’s forces chased,
powerful force, thundered towards the right captured and triumphantly killed many of the
flank and destroyed it. At this point the eastern fleeing western commanders.
samurai outnumbered what remained of the Tokugawa’s eastern army had won, but later
loyal western force and their attack was swift and into the day forces absent from the battle finally
brutal. They continued the attack and advanced began to arrive at Sekigahara. His own son,
on the western centre. Mitsunari, his confidence Hidetada, faced his father’s wrath when he arrived
shattered by the multitudes of betrayals, realised late with over 38,000 men – a force that could
that with his shield decimated, defeat was have won him the battle quicker and therefore
imminent. With the same calculated intelligence with less bloodshed.
that prompted the formation of his army, he Hidetada had been distracted attempting to
ordered the retreat and fled up the northern hill capture another castle, Ueda, against his father’s
slopes, hoping to find shelter in Mount Ibuki, orders. Even some of Mitsunari’s men had been After their father’s defeat, Mitsunari’s
the highest mountain of the region. The western held up – 15,000 troops slowed down by another children were forced to change their
family name in order to survive
army followed his lead, scattering and fleeing conflict along the way. Had some of these troops

104
 Clash of clans

The site of the battle as it appears today,

commemorated with a memorial

After his defeat, Otani

This is a 1854 replica of a 1620s Yoshitsugu committed seppuku
Japanese screen depicting the – ritual disembowelment
events of the battle

arrived sooner, the result, and Japan’s future, may Tokugawa was true to his word, after the last remaining Toyotomi clan members in one
have ended up very different. battle he redistributed the lands to those who final bloody clash at Osaka Castle.
had fought by his side and who kepttheir vows With nobody around with enough power
THE FUTURE OF JAPAN to change sides. Those who fought against him to challenge his rule, Tokugawa ensured his
Mitsunari didn’t evade his victorious adversary for paid dearly. Toyotomi territories fell into his ancestors would rule the country for another
very long. Villagers loyal to the now all-powerful hands and pockets of Toyotomi support quickly 250 years. Although it emerged through bloody
Tokugawa caught the fleeing samurai and handed faded after the public executions of the western means, the Edo period under the shogunate is
him over to his enemies, who beheaded him in leaders. Three years after the Battle of Sekigahara, remembered as the last period of traditional
Kyoto along with several other powerful western Emperor Go-Yozei appointed Tokugawa shogun of Japan, before the aggressive westernisation of the
daimyo. Tokugawa had to be sure his rule Japan, and the battle soon became celebrated as 19th-century’s Meiji Restoration.
wouldn’t be challenged by any other powerful one of the most important victories in the nation’s Meanwhile, the Mori, Shimazu and Chosokabe
men with dubious allegiances. As an example to history. At 60 years old, Tokugawa outlived and clans maintained their contempt for the
others, Mitsunari’s head was placed on a stand for rose above all the powerful men of his generation Tokugawa family, and this disdain was so strong
all to see – a strong warning to anyone who dared in every possible way. Aware his years left on it would pass down to their descendants. They
to even contemplate rising up against the new earth were few, he began to concentrate on would eventually rise together to bring the
shogun and his regime. strengthening his shogunate and eliminating the Tokugawa dynasty to its knees.

105
 Isolation
nation
The Tokugawa shoguns reigned over an empire
closed to the outside world – until they were
forced to prise it open
Written by Alice Barnes-Brown

S
waddled in robes that concealed both If Japan’s class system limited upwards mobility
his weaponry and considerable girth, before, Ieyasu made it literally illegal. Below the
the victorious warrior Tokugawa Ieyasu emperor and his court was the shogun, followed
quietly took a seat on the soft tatami by the daimyo, then the samurai.
mats in Kyoto’s Imperial Palace. Emperor All samurai were bound to their local daimyo,
Go-Yōzei sat one step above him, as was the just as all the daimyo were bound to the shogun.
natural order of things in those days, but make no In return for their submission, the samurai were
mistake – Ieyasu held all the power. He had come paid a stipend, based on rice farming harvests. If
to ask the emperor a question he couldn’t refuse. they wished to defect from their daimyo overlords,
He wanted to be shogun. a samurai would have to give up his weapons and
He was the only man in Honshu who could join the peasantry, who comprised about 80 per
make such an audacious claim. Ieyasu, a military cent of the population.
mastermind born to a daimyo (feudal lord) family, Few did, because life for an Edo-era peasant was
had triumphed over the ruling Toyotomi clan difficult. The burden of the samurai stipends took
at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. The usurper up to half of their crop, and there was no chance
then spent the first three years of the 17th century of making a better life as peasants couldn’t engage
unifying Japan and establishing dominance over in anything other than agriculture, or even travel
other regional powerholders, either killing off far outside their province. The one upside to being
disloyal daimyo or placating them with large tracts a peasant was the respect it afforded, as Japan’s
of land. By the time he got to the emperor in 1603, wealth and prosperity came mostly from rice
he was the most powerful man in Japan. farming. Sadly, this was usually only theoretical.
Seal of approval from the emperor received, Beneath the peasantry were the artisans, then
the new shogun holed himself up in Edo Castle, detested merchants, who were held in great
a heavily fortified and moated complex at the suspicion for their profiteering and confined
heart of what would become Tokyo. From this to live in specific urban districts. Below them,
new capital city, Ieyasu drew up his plans for a the ‘untouchables’ – people that violated
new governmental system (bakufu) that would Buddhist principles, such as animal slaughterers,
ensure he wouldn’t lose his power as quickly as executioners and prostitutes. Ironically, their
he had gained it. The 270 remaining daimyo were services were often in heavy demand.
reorganised along Tokugawa terms. Loyal daimyo
(fudai) were placed in strategic positions near Edo, CLOSING THE DOOR
Kyoto and Osaka, whereas troublemakers (tozama) In 1605, just two years after being made shogun,
were relegated to Japan’s outermost provinces. Ieyasu abdicated in favour of his son Hidetada,
establishing the Tokugawa dynasty. But never
CLASS OF ITS OWN a man to desire retirement, Ieyasu continued to
Ieyasu didn’t stop at reshuffling the government – operate as the power behind the throne until his
he turned his attention next to the rest of society. death in 1616.

106
Ieyasu examines the head of a fallen
enemy after the Battle of Osaka, 1614

107
 Buddhist goddesses such as Guanyin
(Avalokiteśvara) were frequently used by
kakure kirishitans to covertly represent the
Virgin Mary

Christianity
goes
underground
The head of a teenage samurai who dared
disobey the Tokugawa is spiked onto a
pole outside Nagasaki, and thrust into the
ground, as a warning to anyone who might
think to challenge the shogun. You have
been warned – practice Christianity, and
you’ll be martyred.
Amakusa Shirō was a 17-year-old noble
born to Roman Catholic parents. His
forefathers and mothers had converted
to Christianity after hearing the preaching
of Portuguese missionaries, but after
Christianity was officially banned by the
shogunate in 1613, it became increasingly A 17th-century portrait
of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the
difficult to practice Christian traditions. founder and first shogun of
So, the charismatic Christian teen led Japan’s Tokugawa shogunate
an impromptu army of peasants and
masterless samurai (rōnin) in the 1637-
For the first time, Japan was not at war with country’) edicts in the 1630s that would change
38 Shimabara Rebellion, taking over
itself, and could focus on the outside world for a Japanese culture, history and even language
Hara Castle. After five long months, the
change. European traders from Portugal, Spain and forever. In 1633, travelling abroad was officially
insurrection was defeated, Shirō executed,
the Netherlands had landed on Nippon’s shores a banned for all Japanese citizens. In 1635, Japanese
and 300,000 Japanese Christians were
century prior, and the unusual goods they brought citizens abroad were forbidden to return, on pain
subjected to religious persecution.
with them – from eyeglasses to guns – were a hit. of death, and all foreign shipping was restricted
Suspected Christians were tested with
Ieyasu saw the benefits of working with these to the artificial island of Dejima in Nagasaki. The
blasphemous rituals, such as the fumi-e,
outsiders, not only allowing them to establish final edict in 1639 expelled foreigners altogether,
where a person was made to step on the
trading posts in Japan, but also to settle in the except the few Dutch and Chinese traders
image of the face of Christ. They were also
country, if they chose. He personally exchanged permitted to stay on Dejima. Japan was officially
required to register at their local Buddhist
gifts with King James I of England (including closed for business.
temple. But punitive measures didn’t
a new-fangled telescope), keen to establish Western ideas were cast off, and Buddhism,
stop them from devoutly practicing their
diplomatic relations with this rich new ally on the Shintoism and neo-Confucianism became the
faith. Instead, Christianity simply went
other side of the world. philosophies of the state. Even receiving a letter
underground, with prayers taking place in
The downside of these foreigners was that from abroad could get you and your whole family
secret rooms in the house, and Christian
they brought an alien religion with them, one killed, such was the fear that Western perspectives
icons swapped out for Buddhist ones.
that was fast gaining followers, particularly in could infiltrate Japan and lead to colonialism. An
Sakoku meant that Japanese Christians had
the area around the port of Nagasaki. For other emphasis was placed on the traditional Japanese
no contact with other Christians, so ‘kakure
East Asian nations, Christian missionaries opened way of life, which was placed at odds with the
kirishitans’ (as hidden Christians are now
the floodgate to full-scale colonisation. Even customs of barbaric foreigners.
known) developed their own distinctive
mighty China had seen Macao siphoned off by the With no internal or external enemies to combat,
take on this imported religion.
Portuguese. Tokugawa Ieyasu’s successors were the samurai gradually fell into bureaucratic jobs,
In 2018, the Hidden Christian Sites in the
determined that this should never, ever happen to while the daimyo raked in taxes as bountiful
Nagasaki Region were finally recognised by
the country they had fought so hard to win. Why agricultural production created surpluses. The
UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
should such a proud, ancient culture need imports cushty merchants, once hated, grew wealthy
from abroad, anyway? as a result of political stability and the growing
To nip colonialism in the bud, Ieyasu’s grandson domestic economy. They created their own urban
Tokugawa Iemitsu issued three ‘sakoku’ (‘closed culture, free to pursue leisure and pleasure, while

108
 Isolation nation

the samurai were discouraged from enjoying such to stay afloat, a source of great shame for this Chōshū joined up with conservative samurai to
frivolities, bound as they were by their strict moral noble class. deliver the killer blow to the shogunate and restore
code called bushidō. Financial troubles shot through the shogunate. the emperor to his traditional position on the
From 1688 to 1704, the Genroku period saw Coupled with famine and increasingly higher taxes Chrysanthemum Throne.
the traditional Japanese arts explode, free to to prop up the government, the peasants decided When political manoeuvres failed to prevent
develop entirely without the influence of other that enough was enough. 20 famines between the signing of the humiliating Harris Treaty, the
cultures. Kabuki dance theatre kept the urbanites 1675 and 1837 meant the bakufu spent a lot of so-called “Satcho alliance” armed themselves with
enthralled with its dramatic movements, energy quelling rural uprisings. the powerful newly available Western weaponry,
while they marvelled at bunraku But there was another problem and overwhelmed the last Tokugawa shogun
puppet performances. Poignant brewing on the horizon. A Danish (with considerably less manpower) in 1866. A
haiku poetry grew out of sailor called Shpanberg, acting couple of years later, the emperor was handed
an earlier form of satirical on behalf of Russia, landed in back control of Japan once again, ushering in the
prose, haikai, which made
“Even Kamogawa, Chiba, in 1739. Meiji Restoration.
listeners laugh until their receiving a His party may have been A lengthy 250 years of Tokugawa rule had
bellies ached. letter from chased from Chiba, but the brought about unprecedented peace, and it had
incident showed that the allowed a unique culture to flourish within the
STRUGGLING abroad could get outside world would soon bubble it created for itself. But the shogunate was,
SAMURAI you and your come knocking. in many ways, a victim of its own success. Despite
Sakoku and the prosperity whole family By the time of Matthew the best efforts of Tokugawa traditionalists, the
of the commercial classes Perry’s arrival in 1853, the capitalist economy that naturally grew out of
may have enriched Japan killed” Tokugawa shogunate was political stability overtook agricultural cultivation –
culturally, but it fundamentally so brittle and worn down by without Western help.
altered the traditional rice-based infighting and a lack of resources Inflexibility imposed by the early shoguns
economy. Without new technology that it wasn’t in a position to challenge meant that society was unable to change with the
from abroad, and a lack of class mobility at home thinly veiled American threats. So, with the times, and without a purpose, the samurai lost the
to encourage innovation, agriculture stagnated signing of the “unequal treaty” (otherwise known pride that had long sustained them. Ieyasu could
throughout the 18th century. The samurai and as the Harris Treaty), sakoku came to an end. hardly have imagined that destroying Japan’s
daimyo, who relied upon good rice harvests for Enter the bakumatsu, or ‘end of the bakufu’. age-old power dynamic to place himself at the top
their income, fell on hard times. Many took out Disaffected, anti-foreign and influential daimyo would ultimately pave the way for his dynasty’s
loans from wealthy merchants and businessmen in the southwestern domains of Satsuma and disappointing decline.

Castles played a key role in the

© Getty images

bakufu. To limit the power of

samurai and daimyo, only one
castle was permitted per region

109
 Samurai in the Meiji era

Did Conscription
you know? begins 1873
The Japanese begin
Emperor Meiji was not conscription around
the best student and the country, regardless
later regretted not of class. Samurai and
working harder on commoners are to fight
his writing side by side.

Assassination of Iwakura Mission Osaka Conference

Sakamoto Ryōma 1871 1875
1867 More than 100 officials set sail to gather The three major leaders of Meiji
After helping to plan for a regime change information in order to create a new Japan. They Japan unite to plan a representative
in Japan, samurai Sakamoto Ryōma is visit 12 countries to research Western politics, assembly. A Senate, an Assembly
assassinated on 10 December. His killers culture, religion, military methods recreation and of Prefectural Governors and a
are pro-shoganal samurai. more. The voyage would take 18 months in total. Supreme Court are all founded.

1867 1868 1869 1870 1873

The Charter Oath Land grab Aikoku Kōtō
1868 1870 1874
In a move designed to The Public Party of Patriots
Written by a group of samurai (the
strengthen central power, is founded. Generally
new emperor was only 15 at the
former feudal lords are accepted as Japan’s first
time), the Charter Oath outlines the
commanded to return political party, it disbands
original principles of the Meiji era –
their lands to the emperor. soon after its formation.
mainly modernisation.

The Kazoku
The Meiji 1869
The old hierarchy
Restoration 1868 is replaced. Upper
The Edo shogunate comes
and middle samurai
to an end when imperial
become shizoku,
rule is reinstated. Dubbed
while other
as the Meiji Restoration, it
samurai become
is a political revolution led
sotsuzoku. All are
primarily by the samurai.
given a pension.
They overthrow Tokugawa
Yoshinobu and replace him
with Prince Mutsuhito, who
becomes Emperor Meiji.

110
 Samurai in the Meiji era

Did
you know?
The Satsuma Rebellion
was one of many
Death of Saigō Takamori 1877
One of the most influential samurai of the 19th
uprisings against
the imperial century, Takamori perishes during the Battle of
government Shiroyama. He is known as the last great samurai.

Shinpūren Rebellion 1876

Spearheaded by disgruntled samurai opposed
to the Westernisation of Japan, the Shinpūren
Did
Rebellion was defeated in a single night. you know?
Some samurai used
their forbidden
swords to
assassinate
Stipends to bonds 1876 Imperial Rescript officials
After having enjoyed a nice stipend, the samurai
class soon found it highly taxed. In 1874 they are 1882
given the opportunity to convert their stipends to In a sign that times are changing, the Imperial
bonds, and this becomes compulsory in 1876. It’s Rescript on Education is enshrined in law.
one more nail in the coffin for the samurai class. Students are now taught to be unwavering in
their support of the imperial throne.

1876 1877 1878 1885 1890

The Satsuma Rebellion 1877 Takebashi Incident Abolition of the
A pocket of samurai face off against a 1878 Dajokan system 1885
30,000-strong imperial army in a last stand against 260 members of the imperial The Japanese cabinet is finally created
the new Westernised regime. Satsuma (home to a army mutiny. They haven’t seen and as a result the three-tier Dajokan
vast number of unemployed people since the end payment for their role in quashing system is abolished. Japan is becoming
of the samurai class) witnesses a rebellion that lasts the Satsuma Rebellion. After their more Westernised.
from January to September. defeat, 53 of them are executed.

The Haitō Edict The Meiji

1876 Constitution
Once the honour of 1890
every samurai, carrying With the aim of making
swords in public is now Japan a respected player
made illegal in Japan. on the world stage and
Now they’re only allowed on par with the Western
at a handful of formal powers, a constitution
ceremonies. For some is created. Much like
time efforts have been Britain, parliament has
made to stop the carrying an upper and an elected
of swords, and it is finally lower house, along with a
achieved in 1876. prime minister and cabinet
appointed by the emperor.

111
 Last stand
of the
samurai
Disgruntled feudal warriors rise up against their
government in a tragic clash that sees tradition and
modernity collide on the battlefield
Written by Miguel Miranda

t was a cold September morning, hours Satsuma, Osumi and Hyuga. Owing to their

I from the first glimmers of dawn. Exhausted

samurai huddled crouched in ditches and
dugouts they had unearthed to protect
themselves from the gunfire below. Their
crude shelters formed an unsightly patchwork
on the scenic hilltop of Shiroyama, which was
perhaps Kagoshima’s best-known landmark
location – the southern fringe of Kyushu
– the Shimazu’s relations with the central
government, at first the Tokugawa Shoguns
and then the Emperor Meiji’s administration,
were always tenuous.
The Shimazus were imperialists and
xenophobes imbued with a conquering spirit.
after the majestic Mount Sakurajima across Having helped end the Tokugawa Shogunate
its harbour. in 1867, their leaders envisioned a new role
These samurai camped in Shiroyama were for themselves as Japan’s empire builders,
led by a remarkable man, Saigo Takamori, who and it would be their samurai who would
embodied the ideals of his class. He conducted annex the Korean peninsula and beyond
himself with magnanimity and good breeding using modern weapons. The Empire of Japan
expected of a samurai and statesman, but he would henceforth rise among the nations
was also possessed by a deep-seated patriotism without peer and remain so for as long as the
that manifested in dreams of waging war Sun cast its golden rays on their homeland.
abroad. It was, admittedly, a characteristic lust This isn’t what happened. In February
for battle typical among his class. 1877, the hardliners among the Satsuma
Posthumous accounts of his ordeal at samurai mobilised and gathered their arms.
Shiroyama report he was ensconced in a trench Saigo, incensed by reports that policemen
six feet deep. It was likely he was ailing and from Tokyo had been sent to Kagoshima
exhausted, as were most of his men. A month with the express purpose of arranging his
earlier he led a perilous flight from nearby assassination, assumed leadership over
Hyuga where they escaped encirclement and this unruly legion. It was a fitting role for a
annihilation by overwhelming Imperial forces. hero of the Boshin Civil War, from 1868-69,
Within a week they had fought their way to which established the Meiji government’s
Kagoshima and almost overwhelmed the token dominance, a transition recognised by history
force defending it, but their ammunition was
depleted and enemy reinforcements were hot
on their trail. Taking whatever supplies they
“Even if these rebellious
could, they made their last stand on Shiroyama.
Fewer than 400 samurai remained from the
samurai could rely on popular
20,000 who rallied behind Saigo in February. support and an intimate
He was a retainer and trusted adviser of
the Shimazus, a powerful clan with a long
knowledge of terrain, their
martial tradition whose domain included crusade was still precarious”

112
Last stand of the samurai
as the Restoration that set Japan on the path
to modernity.
Now, Saigo and his rebel samurai were going
to challenge the same government they so
ardently fought for in previous years. They soon
laid siege to Kumamoto Castle, situated west
of Satsuma and a symbol of Tokyo’s authority.
Government reinforcements were mobilised
and transported with utmost haste to Kyushu,
and their numbers, firepower, and expert
leadership wore down Saigo’s battalions. Even if
these rebellious samurai could rely on popular
support and an intimate knowledge of terrain,
their crusade was still precarious.
Kumamoto Castle survived a bitter siege
and the Satsuma rebels were soon routed.
From June until August, not a single battle
they fought resulted in victory although their
grim determination and unorthodox tactics
wrought havoc on the conscripts and policemen
dispatched to fight them. However, guerilla
wars are often fruitless endeavours, and in
the fashion of 19th-century conflicts where
traditional arms battled modern (European)
counterparts, the former succumbed.
What was left of Saigo’s legion was trapped
in Shiroyama. The date was 24 September 1877,
and beneath their miserable assemblage were
30,000 Imperial troops led by Prince Arisugawa
Taruhito, an aristocrat tasked with conquering
Satsuma in the emperor’s name.
His regiments might have comprised
peasants conscripted to swell the Imperial
Army’s ranks, but they weren’t inferior fighting
men. On the contrary, thanks to the drill
imposed by French instructors, they disported
themselves with the efficiency and organisation
familiar among European armies. Even their
arms and uniform were of French origin.
These early-modern Japanese soldiers were
equipped with the Minié rifle, which featured
superb range, a powerful cartridge and general
ease of use. As a matter of fact, both Springfield
and Enfield, the leading gun makers in the
United States and Britain, manufactured it
under license. Owing to a dearth of historical
research on the period, it’s unknown if these
Japanese Minié rifles were of the older muzzle-
loading variety or the newer breech loaders, but
perhaps it was the latter.
The Imperial forces were equipped with
artillery too. More than 100 pieces of varying
calibres were sufficient to subdue the
remaining Satsuma rebels in the final struggle
for Shiroyama. It was a British diplomat
and adventurer, Augustus H Mounsey, who
provided the English-speaking world with an
authoritative account of the conflict in his book,
The Satsuma Rebellion.
Published two years after the events it
describes, Mounsey’s rich detail captures the
final hours of the doomed rebels: “Before dawn
of the 24th of September a tremendous shower
of shells was poured on the summit of the hill,
and under its cover and in the darkness the

113
 Samurai of the Satsuma domain in the 1860s, during the
Boshin War, in which they fought against the shogunate,
on the side of Emperor Meiji

assaulting parties quickly scaled its slopes. They This was the ignominious end of Satsuma’s Kamakura period that began when Minamoto
reached its brow almost without loss and thence legendary uprising and the men who fought it – Yoritomo was recognised as Japan’s first true
fired volley upon volley with deadly effect into the samurai. To think it all began with a redress Shogun, or feudal overlord.
the rebel camp… the rebels had been taken of grievances. The institution that was the Shogunate,
unawares and unprepared for a serious attack… erected on a foundation composed of samurai
they resisted, as far as men could resist… but THOSE WHO SERVE warrior clans, depended on an exacting feudal
the contest was too unequal to last. Saigo was An assessment of its historical record shows system where petty warlords pretended
amongst the first to fall.” Japanese civilisation has a lineage stretching deference towards a central government while
According to Mounsey’s narrative, as Saigo 4,000 years into the past and perhaps further at the same time scheming to undermine it and
drew his last breath, a lieutenant of his named back to the mythic circumstances that created advance their own power. This was the political
Hemmi Jiuroda completed the rite of hara-kiri fabled Yamato from the Pacific Ocean’s volcanic landscape of Japan for several centuries until
by decapitating his master. A servant then periphery. The emblematic samurai and their the Meiji Restoration.
retrieved the severed head and attempted to warrior ethos, however, only emerged in the last Yet the samurai and its occupation may have
bury it. It was found, however, and Saigo’s 1,000 years. The general consensus regarding an even earlier genesis. In the first millennium
bloodied remains were brought down to the beginning of their existence is that they of what Western Europe deems the Common
Kagoshima later in the day. emerged in the 12th century, during the Era, a centralised state had already emerged in
the main island Honshu. Its epicentre was the
lush Kanto Plain, a stretch of fertile land facing
the Pacific Ocean and ringed by mountains.
“Thanks to the drill imposed by French At around the same period when Byzantine
Rome was at its height, an ancient Imperial
instructors, they disported themselves with dynasty not only governed Japan but pursued
the efficiency and organisation familiar among foreign conquests in the Korean peninsula, a
struggle that frequently embroiled the Chinese
European armies” state beyond the Yellow Sea. For almost 200

114
 Last stand of the samurai

Saigo Takamori
‘The last true samurai’
A pragmatist at heart, Saigo was almost
the least likely to rise in arms against the
very government he helped establish
Given their high social status, the patronage of their
lords and stipends in koku, samurai could afford
comfortable lives. However, poor samurai families
did exist. Saigo Takamori, born on 23 January 1828
During the siege of in Kagoshima, came from such a family. They were
Kumamoto, the defenders of good physical stock, at least, and Saigo grew to an
mined the main gate and impressive height. Perhaps it was having six siblings
detonated it when it was
crowded with samurai – three brothers and three sisters – that moulded his
natural acumen for leadership. Even with his humble
origins, Saigo’s early manhood saw his spectacular
advancement in the service of the Shimazu clan.
Soon he was dispatched to Edo where he
distinguished himself further with his tact and clarity of
thinking. The memory of Saigo as a romantic figure is a
stark contrast to the cunning negotiator and diplomat
who fought heroically during the Boshin Civil War
from 1868-69.
Saigo cut a dashing figure and was recognisable for
his muscular arms and broad shoulders. Over the years
his neck appeared to have vanished into his chest
and the effect on his appearance suggested he was a
civilised brute. In reality, he possessed a keen taste for
Confucian literature and other classic texts. Accounts of
his life reveal he married three times and sired at least
five children. By the time he neared his 50s, Saigo was
known to have been fond of warm baths and domestic
bliss. A baffling claim about his private life suggested
he suffered from enlarged testicles from an infection
caused by a parasitic worm.
Saigo Takamori (seated) As the Meiji administration quickly rendered his social
surrounded by his officers
during the samurai-driven
class obsolete, he clung to the belief that the samurai
Satsuma Rebellion of Japan could still serve a purpose. He was a staunch
advocate for launching another invasion of Korea that
would reduce it to a vassal state. From 1870 until
years a Japanese enclave in Southern Korea
the eruption of the rising he led in 1877, danpatsurei
called Mimana was reputed to have existed
legislation passed in Tokyo hastened the samurai’s fall
before it fell to a rival kingdom.
from grace. As their daimyos were soon displaced and
Japan’s emperors during the first millennium
forced to subsist on meagre pensions and government
were hardly the cloistered sovereigns they
bonds, the samurai faced dire financial straits.
later became. As far back as the 2nd century
Meanwhile, since leaving his duties in Tokyo, Saigo
the legendary Empress Jingu-Kogo carried out
preoccupied himself with founding shigakko
an invasion of Korea and further consolidated
academies for young boys, where the
power at home. This pattern would continually
curriculum featured a mix of Bushido and
manifest for centuries to come. Whenever
Confucian texts. It was the paramilitary
Japan entered a period of domestic
nature of activities within Satsuma
stability, it would aspire to carve out an
that led to a confrontation with
overseas domain.
Tokyo. In February 1877, Saigo took
Being an archipelago of mountains
command of a motley samurai
and hills, the empire’s frontiers were
legion. His forces were scattered
tenuous. Government control was
by a professional conscript army
strongest in the Kanto all the way to
and he perished in Shiroyama.
the provinces surrounding the ancient After the end of the rebellion,
Imperial capital of Kyoto. Meanwhile, there were many legends that
claimed Saigo was not dead
much of Northern Japan and the

115
 present-day Hokkaido was already occupied by
another indigenous group, the Ainu, who were
These soldiers would eventually adopt the
horsemanship of their enemies, and in what
“The samurai class,
also called Emishi. was certainly a lengthy evolution, a unique whose designation
Farther south, in the island of Kyushu martial art arose from this fighting style
where the Shimazus ruled Satsuma, Imperial involving bow and arrow. Separate disciplines translated to ‘the ones
governance was just as weak and sometimes
nonexistent. A terrible contrast of Japanese
also emerged for single combat, lances and
halberds, and various bladed weapons. The
who serve’, were a
civilisation is its startling homogeneity and brutal refinement that moulded these warriors permanent fixture in
social cohesion didn’t mitigate the blood feuds
between wealthy land-owning families.
carried on to their next of kin until martial
bloodlines emerged. Japanese life for
An internal barrier to the expansion of the
Japanese state was the indigenous Ainu. Having
When William the Conqueror led his
Normans across the English Channel in the
as long as the
mastered fighting on horseback, these warrior latter half of the 11th century, land ownership shogunate existed”
bands were seen as a threat to the towns and in Japan was by then monopolised by soldier
villages of the Kanto Plain. The ancient war, families who maintained select warriors as A warrior’s upbringing and mind set meant
the origin of which is lost to memory, was the bodyguards. As economic power slipped from that he could never devote his energies
impetus for Imperial conscription – a practice the emperor’s grasp and was aggrandised by to producing wealth. This meant the only
that resembled China’s own method for raising these landowners, better known as daimyos, a worthwhile pursuit for enhancing power and
armies – to defeat the Ainus. nasty state of affairs was in the making. status in Japan was conquering enemies. This
led to the chronic warfare that plagued feudal
Japan, with its worst phase being the 200-year
Traditionally samurai civil war known as the Sengoku. It wasn’t until
were adept warriors either the relative peace of the Tokugawa Shogunate
on foot or horseback
which was ushered in by the warlord Ieyasu
and his heirs and lasted from 1603 until 1867,
that this fratricidal violence ebbed.
The samurai class, whose designation
translated to ‘the ones who serve’, were a
permanent fixture in Japanese life for as long
as the Shogunate existed. The reason for their
existence was codified into Bushido, whose
core tenet was unfailing loyalty to the master
– a daimyo. Samurai weren’t just retainers and
warriors, but their groupings functioned as
organisations as well.
To ensure their place in the social hierarchy,
samurai families inter-married and individuals
collected lifelong stipends of rice. They were
discouraged from any physical labour and,
like other warrior classes in feudal societies,
martial pursuits like hunting and fencing were
preferred diversions.
Yet some samurai did practice trades to
augment their incomes and rendered civil
service on behalf of their masters. They also
had a monopoly on violence, and this was
symbolised by the iconic pairing of the single-
edged katana with a long knife. The katana’s
inherent value to samurai was being so well
crafted for duelling that no other sword
sufficed. Until the right to bear arms was
exclusively reserved for samurai, double-edged
swords were actually common in Japan.

THE WHITE CROSS

Like a pendulum, Japan’s internal state would
swing from one extreme to another as it hurtled
towards the modern age. The chaos that reigned
in the 200-year Sengoku period, where rival
samurai clans vied for power in constant civil
war, eventually gave way to the Tokugawa
Shogunate’s martial peace.
This transition was made possible by an
unlikely pairing. First, there was the rise
of indomitable samurai warlords, whose

116
 Last stand of the samurai

The Battle of Shiroyama

His forces scattered and surrounded by the Imperial army after the Kumamoto debacle,
Saigo and his samurai escape to Kagoshima

The perilous peak

With just 400 samurai left, Saigo trekked to Kagoshima,
moving through hills and mountain trails. The Satsuma
capital was once again vulnerable to attack, garrisoned
by just 1,000 poorly trained conscripts. However,
Imperial reinforcements from land and sea caught up
with the rebels, who were forced to nearby Shiroyama.

The encirclement
From Mounsey’s account: “The Imperials had
completed their lines about the 10th of September,
and they then proceeded to erect mortar-barriers,
to arm their earthworks with 50-pound guns from
the ships, and to shell the rebel position from them
and from their men-of-war. The bombardment was
carried on day and night, causing a loss of about
200 men in the rebel ranks.”

“After 22 days of being

besieged, the rebels were
Aigo can be seen ordering his men forward in the top
overwhelmed in a few hours” right of this drawing of the Battle of Shiroyama
The final assault
After 22 days of being besieged by
30,000 Imperial troops, the rebel holdouts
were overwhelmed in a few hours’ battle
on the morning of 24 September. Once
the samurai were crushed, the Meiji
government prosecuted 2,718 rebels and
imprisoned just 20. The war involved
a total of 65,000 Imperial soldiers and
police against a rebel force that was barely
20,000 strong.

A total massacre
According to Mounsey, the slain in Shiroyama were
treated with a modicum of respect. He recounts
how “on the day succeeding the combat, the dead
were brought down from the battlefield into the
town for identification and burial. In the cemetery
of the small temple of Jokoji, a broad trench had
been dug and near it the corpses of the fallen were
laid out side by side.”

117
 psychological mettle gave them the iron will to European rifle with a complete stock and Saigo can be seen here, in the centre, preparing his
men for the impending naval bombardment at the
crush their enemies. It began with the brutal distinctive firing mechanism never proliferated Battle of Shiroyama
but courageous Oda Nobunaga, who came in Japan.
closest to unifying Japan in the final decades of Once whole companies of musketeers called Their crest was a white cross in a white circle,
the 16th century. Teppo-tai (literally “gunmen”) were deployed, like a crosshair. It was a fitting if unintentional
His work was continued by the madman their impact was profound. Firearms played a symbol since the Shimazus maintained arsenals
Hideyoshi Toyotomi, whose dream of decisive role in the Battle of Sekigahara on 16 of their own muskets and cannon manufactured
subjugating Korea turned into a quagmire. He October 1600, when Tokugawa Ieyasu’s legions in Kagoshima.
was replaced by the Machiavellian Tokugawa conquered the rival warlord Ishida Mitsunari A streak of mischief always ran in the
Ieyasu, whose gift for administration cooled the and his allies. Shimazu bloodline. Time and time again, their
worst tendencies of the samurai class. The Tokugawa state that emerged in 1603 Satsuma domain would figure in a crisis that
The second force that helped conclude Japan’s appears an unremarkable one under the disturbed the Shogunate. Three years after the
civil wars were firearms. In 1543, more than Shogunate’s bakufu, or administration, that was beginning of the Tokugawa period, Satsuma
half a century before the Tokugawa Shogunate based in Edo, the greatest city on the Kanto samurai overran the island called Okinawa and
was established, a group of Portuguese sailors Plain. To mitigate the influence wielded by the reduced it to a vassal state.
arrived in Tanegashima. Ironically, it was an emperor, whose rank was purely symbolic, their On 3 March 1860, the Shogun Ii Naosuke
island situated not far from the bustling port lives were confined to the boring splendour of was assassinated along with his retinue while
of Kagoshima. faraway Kyoto. A caste system was imposed travelling in Edo. It was believed that vengeful
These Portuguese, who were either by the bakufu, with the samurai at the top. ronin, or rogue samurai, sought to punish
shipwrecked or encountering difficulties Beneath them were peasants and artisans. him for signing disadvantageous treaties with
navigating local waters, presented a local Ultimately contemptible were the merchants at foreign barbarians, for example Europeans. The
daimyo with muskets. Another less reliable the bottom who were superior to none but the Shimazu were fanatical xenophobes and their
account suggests Spanish Jesuit missionaries untouchables: the marginal communities who leader Shimazu Hitsamitsu was implicated in
eager to curry favour with their daimyo hosts cured leather and butchered meat. the assault and murder of an Englishman in
gifted them with muskets. To discourage conspiracies against the 1862. The diplomatic outrage provoked by the
The substances of both accounts are credible, Shogunate, residing in Edo became mandatory Shimazu’s unrepentant refusal to apologise and
since firearms produced in Japan took on a for a daimyo’s kinsmen. This was an elaborate compensate the victim’s family led to British
distinct appearance. Japanese smiths, not system of hostage-taking dressed up as social warships bombarding Kagoshima during the
samurai, had no trouble reverse engineering the custom. Traditional allies of the Tokugawa’s following year.
small arms that they called tanegashima, which were undisturbed by this practice. The However, the Shimazu’s greatest outrage was
resembled the Spanish arquebus with their Shimazu’s of Kyushu, however, were always their alliance with the Choshu clan to defeat the
curved handles and large bores. The Western uncomfortable with their fealty to the Shoguns. Tokugawa Shogunate and install the 15-year-
old Mutsuhito as the Meiji Emperor. When the

“Like a pendulum, Japan’s internal state clans and daimyos loyal to the Tokugawas rose
up against this new order in what was called
would swing from one extreme to another as the Boshin Civil War in 1868 – a conflict that
strangely enough inspired a brief secessionist
it hurtled towards the modern age” movement in Hokkaido led by samurai

118
“Risings erupted in different prefectures as
the samurai realised the Meiji government Final
was legislating them out of existence” march
wanting to establish a democratic republic – the
emperor’s own forces were led by Satsuma’s
driven tax and banking system, and a
genuine economic plan led by powerful of the
ablest commanders: Okubo Toshimichi and
Saigo Takamori.
Historians often cite two separate events to
conglomerates called zaibatsus.
Edo was renamed Tokyo and the feudal
domains ruled by daimyo were declared
samurai
explain Japan’s shift to modernity. These were prefectures. The daimyo lost their fortunes
Renowned for their martial
the expeditions of the American Commodore when the koku, or the rice stipend paid spirit and fierce independence,
Matthew C Perry in 1853 and 1854, followed by peasant farmers, was abolished and thousands of Satsuma samurai rose
by what is referred to as the ‘Meiji Restoration’. replaced by a pension. The samurai lost to defend their social class from
This misses a long period of conflict within their own incomes as a result. Soon oblivion
Japan’s samurai ruling class that ended with the their distinctive topknot hairstyles were
Satsuma rebellion. forbidden and carrying swords in public A disturbing lack of foresight and preparation ruined
When the Meiji Emperor sought to build a was prohibited. the Satsuma samurai’s rebellion against Tokyo. After
professional military with European advisers, A year before the Satsuma Rebellion, getting mired in a pointless siege on Kumamoto
the effort coincided with the reorganisation of a large group of samurai stormed into Castle from 19 February to 12 April, the rebels split
land ownership, the importation of a money- Kumamoto Castle and slaughtered 300 into small groups and tried manoeuvring in Western
unsuspecting imperial troops. This wasn’t Kyushu. Imperial reinforcements arriving by sea
an isolated case – small risings erupted frustrated their mobility – even Kagoshima was
Although captured from them in March.
most samurai
in different prefectures as the samurai
fought with realised the Meiji government was With their ammunition dwindling, the samurai
their traditional legislating them out of existence. resorted to guerilla tactics. They also tried holding
katana, many
out in towns and villages that had castles, even
also wielded
modern rifles SAMURAI REQUIEM though the fortresses weren’t provisioned. These
When Saigo Takamori retired from barely sufficed at defeating the Imperials, although
government service in 1873, he devoted peasant conscripts suffered terrible losses against
his time to leisure befitting his social veteran samurai. Government casualties numbered
status and the administration of shigakko, 17,000 at the end of the war, with 6,900 killed in
or private schools, offering civics and battle. Just as many rebel samurai were slain.
paramilitary training for young samurai. By August, Saigo and his retinue were trapped in
The samurai in the domains of the the town of Miyako-no-jo near the Satsuma frontier.
Shimazu clan, especially those in Satsuma, Most of them died in Shiroyama just a month later.
looked forward to serving the state as
its foremost military clan. In 1874, an
expedition of 3,000 samurai departed from Imperial reinforcements
transported from here
Nagasaki to invade Formosa (Taiwan). This
throughout the war
force was commanded by Saigo’s brother,
General Tsugumichi.
Angered by Tokyo’s callousness toward Shiroyama siege from
his advocacy for further foreign expansion, 3-24 September
Saigo led his samurai to Kumamoto
Castle, expecting to be received by the
commander of its garrison, Major Guerilla war in Hyuga
General Taketa Tani. Saigo even domain from May to August
dressed in his Imperial uniform,
patterned after the French
style. His goal was to force
a compromise with the
government. This wasn’t a
KUMAMOTO
struggle between tradition over
modernity, but to preserve the samurai as NAGASAKI
an institution.
Instead, upon their arrival in Kumamoto, HYUGA
the Satsuma rebels were forced to
Illustration: Rebekka Hearl

prosecute a months-long siege and battle

the European-trained conscript army
MIYAKO-NO-JO
sent against them. Tokyo acted swiftly
and mobilised 40,000 men under the
mysterious Prince Arisugawa Taruhito to
pacify the Kyushu rising. After months KAGOSHIMA
of pointless combat, in September 1877,

119
 the Satsuma samurai were scattered and inform the masses of official pronouncements. served with distinction in the imperial army
defeated. The last holdouts sought refuge in On 25 September, they read: “It is hereby and navy.
Shiroyama Hill after being unable to recapture made known that on the 24th, Prince The hidden legacy of Saigo Takamori and his
Kagoshima. The Imperial army erected barriers, Arisugawa, commander-in-chief of the army of outlaw samurai would resonate in the national
dug trenches and deployed batteries to entrap chastisement, reported to his imperial majesty consciousness and the national will in the 20th
the rebels. Men-of-war stationed in the harbour by telegraph that the rebels of Kyushu have century. Just 18 years after Satsuma industrialised
trained their own 50-pound guns at Shiroyama. been reduced to quiet.” Japan, hungry markets and resources started
Soon the terrible day arrived and death Saigo Takamori’s remains were buried in a the first of many wars with China. This set it on
claimed Saigo, ignoble and gruesome. Half his mass grave with the rest of Shiroyama’s fallen. course to war in the Pacific and humiliating defeat
force was killed with him while more than Upon his return to Tokyo, Prince Arisugawa at the hands of the Allies. Arguably this was the
200 others were either maimed or captured. was thanked by the emperor and awarded the spirit of Satsuma writ large, a timeless episode
A day after the massacre at Shiroyama, signs Order of the Chrysanthemum. The incorrigible where glorious struggle and hubris possessed
were hung up on all of the notice boards in samurai of Satsuma were forever humbled, and the samurai and doomed them. This is why 1877
Tokyo. These public bulletins were an enduring from then on devoted themselves to the state. is remembered as Gotterdammerung for Japan’s
practice from the Tokugawa era and served to Their stock begat generals and war heroes who warrior class.

The old and the new

How Western military tactics were adopted by both Imperials and rebels alike to claim victory on the field
Barely lasting eight months, Satsuma was the from Nagasaki and Tokyo. There was significant the old modes of warfare, like single combat and
first great test of the original Imperial Japanese overlap between the Imperial army the samurai manoeuvre, were discarded. The forces under
Army. After nearly a decade of being moulded forces. The latter were just as committed Prince Arisugawa encircled the remnants of
by foreign advisers and the new tactics needed to adopting European weapons; rifles were Saigo’s rebel army and erected barricades and
to fight modern wars, the conscript force was standard issue for either side. The difference other obstacles to surround Shiroyama.
unprepared for the nature of the conflict with became much more evident in close quarters: In what could possibly be a first in the annals
the Satsuma rebels. the samurai excelled at battling their social of Japanese warfare until then, the Imperial army
Worse, their samurai foes had firearms inferiors – the imperial conscripts with softened the rebels’ position with an unrelenting
and artillery too. The deciding factor became peasant backgrounds. artillery barrage. The sheer volume of fire, with
mass. Having embraced the institutions of However, the Imperial army was full of an estimated 7,000 shells fired on Shiroyama in
European states, – i.e. a police force, compulsory samurai too, and it was led by aristocratic 22 days, broke the defenders, who were then
education, corporations and a parliament – samurai officers. As the conflict dragged on, completely overrun by infantry columns racing
Tokyo could afford levying as many fighting the ranks of the police forces in Satsuma were up the slopes in their crisp French uniforms. The
men as it could, peasant and samurai alike, and swelled with samurai from prefectures whose ensuing battle was an anti-climactic one, and
deploy them to Kyushu for battle. ruling clans were antagonistic toward the Satsuma’s defiance perished like mountain fog
Another edge the Imperials had over the rebels. This was a deliberate tactic employed by on the morning of 24 September.
Satsuma rebels was command of the sea. the Meiji government to finally crush This was more than a victory of superior
Despite being a coastal domain, there were no Saigo’s forces. numbers over unbreakable will. It proved that
indigenous warships in Satsuma and Kagoshima. The imperial army proved its mettle in the a parochial and localised force was no match
This made it easier to transport reinforcements encirclement of Shiroyama. This was where all against a modern state mobilised for total war.

Images: Alamy; Corbis; FreeVectorMaps.com; Thinkstock

120
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 The art of
samurai
warfare
Although the samurai are best known for their
elite swordplay, their most remarkable skill was
the ability to adapt
Written by Hareth Al Bustani

t the time of Taira no Masakado’s into a Taira army eight times the size of his own 13,500 enemies, successfully repelling the first

A 10th-century uprising, Japanese

warfare was known as kyūba no
michi, ‘the way of the horse and bow’
or kyūsen no michi, ‘the way of the
bow and arrow’. At the heart of each army was a
core of mounted archers, drawn from powerful
families, responsible for maintaining their own
at Mount Tonamiyama, he tricked the enemy into
thinking his own force was much larger than it
was by mounting decoy battle standards atop a
nearby hill – hence delaying the enemy’s attack.
Japanese warfare was incredibly ritualised, and
battles began with a series of demonstrations
of bravado; warriors yelled out their names and
Mongol wave.
By the time the Mongols returned seven
years later, the samurai had learned a valuable
lesson. Mobilising the entire realm in a state
of emergency, they built a 20-kilometre-long
defensive wall across Hakata Bay, with archers and
cavalry stationed behind. Unable to overcome the
horses and equipment. Dressed in scaled armour, ranks, and searched out worthy opponents to bulwark, the Mongols regrouped at some nearby
although these leaders carried swords, hand- duel with. Yoshinaka used this to his advantage, islands, only to find themselves on the receiving
to-hand combat was mostly reserved for their sending out a small troupe to initiate an archery end of an endless series of raids. Sailing aboard
peasant followers. duel, while sneaking another two detachments newly constructed warships, the Samurai ditched
As power transferred from the emperor into the behind the Taira rear. At sunset, one of those ritual for guerrilla warfare – executed, of course,
hands of the country’s distant landowners, armies units unleashed a stampede of oxen, with burning with suicidal gusto.
continued to grow in size and sophistication. torches attaches to their horns, goring 20,000 Warriors such as Kusano Jirō launched night
While an army of thousands was at one point Taira warriors. attacks on stray Mongol ships, dodging stones
described as “as numerous as the clouds”, by Although the samurai emerged from the hurled from modified Chinese crossbows to get
the time that the Genpei War broke out in 1180, Genpei War as the masters of Japan, the there. On one occasion, Jirō and his men used
armies could number in the tens of thousands. Kamakura bakufu was dealt a rude wake-up call their own mast to board a Mongol vessel, killing
Rather than simply handing peasants spears, with the 13th-century Mongol invasions. The 21 invaders before setting the ship alight. The
local leaders now trained their soldiers from formal samurai were totally unprepared for the Japanese raids were so effective, the Mongols
childhood, producing a class of warriors, or bushi, unforgiving shock-and-awe Mongol war machine. ended up binding their ships together with chains
with a distinct sense of martial pride. Although As the Mongol armada approached, when one and plank bridges in a bid to deter future attacks.
battles were still largely characterised by mounted of the samurai fired a whistling arrow to alert However, when a typhoon struck, the entire
archery and spearmen, every bushi carried a the gods to the forthcoming battle, the invaders Mongol fleet was smashed together and destroyed.
long sword, called a tachi, and a short sword, the burst out laughing – responding with a barrage of While the samurai had miraculously come
uchigatana – mainly reserved for single combat. exploding bombs and poisoned arrows. together to survive two Mongol invasions, by
These early samurai took combat so seriously When the two sides finally clashed on the the 16th century, Japan’s central government
that if a boy was left-handed, they would train shore, the difference was even more stark. While had completely collapsed. Amid the chaos, every
it out of them, lest it disadvantage them on the the Mongols were disciplined, fighting in tight warlord in the country sensed an opportunity
battlefield. The youth were coached in martial arts, formation, the 5,000 samurai defenders were to enlarge their domains and carve out their
swordplay, archery and horse-riding. One of the chaotic – more concerned with obtaining personal own paths to the capital of Kyoto. The country
more extreme forms of training was inuoumono, a glory than operating as a unit. Forgoing any sense erupted into a state of perpetual warfare, with
sport where participants hunted down wild dogs, of tactics or strategy, they hurled themselves neighbouring realms feuding incessantly for
on horseback with bow and arrow. thoughtlessly into the fray, desperately hoping to regional dominance.
The Genpei War’s greatest generals were not wrench off as many Mongol heads as they possibly One of the fiercest rivalries was between
just ferocious, charismatic leaders, but brilliant could. Despite the clear tactical disadvantage, this Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, who fought
strategists. When Minamoto no Yoshinaka ran samurai bravado saw them cut down a staggering successive battles on the plain of Kawanakajima,

122
 As Japan descended into anarchy,
samurai warfare developed from a
highly ritualised form of mounted
archery into an elaborate system
of shock cavalry, elite swordsmen,
spearmen and gunners

123
© Alamy
The Mongols’ devastating
shock-and-awe tactics forced
the samurai to adapt, ditching
ritual for pragmatism

backseat to the spear – which could feature long,

short or even crossblade tips, used to pull riders
from horses.
This drastic strategic overhaul coincided
with the arrival of Portuguese merchants, who
washed ashore the island of Tanegashima, on the
southernmost tip of Japan, in 1543. The traders
introduced the local samurai to the matchlock
rifle known as the arquebus, which rapidly spread
across the country. Asides from Shingen, one of
the earliest adopters of this new technology was
the upstart Oda Nobunaga. With very few elite
warriors at his disposal, Nobunaga embraced the
ashigaru and the arquebus alike, recognising that
in the heart of Honshu, for more than a decade. having already exhausted the supply of elite even the least capable peasants could very quickly
Shingen’s 33,736-strong army was composed of samurai nobles, warlords were forced to recruit be trained to fire muskets effectively.
warriors drawn from family members, hereditary footsoldiers from the lowest echelons of society – After being on the receiving end of a
vassals and defeated enemies. As Japan’s greatest the ashigaru ‘light feet’ peasants, who had devastating volley attack, he worked
master of the horse, almost one-third of his absconded from their villages, this into his own repertoire. At the
army were cavalrymen. His favoured tactic was and robbers. decisive 1575 Battle of Nagashino
norikuzushi, where horsemen and footsoldiers Every warrior carried two against Shingen, Nobunaga
smashed into missile troupes in a great swords – a short sword “Three demonstrated perhaps the
co-ordinated charge, shattering them. His cavalry known as a wakizashi, greatest use of arquebusiers
would then splinter through the broken enemy and a longer one with a
successive in Japanese history,
line, routing them. curved blade, the iconic rounds of fire setting up three lines of
These tactics represented a shift away from katana. Crafting these decimated wave musketmen behind stakes,
mounted archery towards new spear-based blades was an art form situated 50 metres from
shock cavalry tactics. The transition, in turn, of the highest magnitude,
after wave a stream. While Shingen’s
prompted generals to begin arming footsoldiers involving layer upon layer of of cavalry” unrivalled shock charge
with three-metre-long pikes to defend against forging, heating, hammering could absorb a single volley,
cavalry charges, and then elite swordsmen to hack and folding. However, three successive rounds of fire
down the other melee fighters. Strategies became while swordplay was the most decimated wave after wave of
increasingly complex, requiring ever-greater celebrated of martial traditions, cavalry, allowing Nobunaga to use his
numbers of soldiers. Desperate to fill their ranks, on the battlefield, the blade still took a numbers to score a decisive victory.

Samurai The battlefield tactics of

this fearsome fighting BATTLE FORMATIONS ARCHERS ARQUEBUSIERS
tactics force revealed
Samurai warfare reached its apex with the arrival of the arquebus
matchlock. However, combat was not entirely homogenous; 1
different regions each had their own strengths. With the entire
realm embroiled in a state of total war, the most capable warlords
devised a series of elaborate strategies, designed to leverage their
own natural advantages.
These were often given poetic names, such as Ganko, or ‘Birds
in Flight’, a fluid formation where gunners were stationed at the
front, rear and flanks. For a brutal charge, one would use the
Hoshi ‘Arrowhead’ formation, where the samurai vanguard were
positioned in a sharp arrow shape, designed to smash through
the enemy line. In response, a defending army might use the Saku
‘Keyhole’ formation, where thick lines of gunners and archers were
used to soften the enemy charge, with a cushion of elite samurai
wrapped around the general.
Commanders would often sit on a small lacquered stool atop
a hill, behind screens called the ‘maku’, issuing orders across the
battlefields through drums, conch-shells and gongs. However, the
greatest samurai generals like Yoshitsune, Nobunaga and Ieyasu
frequently risked their own lives, fighting alongside their men.
Ieyasu once said, “It is a mistake to think that battles can be won by
sitting on a camp stool giving orders, baton in hand...In a fight the
best thing is to charge with the greatest vigour.”

124
 The art of samurai warfare

Ever the innovator, Nobunaga also invented With few elite warriors at his
Japan’s first armoured ship, cladding six vessels in disposal, warlord Oda Nobunaga
iron and fitting them with cannons. Although one quickly adopted the European
arquebus, perfecting its use at
of these capsized under its own weight, a small the 1575 Battle of Nagashino
fleet of them was said to have routed 600 ships –
not bad for a new innovation.
Having conquered most of Japan, Nobunaga’s
successor, Hideyoshi, was able to mobilise
hundreds of thousands of soldiers with deadly
precision. Similarly, city-castles had grown into
huge, magnificent strongholds, built to endure
lengthy sieges. During the siege of Takamatsu
Castle, rather than waiting out a traditional siege,
Hideyoshi instead had his men build a mile-long
dam and a series of dykes, redirecting a river and
using it to flood the castle.
This timeless samurai war for conquest reached
its natural climax in the Battle of Sekigahara,
where Tokugawa Ieyasu and his Eastern allies
faced down the supporters of Hideyoshi’s young
son, Hideyori. It was a brutal, chaotic engagement,
featuring all the hallmarks of samurai warfare:
elite swordplay, bravado, mastery of terrain,
cavalry charges, deception, arquebuses and even
psychological warfare using cannons. In the
aftermath, the Tokugawa shogunate ushered
in centuries of peace, leaving the samurai
perpetually preparing for another war that would
not come.
By the time of the Meiji Restoration, the
samurai who did resist found their traditional
martial training rendered utterly obsolete in the
face of modern industrial warfare. With that, the
age of the samurai as a fighting force was over.

SAMURAI SPEARMEN COMMANDER SIGNALS FLAGS

2 3
 Feudal
Japanese
armour
Samurai armour designs evolved over a millennium,
as the weapons favoured by these renowned warriors
transitioned from the bow, to pole arms, and ultimately,
highly effective firearms
Written by Trevor Absolon

here are few places in the world where the samurai’s transition from the bow to pole

T the iconic image of a fierce, sword-

wielding samurai of Japan’s feudal past
is not recognised. There can be
no doubt that the highly unique and
truly distinctive forms of body armour worn by
these renowned warriors played a significant role
in imprinting the image of the samurai on the
arms like the yari (spear) and naginata.
Armour design in Japan reached its zenith
during the latter half of the 16th century as
firearms began to dominate the battlefield. Shot-
proof, streamlined, solid-plate, high-quality steel
items of armour became the norm towards the
end of the infamous Country-at-War Period, which
global consciousness. For very few military items began in 1467 and finally ended in 1615.
in history have so skilfully combined artistic These highly resilient, practical and largely
beauty with practical battle-worthy functionality unembellished forms of armour design, however,
and form. were gradually replaced over the course of the
While ‘samurai armour’ appears regularly in 18th and early 19th century by designs of armour
films, pop culture literature and video games, it that mimicked the much more ornate – though
is seldom depicted correctly. One reason for this obsolete – forms of armour that had been utilised
is the fact that there is no one definitive form of in the preceding centuries.
Japanese armour, as the construction and design This trend towards revisionist styles of armour
of samurai armour evolved over the course of a was driven by the disillusioned and purposeless
millennium, with the weaponry utilised by these samurai of the peaceful Tokugawa Period (1603-
warriors being the driving force behind most of 1868), who began to idealise and long for the
the evolutionary changes that occurred. perceived glory days of their forefathers.
The rise of the samurai in the 10th century Ironically, many warriors were clad in armour
coincided with the development of a form of not unlike that which had been used by their
tightly laced, lamellar armour assembled from samurai predecessors during the doomed
© Former property of and images by Trevor Absolon

thousands of small, lacquered rawhide scales. Mongol invasions of the 13th century.
These so-called ‘yoroi’ forms of armour, with They were sporting such armour
their large static shield-like shoulder guards were when the steam-driven US
primarily designed to provide protection from Navy gunboats under
arrows, as the bow was the primary weapon of Commodore Perry showed
the samurai until well into the 14th century. up to strong-arm Japan
Scale armour gradually gave way to increasingly into opening itself up A superb lacquered gold leaf, small scale, two-section cuirass
more sparingly laced solid-plate forms of armour to Western trade and from the late 16th century said to have belong to the 5th
Shoguns Chamberlin, Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu
towards the end of the 15th century. This reflected commerce in 1853.

126
 Feudal Japanese armour

Trevor Absolon is a highly regarded author

and specialist on Japanese armour. Items
sourced by him can be found in collections
and museums across the globe.
His most recent book, Samurai Armour
“Solid plate, Volume 1, released by Osprey Publishing, is
high-quality described as “undoubtedly the best work in
English on the subject” of samurai armour.
steel items
of armour
became the
norm“

A stunning high-grade fighting armour from the late 16th A fabulous example of a highly functional and yet equally
century/early 17th century that features a 62 plate riveted ornate black lacquer finished armour set from the late 17th
helmet made by famous Myochin Nobiye century assembled around five-section cuirass

127
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