WELCOME TO

The fighting had stopped. Years of civil war, death and betrayal had
ended, and one man emerged victorious from the fray. The adopted son
of the once-great Julius Caesar was bestowed the title of Augustus by the
Senate, and he ushered in a new era of rule: the Roman Empire.
In All About History Roman Emperors, it’s time to meet the people
who were charged with leading one of the greatest civilisations of the
ancient world. Uncover the depraved reigns of Caligula and Nero, go on a
Christian crusade with Constantine, and meet the rulers of the East who
kept the Roman Empire alive for over 1,000 years. So untangle the family
trees, prepare for brutual assassinations and bloody coups, and decide for
yourself who really was the greatest emperor of Ancient Rome.

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Part of the

bookazine series
 CONTENTS
8 THE DYNASTIES OF
THE ROMAN EMPIRE

1ST CENTURY
14 AUGUSTUS
18 TIBERIUS
20 CALIGULA
24 CLAUDIUS
28 NERO
28
34 YEAR OF THE
FOUR EMPERORS
4TH CENTURY
36 THE FLAVIANS
82 CONSTANTINE THE
2ND CENTURY GREAT

42 TRAJAN 86 CONSTANTINE'S
DYNASTY
44 HADRIAN
94 THE VALENTINIANS
46 ANTONINUS PIUS
96 THE THEODOSIANS
48 MARCUS AURELIUS
54 COMMODUS 5TH CENTURY

58 YEAR OF THE 104 THE LAST DAYS OF

FIVE EMPERORS THE WEST
110 THE BYZANTINE
3
RD
CENTURY
EMPIRE
64 THE SEVERANS 116 BLOODY BYZANTINE
66 THE CRISIS OF THE EMPERORS
THIRD CENTURY 118 THE ROMAN EMPIRE'S
72 DIOCLETIAN LAST STAND
AND MAXIMIAN 58
124 WHAT IF ROME
76 THE TETRARCHY NEVER FELL?

6
82 66

44
36

118

14
 Julius Caesar, pictured here, became the
archetype for the Roman emperor to
come (both in power and eventual fate)

08
 THE DYNASTIES
OF THE

ROMAN
EMPIRE
From its earliest days in the republic to the final
dark days of the empire, the dynasties of Rome
shaped the nation and its fate

F
or four centuries of its existence, Rome was preserved, but the Senate ultimately answered to
ruled by nine incredibly powerful dynasties the seat of the emperor. It was all an illusion, but
and it was under their rule that the nation it was a system that was set in place and lasted for
rose to the height of its power and eventually the 300 years of the Principate.
saw it fall into the hands of Eastern masters. The Following the Crisis of the Third Century, the
first of these eras, the Principate, was the first to political strata of Rome changed with more power
emerge after the end of the Republic where Rome consolidated into the position of emperor. This
expanded with military might into one of the most was the beginning of the Dominate era, where the
powerful nations of the world. The Principate began emperors enacted the personal control over the
with the formation of the position of emperor, realm we most closely associate with the imperial
where the democratic structure of the republic was throne. It was also a time of political uncertainty
cast aside and the power of the entire realm was and upheaval, with brief experiments in joint rule
passed into the hands of a single man. (in a paltry imitation of the republican days) and an
The first of those men, Augustus, was mindful of eventual split in the empire into a disparate East
the dangers of plunging Rome into a political world and West that eventually sealed the fate of Rome,
that the people did not recognise so the Senate was and with it the Roman Empire.

09
10
THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN DYNASTY
27 BCE – 68 CE
The first five emperors of Rome began with Augustus, and it was through him that the
Principate model of governance (where both Senate and emperor exist, but the Senate
ultimately answers to the most powerful man in the realm). Many of these men had no
natural heirs so most used adoption to select their eventual successor and continue
the dynasty. From Augustus to Nero, it was a divisive time for the Romans. Political
infighting and favouritism saw the persecution of certain families considered rivals to
the Julio-Claudians with even the senate itself attempting to regain power at one point. TIBERIUS
Rome even burned in 64 CE.
14-27 CE
AUGUSTUS
27 BCE – 14 CE

YEAR OF THE FOUR GALBA

EMPERORS 68-69 CE
Rome was now plunged into
a year of civil war where four
68-69 CE
Following Nero’s suicide, Rome is plunged into civil
ROMAN EMPERORS

men would rise to the title When Vespasian eventually

war as rival families aim to install their own candidates
of emperor – Galba, Otho, as emperor. Before the rise of the Flavians, three men
becomes emperor, he helps
Vitellius and Vespasian. rule: Galba, Otho and Vitellius. bring the civil unrest to a close.

FLAVIAN DYNASTY
VESPASIAN 69-96 CE
69-79 CE The Flavian dynasty seized power during the civil war,
and while the dynasty’s reign was relatively short, the
Vespasian’s second son family did make some big changes. The first Flavian
(and the third Flavian emperor Vespasian’s new taxes helped improve
emperor) Domitian was finances, while the addition of silver to Roman coins
bettered the economy.
assassinated in 96 CE,
and long-time supporter TITUS
Nerva took his place.
79-81 CE

THE NERVA-ANTONINE DYNASTY COMMODUS

96-192 CE 177-192 CE
The seven emperors of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty brought about something of a
more peaceful and successful era for Rome. It was a time of healing between emperor, Rome yet again found itself in a
military and people; and it saw some of the most well-liked emperors take the position
over a near century of rule. The first three – Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian – renewed
power struggle between a number
the policy of adoption in order to secure the right heir. While most of the successive of influential figures, and a year of
emperors were not father and son, many were related by blood so family ties were murder and deceit would follow.
MARCUS AURELIUS secured. This continued with the Antonines – Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius
161-180 CE Verus and Commodus. Some of them even ruled together for a time.

YEAR OF THE FIVE

SEPTIMIUS
EMPERORS
193 CE
SEVERUS Following Commodus’ assassination, his Praetorian
193-211 CE Guard would eventually go on to murder his successor,
Pertinax, within three months. Didius Julianus
succeeded him, but was executed by Septimius
Severus. Severus would co-rule while fighting a civil PERTINAX
war against another claimant.
Severus co-rules with Clodius 193 CE
Albinus, who eventually turns
on and defeats in order to take ELAGABALUS
full control of the empire.
218-222 CE
SEVERAN DYNASTY
193-235 CE Severus Alexander was the last of the
The final dynasty of Principate did see the end of the line, and while he started off popular,
SEVERUS civil war, but it also saw the empire’s seat of power he soon became a figure of derision as
ALEXANDER shaken by political infighting and turmoil that would a series of military faux pas left him
foreshadow the crisis to come. with his own men’s swords in his back.
222-235 CE
 CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY
235-284 CE
With the final emperor of the Principate dead in Severus Alexander, and murdered by No one emperor had true
his generals at that, Rome and the empire were plunged into its most bloody internal control in this period until
conflict yet. The Crisis of the Third Century, or the Imperial Crisis, raged for almost half
Aurelian, who united
a century and saw 26 individual men recognised by the senate as Caesar (thus making
them official emperors). The conflict was so severe it saw the empire become divided all three empires and
into three warring states: the Palmyrene Empire (including Roman Egypt and Roman effectively ended the Crisis
Syria), the Gallic Empire (which consisted of Gaul and Britannia) and the remaining of the Third Century. AURELIAN
MAXIMUS I Roman Empire in between.
235-238 CE 270-275 CE

CONSTANTIUS THE TETRARCHY

CHLORUS 284-313 CE
293-306 CE The end of the Crisis saw a new style of rule where
power was divided equally among four men –
Diocletian, Galerius, Maximian and Constantius Chlorus.
Each one ruled a different section of the empire.

After 20 years of rule, Diocletian

and Maximian abdicate and two
more men are made co-caesars. DIOCLETIAN
This eventually breaks down,
civil war ensues and Chlorus’ son,
THE CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY 284-305 CE
Constantine emerges the victor. 306-363 CE
The Constantian dynasty saw the first true beginning of the Dominate or ‘despot’ era,
where the concept of a singular powerful rule was dropped and a great deal more
LICINIUS I
CONSTANTINE power consolidated in the position of emperor, and a series of military and religious 308-324 CE
THE GREAT upheavals that changed the realm forever. The Constantine line (sometimes known as
the Neo-Flavian line, due to each member carrying that name, too) actually began with
306-337 CE Constantius Chlorus during the Tetrarchy, but it wouldn’t be until the ascension of his
son Constantine the Great when Rome (still divided into an Eastern and Western realm)
was united.
The Constantinian line lasts
until 364 CE when Jovian, the
last of the emperors of that line,
dies of natural causes. The army
THE VALENTINIAN names his replacement.
DYNASTY
364-392 CE
The Valentinian dynasty saw a Tetrarchy-esque rule as
Rome was purposely divided into Eastern and Western
VALENTINIAN I sections to be ruled by a pair of co-rulers. The decision
would fragment the Empire forever.
364-375 CE VALENTINIAN II
375-392 CE

The details surrounding the death of THE THEODOSIAN

the final of the four Valentinian rulers, DYNASTY
Valentinian II, remains a mystery,
but many have theorised he was 379-457 CE
assassinated or committed suicide. One of the last families to rule the empire in its twilight
years, one which initially ruled in the Eastern Roman
Empire, but also one that briefly reunited the two
sections under one family in 394 CE.

HONORIUS
The Theodosian dynasty 395-423 CE
was the last Western
family to rule the Eastern
THE LAST EMPERORS OF
Roman Empire. From THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
then on, the realm was 457-518 CE
ruled by the Byzantines. As the Eastern Roman Empire (an entity that, in one form or another, endured until the
15th century under Eastern rulers) fell into Byzantine hands, the Western Roman Empire
became a hodge podge of self-proclaimed emperors and assassinations. It was the great
dream of Rome at its worst, the very fabric of Roman society coming apart at the seams JULIUS NEPOS
as rich and powerful men with no mind to rule sought the hollow shell of Caesarhood. 474-475 CE
The Western Roman Empire didn’t go out with a blaze of glory, but petered out into
nothing as the last of its claimants died or were murdered.
ANTHEMIUS We can see this as the
467-472 CE effective end of the
Western Roman Empire.
THE DYNASTIES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

© Alamy, Thinkstock

11
 1 CENTURY
ST
Uncover the rulers who laid the blueprints for
future Roman emperors

14 AUGUSTUS 18 TIBERIUS

20 CALIGULA 24 CLAUDIUS

12
28 NERO 34 YEAR OF THE FOUR EMPERORS

36 THE FLAVIANS

13
 ROMAN EMPERORS

27 BCE - 14 CE
AUGUSTUS
One man was destined to become the first leader of the
Roman Empire – but getting there was going to be challenge
Written by Katharine Marsh

O
ctavian was brought up during the civil From this point on, Octavian made use of the
war that he was destined to end. Born in Caesar name – what better way to advertise his
63 BCE to a relatively obscure patrician legitimacy to rule? He went from the unknown to
family, the silver lining was that he was related to centre stage, and many joined his cause, his forces
the Caesars. His mother, Atai, was Julius Caesar’s growing as he approached Rome. Outside the gates
niece, and after the death of his father, Octavian with his army, he demanded to be made a consul
was raised by his grandmother, who was Caesar’s – exactly as Caesar had done before him. But his
sister, Julia Caesaris. rival, Mark Antony, had taken control in the capital,
But it wouldn’t be until 47 BCE that Octavian and he paid no attention to the young Octavian. In
and the great Julius Caesar would meet. Aged fact, he even blocked having Octavian’s adoption
16, it was time for the boy to don the toga virilis officially recognised, and prevented him from
and become a man. Using family connections, he standing for office.
managed to take on responsibilities, and one of After months of rising tensions, Octavian had
them was going to help his great-uncle Caesar fight had enough. He managed to bribe two of Mark
in Hispania. However, his journey went somewhat Antony’s four legions to join his side, and was
awry when he became shipwrecked on the way ready to march to Mutina where Mark Antony
there, and he had to cross enemy territory to reach was besieging Decimus Brutus, one of Caesar’s
his destination. assassins. He finally attacked Antony on 21 April 43
Caesar was so impressed with his grand- BCE and smashed his enemy’s forces. Mark Antony
nephew’s tenacity and spirit that he named him fled over the Alps, and Octavian was now a key
his political successor and the heir to his estates. player in Roman politics.
During the process, he also adopted Octavian as On 1 January 42 BCE, a new precedence was set
his son. The Caesar name came with power and – Julius Caesar was deified. When Caesar had died,
military might – two things that Octavian didn’t a comet had been seen in the sky, immediately
want to squander. But with Caesar preoccupied dubbed Caesar’s comet, but to a people that
with the civil war and political infighting, it is believed in omens, it wasn’t just a celestial body.
unlikely that the adoptive father and son really Octavian announced that the comet was his
spent much time together. adoptive father going to join the gods, and less
But everything changed in 44 BCE. When he than two years later, the Senate ratified his claim.
heard the news of Caesar’s murder, Octavian had Octavian could now call himself divi filius, or son
been in Illyricum, preparing to join him on a of a god. What better political tool?
campaign to Parthia, and to say he was distraught However, his anger hadn’t gone away. When the
would be an understatement. But as his family Second Triumvirate was formed with his former
tried to make him go into hiding as he was heir enemy, Mark Antony, and his friend Lepidus, it
to everything the dictator had owned, a stronger was with one main goal in mind: to find and kill
emotion broke out: anger. He headed to Brundisium the conspirators who were responsible for Caesar’s
in southern Italy, where a large number of troops death. So that’s what they did. Between them
were waiting. they travelled across Rome’s territories to do battle

14
 AUGUSTUS

Augustus ruled without

challenge until his death in 14 CE ALL ABOUT
AUGUSTUS
BANISHED FAMILY
When Augustus found out
that his only child, Julia, had
been sleeping with men out of
wedlock – including one of Mark
Antony’s sons – he had her exiled
to Ventotene and they never saw
each other again.

THE ROMAN WIFE

Augustus’ third wife, Livia, served
as the archetypal Roman woman
and wife. However, Livia was set
on ensuring that her son from
another marriage would rule after
Augustus, and she succeeded –
Tiberius ruled from 14 CE.

FAMOUS LAST
WORDS
On his deathbed, Augustus’ last
words were reportedly: “I found
Rome a city of clay but left it a city
of marble.” While the emperor had
achieved this, his wife said his last
words were: “Have I played the
part well? Then applaud as I exit.”

AUGUSTUS'
MAUSOLEUM
Augustus built his tomb in
28 BCE. It’s also home to the
remains of Agrippa, Octavia Minor
and Livia, and emperors Tiberius,
Caligula, Claudius and Nerva.

15
 ROMAN EMPERORS

at Philippi and in Sicily, among other places. But and the remaining Egyptian forces immediately
all good things must come to an end, and Mark defected to the other side. It couldn’t have gone
Antony and Octavian inevitably fell out. Another any better. With Octavian the undisputed ruler of
civil war was looming, and it looked like a Caesar Rome, he had Caesarion and Mark Antony’s eldest
would be on one side yet again. son, Antyllus, executed, and made Egypt a Roman
While Mark Antony was living in Egypt and province in 30 BCE. Caesarion was supposedly
openly shunning Octavian’s sister, who was strangled, and Octavian apparently told him: “Two
supposed to be his wife, Octavian used it to his Caesars are one too many.” With his position now
advantage. If his enemy was spending so much secure, and the possible pretenders dealt with, it
Livia, the third wife
of Emperor Augustus time in Egypt with Cleopatra, did that mean he was time to reorganise Rome. Everyone knew that
wanted to overthrow Octavian? Many believed the old system wouldn’t work.

ROME'S FIRST
that Mark Antony had become lovesick for the After returning from the East, Octavian had his
Egyptian queen and wanted to defeat Octavian triumph through the streets of Rome in August 29
FIRST LADY and move to the capital, Alexandria. What made
matters significantly worse was that Mark Antony
BCE, and settled large amounts of veterans in Italy
and the provinces with little to no fuss – perhaps he
In a world run by men, wives were supposed to
recognised Caesarion, Caesar and Cleopatra’s son, had now superseded his adoptive father, who had
sit in the background, offering their husbands
support while running the household. To the
as ‘King of Kings’, and Cleopatra as ‘Queen of Kings’, nothing but trouble from the Senate when he had
public, that’s exactly what Livia seemed to be and began splitting up the eastern part of empire tried to resettle Pompey the Great’s veterans.
doing. The third wife of Augustus, she would be under the two and his own children. What shocked the Senate most was that
by his side for his entire reign, but behind her To counter Mark Antony’s seemingly heretical Octavian rejected being in power in 29 BCE. Of
beauty lay brains. actions, Octavian promoted Agrippa, his right-hand course, this was mostly for show; the Senate all
The ultimate goal for Livia seemed to be man, to aedile in 33 BCE, and they began to restore but begged, and the leader put on a pretence of
getting one of her sons to sit on imperial throne.
many of Rome’s faults that had been forgotten reluctantly accepting. He had the Senate on his
As Augustus had no sons of his own, he would
have to adopt his heir, and Livia worked tirelessly during the years of civil war. They fixed the sewer side, but he’d learned from his adoptive father’s
until her son Tiberius became the next in line. system and the water supply while constructing mistakes – he needed to keep them happy.
In fact, some accused her of poisoning Augustus new buildings to make the streets look great once Unlike his great-uncle, this is something he
to get Tiberius into the top job faster after the again. His plan succeeded – Octavian had painted managed to do throughout his entire rule. In 27
emperor’s death in 14 CE. himself as a Caesar who cared about Rome. But BCE, the Senate granted him the title of ‘Augustus’,
Livia became the blueprint for the empresses
when Mark Antony divorced Octavia, he saw red. which he then began to use instead of Octavian,
that would follow her – as her husband set many
a precedence as emperor, Livia did the same for Octavian had the Senate declare war on and he was given more power over the years – he
their wives. But even after Augustus’ death, she Cleopatra, and the final battle for Rome began, didn’t have to seize it like those before him. He was
was still an important figure. As the mother and with East and West going head to head. At the appointed the overseer of Rome’s grain supply in 22
grandmother of the next two emperors, Tiberius Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, the Egyptian ships were BCE, and the year before that he’d been given the
and Caligula, she enjoyed life as an Augusta after blocked by Octavian’s fleet under the command right to call a Senate. They also kept renewing his
a self-imposed exile on Capri. She would later die lone rule.
of Agrippa, who was a much better military leader
in 29 CE, having wielded more power than most
than his superior. Cleopatra and Mark Antony fled In 13 BCE, Augustus took the title of Pontifex
Roman women would ever enjoy.
back to Egypt where they both committed suicide, Maximus, the highest religious office in Ancient

Augustus of Prima Porta, The Aeneid

Agrippa, Augustus’ right-hand man until a statue of the first charted Augustus’
his death in 12 BCE. He was responsible Roman emperor made heritage back to
for some of Augustus’ most prolific after his death that the hero Aeneas
victories, like at the Battle of Actium mixed myth and reality fleeing Troy

16
 AUGUSTUS

The Res Gestae Divi Augusti can

still be seen today at the back of
Augustus’ rule was a period the Ara Pacis Museum in Rome
of peace and prosperity in
which Rome attained the
height of its imperial power legendary Trojan War, Virgil claimed that Augustus But what was to come of the leadership when
could trace his lineage through Aeneas and back Augustus died? He had no sons of his own, so he
Rome. It seemed fitting that the son of a god was to the goddess Venus. This then made its way into fell back on an option that set a precedence for
now the holiest man in what would later become art, with the most famous statue of the emperor, many other emperors: he adopted an heir. His third
known as the empire. Of course, Augustus wanted the Prima Porta, showing Cupid, Venus’ son, by his wife, Livia, had a son from a previous marriage who
to avoid the idea of kings, as the Roman Kingdom side. A departure from the Republican statues of would be a good candidate, so Augustus adopted
was not exactly remembered of fondly – what he leaders, Augustus is depicted as a youthful ruler the young Tiberius, believing his beloved empire
promoted instead was the revitalisation of the instead of an older man – a new portrayal of power would be left in safe hands.
republic. In 2 BCE, he was also bestowed the title of for a new era. 14 CE would be the end of the Augustan age.
Pater Patriae, or Father of the Country. It was family where Augustus would become Dying in Nola, the other side of Mount Vesuvius
It was to be a golden age for Rome as the empire unstuck, though. Despite having three wives, he from the now-famous Pompeii, his body was taken
flourished after the dark days of the civil war. only had one legitimate child, Julia, but she wasn’t back to Rome. On the day of the funeral, businesses
Buildings made of glistening marble sprang up, exactly a paragon of virtue. The emperor’s daughter closed as the emperor was taken to be cremated,
with as many as 82 temples being built or restored was accused of promiscuity after her second with his ashes interred in the mausoleum he’d had
in the space of a year, according to Augustus husband, Agrippa, left her – something that was built in 28 BCE.
himself. Libraries and theatres appeared, along unacceptable under Augustus’ new laws outlawing The legacy he left behind was great. Made a god
with the original version of the Pantheon. In fact, promiscuity in an attempt to make marriages more by Tiberius, he would be remembered throughout
so much building and rebuilding took place under stable. When she allegedly had an affair with Mark the Roman Empire for presiding over a golden age
Augustus and his supporters that the emperor is Antony’s son, she had gone too far for even her after the years of fighting. He was the man who
said to have quipped that he had inherited a city of father to forgive her. Exiled in 2 BCE, she later died had built an empire that would last for centuries
clay but left behind one of marble. of malnutrition. and he would not be forgotten.
Of course, as in any regime, propaganda was rife.
Augustus’ face was everywhere on statues, busts
and coins. Some coins even had Caesar’s comet
on the back, highlighting the familial connection
between the two men in a shrewd move to cement
Augustus’ position. It was also hard to miss the Res
Gestae Divi Augusti (or Deeds of the Divine Augustus),
upon which his legitimacy and great deeds were
© Creative Commons: Miguel Hermoso Cuesta,

laid out clear as day for everyone to read with his

divinity laid out in the title itself. But if you were
illiterate, it didn’t really matter – the wall on which
the writing had been carved was so enormous that
you’d still get the sense of grandeur and power.
The literate also had another bit of propaganda
This denarius struck c.19 BCE shows Augustus
they could read: Virgil’s Aeneid. Telling the story of on one side and the comet of his deified great-
uncle and adoptive father on the other
the founding of Rome by Aeneas, who had fled the

17
 LIFE & SOCIETY

TIBERIUS
14-37 CE
The great Augustus had been Tiberius’ stepfather and at
the start, Tiberius wasn’t the one who was supposed to take
his place. However, as the other candidates for the position
of emperor died over the years, the burden finally fell on
Tiberius’ shoulders. His reign started well, but over time
he became more unpopular, eventually being accused
of tyranny thanks to his use of Sejanus, the head of his
Praetorian Guard. In response, the emperor relocated to the
island of Capri in the Bay of Naples in 27 CE, and it was there
that he stayed for the rest of his life. Before he died, he made
his adoptive grandson Gaius, later known as Caligula, and his
actual grandson Gemellus joint heirs to the empire.

18
THE END OF ROMAN RULE

© Getty Images

19
 ROMAN EMPERORS

“How could he
not resist getting
rid of the man
who stood
37-41 CE between him
and total power”

CALIGULADid the depraved Roman emperor, known for

his horsing around, deserve the boot?
Written by Katharine Marsh

T
here were many megalomaniac rulers in his natural brutality. He loved watching tortures
the ancient world, but there was only one and executions.” But there’s a very real problem
who allegedly tried to give his horse a with using Suetonius as an accurate source for
political office. That honour is bestowed upon Gaius Caligula. While he is known for his Twelve Caesars,
Julius Caesar Germanicus, better known today as a series of books about Rome’s rulers from Julius
Caligula, who was the third emperor of Rome from Caesar to Domitian, these accounts were filled
37 to 41 CE. Only on the throne for four years, it’s with gossip and hearsay. It also doesn’t help that
a wonder he made a mark at all – nonetheless, his Suetonius was writing almost 100 years after
reputation precedes him. It’s said that Caligula was Caligula’s rule, during the reign of Hadrian.
insane and led a reign of terror before The test of Caligula’s character would
being assassinated, but is that a come at the death of Tiberius in 37
fair assessment? CE. Now 25 years of age, Caligula
Caligula wasn’t always was thrust into the spotlight
destined to rule. While he DEFINING as co-emperor with his
was descended from the MOMENT cousin – until Gemellus’
great Augustus through Little Bootikins suspicious death. While
his mother, his family As a young child, Caligula accompanied his some argue that Caligula
war-hero father, Germanicus, around the
fell from grace during empire. He would often join his father as he had nothing to do with
Tiberius’ reign. His inspected troops, and even wore a miniature it, the opposition is much
mother and brothers centurion uniform, complete with little stronger. How could he
hobnail boots, or caligae. That was where
were all accused his infamous nickname came from.
not resist getting rid of the
of treason, dying in Affectionately bestowed by his father’s man who stood between
prison or exile. Caligula, soldiers, it meant something like him and total power of one
‘Little Boots’ or ‘Bootikins’.
meanwhile, was shielded of the greatest empires the
14-16 CE
by his grandmother until Mediterranean had ever seen?
the death of Sejanus, Tiberius’ Whatever happened, Caligula was
lethal right-hand man, in 31 CE. A now alone at the top.
year later, Caligula had got back in Rome’s At first, the people loved him. The
good books and moved in with the aging emperor. murderous Tiberius hadn’t exactly been popular,
He had even been named heir along with his and a new, youthful emperor was a welcome
cousin, Tiberius Gemellus, who was the emperor’s change. He abolished the detested treason trials,
natural grandson. recalled exiles and gave his Praetorian Guard –
It was here that Caligula was overindulged. essentially the emperor’s bodyguards – a nice
Living on the sunny island of Capri just off the bonus. He entertained the masses with gladiator
Bay of Naples, he got a taste for the excess that his matches and chariot races, rebuilt temples and
guardian enjoyed. The Roman historian Suetonius spent huge amounts of money on new buildings.
wrote of their sadistic fun, going as far as saying But then he took it a little too far when he
that “even in those days Caligula could not control requisitioned hundreds of merchant ships. Why?

20
 DEFINING
MOMENT
A new home
After years of being sheltered by his
grandmother during his family’s fall from
grace, Caligula made his home on the island of
Capri living with Emperor Tiberius. The ageing
tyrant ruled Rome remotely from the pleasure
palace of Villa Jovi (‘Villa of Jupiter’) in his
final years, where he was said to also have
indulged his most depraved vices,
from debauched sexual acts to
torturing his enemies.
31 CE
 ROMAN EMPERORS

To build a two-mile floating bridge across the Bay

of Naples, and then gallop back and forth on it on
his horse, of course. As a result, there were no boats
“Whatever happened during this period
left to transport grain into Rome, so the capital
allegedly suffered a food shortage. While some
of sickness, it was his actions from this
historians think there’s no way this can be true,
there is archaeological evidence of pleasure barges
point that would earn him his
built for Caligula. The boats were filled with marble
decor, statues and mosaics, but their remains were
reputation as a bloodthirsty madman”
unfortunately destroyed by fire during
World War II. Battle was a mainstay of Roman could only dream of – an ivory manger, a jewelled
Things only got worse. It was life, as each emperor would collar and even supposedly a house. Caligula was

DEFINING
easy for everyone to see that fight to attain glory, but certainly a man of excess, and Incitatus was said
Caligula was a bit unstable. it has been argued that to have been fed a mixture of rolled oats and gold
Within six months of MOMENT Caligula led meaningless flakes (which is probably untrue).
becoming emperor, he Off to a good start campaigns in Germany The legend goes that Caligula loved Incitatus
The first six months or so of Caligula’s
had suffered an illness just to say that he’d so much that he decided to make his equestrian
rule were a welcome change from Tiberius’ iron
that nearly took his life. fist. As well as commissioning building projects won conflicts. He also companion consul, an elected official just below the
Historians today are and hosting great games to entertain the people, continued the Roman emperor. It was the epitome of insanity, arguably
divided on the cause – the young emperor also offered amnesty policy of hostility and the main thing that comes to mind today when
for exiles and abolished the hated treason
it was perhaps epilepsy trials. Things were looking promising for intolerance towards you mention Caligula’s name – but it was probably
or maybe a breakdown – a flourishing Rome, but his almost the Jewish population a lie. This particular tale was put forward by Roman
but most are able to agree limitless power soon went to the in Judaea, and things author Cassius Dio, who, like Suetonius, was writing
24-year-old’s head.
on the outcome. Whatever got worse for them when years after the fact. Having said that, historian
37 CE
happened to him during this they refused to worship Aloys Winterling argued that if it did actually
period of sickness, it was his him as a living deity. Caligula happen, it was because Caligula was mocking his
actions from this point on that would reportedly ordered that a colossal Senate. In Caligula: A Biography, he puts forward
earn him his reputation as nothing short of statue of himself be put inside the Temple the idea that the emperor was emphasising that a
a bloodthirsty madman. of Jerusalem, but he was fortunately talked down consul’s job was so meaningless that even a horse
Like any other Roman leader of the early empire, from the idea. could do it.
he led his troops in battle, this time heading for the Just when you think the madness will finally Herein lies the problem with studying Caligula,
Rhine and as far north as the English Channel. But stop, when you’re sure that by now the powerful and many other Roman emperors: we can’t back
Caligula didn’t necessarily make them do real battle Roman Senate would have had enough of its up some of the sources we have, especially those
– according to Cassius Dio, he had the war trumpet problematic emperor, the troubles keep on coming. making salacious and outlandish claims. It also
sounded and then forced his soldiers to gather Perhaps the most famous story associated with doesn’t help that things like mental illness weren’t
shells in their helmets. Not even the Romans could the emperor regards his horse, Incitatus. That necessarily recognised in the ancient world, and
explain such bizarre behaviour. horse received things that many Roman citizens certainly not seen as they are today. It’s because of

The emperor Caligula, bottom right,

was said to deposits the ashes of
have had an his mother and brother
affair with his in the family tomb
sister Drusilla

22
 It’s perhaps Caligula’s horse that is
the most well known story about him

this that the argument of Caligula being mentally

ill is relatively recent, and with today’s mindset it’s
difficult to refute. After all, we can’t help but view
history through the lens of the time we’re living in.
But something that we know for a fact is that
Caligula was running out of money. Despite raising
taxes again (this time on things like weddings
and prostitutes), his treasury was being bled dry
by his extravagance and building projects, and
many people were starting to lose patience with
him. Plots and conspiracies popped up
all over Rome, but the one that was
successful was where no plot
should have come from – his
Praetorian Guard. The DEFINING
emperor’s own bodyguards MOMENT
were the men who were A brush with death
ultimately successful in Things had been going so well for the
getting rid of him. young emperor – and then he became
seriously ill. It’s hard to tell what ailed him,
On 24 January 41 CE, but it’s commonly thought that he had either
Caligula was heading an epileptic fit or a breakdown. Nonetheless,
to have a quick bath to Caligula’s attitude changed, and it began
Caligula’s famed pleasure
the downward spiral that would see barge imagined by an
help get over a hangover. him impose a reign of terror and 18th-century illustrator
Down a back alley in ultimately result in his own
the imperial compound brutal demise.
in Rome, he was ambushed c.38 CE relatives was invited to become with his horse. While parts of these tales must be
by a group of soldiers led by emperor – cowering behind a true (why else would he be murdered by those
Cassius Chaerea, a soldier who had curtain, it was Claudius who would paid to protect him?), we can never know how
born the brunt of a fair few of Caligula’s come to rule next. far Caligula actually went and how much he was
insults, and who had quite frankly had enough. He As we’ve seen, the way we view Caligula today guided by mental instability from his period of
was the first Roman emperor to be assassinated, has been undeniably shaped by historians who illness. But salacious rumours tend to stick much
© Alamy, Getty Images

and that alone must prove his inability to rule, or weren’t around during his lifetime. These tales have better than the little truth we do know, so he’ll
at least that his people were unable to put up with been immortalised in books, films and plays. If be no doubt be referred to – in the words of Mary
his maniacal tendencies any longer. One family you mention the emperor’s name today, it conjures Beard – as a “template of tyranny” for a long time
member who survived a quick purge of Caligula’s images of a madman with an unhealthy obsession to come.

23
 ROMAN EMPERORS

41-54CE
CLAUDIUS
Though the late Western Roman Empire treated Britain as an
afterthought, it was the source of some of its most troublesome
rebellions, stripping itself of its Romans until none were left
Written by Charlie Ginger

I
n the summer of 10 BCE, 26-year-old Antonia coincided with a reduction in his symptoms, which
Minor gave birth to a son in the city of seemed to fade with maturity. Yet while this should
Lungdunum in southern Gaul, a disabled boy have endeared him to his family, it is a cruel twist
seemingly destined for a life on the periphery who of irony that in seeking solace in the past, Claudius
would one day rise to greatness. His name was would embark on penning a history that would
Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, but everyone enrage his relatives even more than his disability
would come to know him as Claudius. ever could.
While being born into the Roman imperial family Cutting a little too close to the imperial bone,
was a luxury afforded to a fortunate few, young Claudius’ work on Rome’s civil wars is believed
Claudius did not enjoy an easy childhood. Afflicted to have been too honest, particularly on the
with several disabilities (including a limp, a speech subject of Augustus, then ruler of Rome. Yet
impediment and partial deafness), Claudius was while this saw him forced ever further away
viewed with barely vieled disdain by much of from high-profile public life, the common folk of
his family, and blatant disgust by his mother, Rome were conversely appreciative of Claudius,
who labelled him a monstrosity and mocked his a support that no doubt offered some comfort
apparent stupidity. Being the grandson of Augustus’ when his uncle, Tiberius, ignored his pleas for a
wife, Livia, and the nephew of Tiberius counted for public position after the passing of Augustus in
little in the eyes of those around him. 14 CE. Even so, no amount of plebeian affection

“No amount of plebeian affection could

convince the true powers in Rome to
invest any hope in Claudius”
Thankfully for young Claudius, his grandmother could convince the true powers in Rome to invest
offered some escape from his mother’s torments, any hope in Claudius, who retreated yet again into
although she was also a harsh figure who often a very private existence. He seemed set for a life
lambasted him for his supposed laziness. Yet if he that would escape the attentions of history. Then
could find little comfort in the bosom of his family, Caligula came to power.
Claudius was exceptionally fortunate when it came Appointed as his nephew’s co-consul in 37
to the appointment of his teacher, for he was to be CE, Claudius had finally achieved the imperial
schooled by none other than Livy. recognition he had always sought, even if it did
Valeria Messalina, Claudius’
In 17-year-old Claudius, Livy found a willing come at the cost of being routinely mistreated by scheming third wife, clutching their
pupil, for the future emperor was a keen reader Caligula. His prospects appeared to be improving son Britannicus, who would later be
‘removed’ by his stepbrother, Nero
and student of history. His prowess in this subject further still a year after this appointment, for in 38

24
 Emperor Claudius
depicted here preventing
the killing of his attackers
 Claudius’ father, Nero Claudius
The Praetorian Guard Drusus, is encouraged in his
raises a shaken Claudius conquest across the Rhine by
as their chosen ruler a prophetess

CE Claudius would marry his third wife, Valeria result of her familial ties with Augustus, Caligula While the identities of all of the conspirators are
Messalina (he had already been wed to Plautia and Nero), what is not in doubt is that Valeria was likely to remain lost, what is beyond doubt is that
Urgulanilla and Aelia Paetina, both of whom bore merciless in her efforts to have female members of a plot to assassinate Caligula had been hatched
him a child), the daughter of a consul and first Claudius’ family exiled, going so far as to convince by Cassius Chaera, head of the Praetorian Guard,
cousin to Nero. her husband to have one of his nieces executed for and a number of senators well before the chosen
Born in either 17 or 20 CE to Domitia Lepida the incest. Manipulated (some sources claim incredibly date of 24 January. On this fateful day, the plotters
Younger (herself the daughter of the extremely easily) at home by his wife (who by 41 CE had fell upon Caligula in the grounds of his palace,
successful general Lucius Ahenobarbus) and her given him a daughter in Claudia Octavia and a repeatedly stabbing him in front of onlookers.
husband, Marcus Barbatus, Messalina has been son named Britannicus), Claudius continued to be Caligula’s private guards swiftly retaliated by
described as a rapacious sexual deviant and a mocked publicly by Caligula. However, he was far scything down the murderers and several innocent
ruthless operator (no doubt some of which is the from being alone as the subject of the emperor’s nobles, driven by grief and anger. Chaos duly
exaggeration of her rivals). Yet while some of the wrath, an inherent cruelty that in 41 CE would ensued, during which Claudius was uncovered
tales of her excesses are no doubt false (perhaps a change the course of history. hiding behind a curtain inside the imperial palace,
and instantly declared emperor.
Despite being relieved to have been spared,

AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER

Claudius was in fact incredibly vulnerable due to
the nature of his rise to power – a fact that did not
Not content to rule as empress, Agrippina resorted to escape him. With the Senate refusing to accept
him as emperor for two days before eventually
lethal means to ensure her son would rule acquiescing, Claudius realised that he needed to
Great-granddaughter to Augustus and the younger win their approval. He decided that the mysterious
sibling of Caligula, Agrippina was born into a island of Britannia would provide him with the
prominent family, one that required she made an perfect opportunity.
appropriate marriage at the right age. To Tiberius, this Previously invaded by Julius Caesar in 55 and 54
was deemed to be at just 13, and she was duly wed
BCE, Britannia had largely escaped the attentions
to her cousin Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus in 28
CE, a man aged 44 at the time. It would prove to be of the Roman Empire ever since. In 43 CE Claudius
a crucial union, for nine years later young Agrippina determined to be the first emperor to conquer the
would give birth to a son: Nero. island, and duly dispatched four legions under
Despite later being implicated in a plot to murder the command of Aulus Plautius to gain a foothold
Caligula and the loss of her first husband, Agrippina across the Channel.
managed to continue her seemingly inexorable climb
Inevitably, the Romans were met with stiff
towards the summit of power. Her second husband,
Gaius Passienus, was an important figure who would
resistance in places, but it proved futile, and it
serve as consul twice, and then she married Claudius wasn’t long before Claudius arrived on the island as
on New Year’s Day in 49 CE. its conqueror atop an elephant, a stunt designed to
According to many critics of Claudius, Agrippina impress his obvious might upon his new subjects.
was the real power behind the throne, and she even By 47 CE, half of the inhabitants of Britannia fell
managed to convince the emperor to shun his own into this category.
son and nominate Nero as his heir instead. When
While the successful invasion and subjugation
Claudius died in 54 CE, Agrippina wasted no time in
securing power for Nero – if only she knew that this of Britannia rightfully stands as his greatest
Said to be beautiful, Agrippina was also ruthless – achievement, Claudius’ lesser-known triumphs
course of action would later be repaid by her only son a trait that eventually led to her bloody downfall
having her murdered. are equally worthy of mention, first among them

26
 CLAUDIUS

“What is beyond
doubt is that a
plot to assassinate
Caligula had been
hatched by
Cassius Chaera”
the other areas into which the Roman Empire
expanded during its first major spell of growth
since the rule of Augustus.
This period of enlargement saw Judaea, Thrace
(today divided between Greece, Turkey and
Bulgaria) and Lycia (now in Turkey) consumed,
among other territories, each placed under the
direct rule of Rome or completely annexed.
Claudius also oversaw the establishment of a
number of colonies that were then afforded the
prestigious privilege of Roman citizenship. This
had the double benefit of increasing the empire’s
population (which in 48 CE was recorded at just
below six million), as well as cementing Roman
holdings in far-flung regions that may otherwise
have erupted in rebellion.
Closer to home, Claudius paid special attention
to judicial and legislative matters, often presiding as
judge over cases, settling provincial disagreements
and creating new laws, one of which made the false The Roman invasion force
assumption of citizenship a crime punishable by splashes through the surf off
Kent in 43 CE. They wouldn’t
death. When he wasn’t busying himself with legal leave Britannia until 410
wranglings, he was often poring over plans for the
construction of new roads, canals and aqueducts, proved insatiable, the empress of Rome’s
with two of the latter built during his reign. drive left unsated despite her being
Domestic success proved consistently afforded titles such as Augusta. For
forthcoming for Claudius, including the devotion Agrippina, the ultimate goal was to
of the plebeians with whom he often supped. coerce Claudius into adopting her son,
However, his private life was a less straightforward something she achieved with guile.
affair, and in 48 CE it took a stunning downturn While his previous deference to
when Messalina unwisely chose to marry Gaius the whims of his wives suggest
Silius while her husband was away inspecting the that Claudius was yet again
construction of a harbour. being controlled by his spouse,

© Alamy, Getty, Creative Commons; Farnese Collection

While her exact motives remain unclear, the fact that he later began to
Messalina quickly became aware that she had renege on this agreement and
finally overreached herself. Such a wanton act of instead leaned towards naming
treason could not be tolerated, and despite her Britannicus as his heir implies
best efforts to placate an embarrassed Claudius, that Claudius was not as weak
Messalina was eventually tracked down to a garden as some sources claim. Even
in which she had sought to escape punishment, so, his change of heart would
and put to the sword by a royal guard. Fatefully for have fatal consequences, because
Claudius, he chose not to content himself with his Agrippina’s designs were not
three surviving children (his first child, Claudius about to be thwarted.
Drusus, choked on a pear at just four years old in On 13 October 54 CE Claudius
20 CE) and abstain from further marriage, instead died at the age of 63, allegedly as
opting to wed his final wife, Agrippina the Younger, a result of being served poisoned
who was also his niece, in 49 CE. mushrooms by Agrippina at a feast.
Said to have been a beautiful woman, Claudius’ Nero was swiftly hoisted upon the throne,
34-year-old bride was also fantastically ruthless. and in one fell swoop Agrippina ended a A bust of Emperor Claudius,
Having birthed a son in 37 CE (a boy who would successful 13-year reign to start another that a man regarded as astute by
some and gullible by others
become Emperor Nero), Agrippina’s ambition would be marked sadism and end in bloodshed.

27
 ROMAN EMPERORS

54-68 CE
NERO
He slaughtered Christians, murdered his loved ones and possibly
set Rome ablaze, but who was the real man behind the myth of
the monstrous Emperor Nero?
Written by Frances White

E
mperor Nero was going to die. The Senate When Nero was born on 15 December 37 CE, the Gnaeus was dead before Nero would even
had ordered his death, and the last remnant Julio-Claudian dynasty had been ruling the Roman remember him. Instead, it would be his mother
of control he had was to claim his death Empire for more than 50 years. This line, through who would play the most influential role in his life,
himself. Nero paced back and forth muttering the adoption, could be traced back to the famed and and Gnaeus was right to doubt the purity of his
same words over and over again: “What an artist celebrated Julius Caesar himself. Since his death, wife. Agrippina was a woman forged in fire – she
dies in me.” the man had taken on an almost god-like status, had lived to see her mother, Agrippina the Elder,
All his friends had abandoned him, and his own and those ‘descended’ from him were the only ones and two of her brothers arrested, exiled and starved
dark acts had led him to this moment, but still he deemed worthy to rule the nation he had forged. to death; she had been forced to marry a detestable
refused to acknowledge it. He wasn’t a ruthless Originally born as Lucius Domitius Ahenbarbus, man she loathed and she had been exiled by her
killer, he was just misunderstood – an artist. What some believe that Nero was doomed to his own brother, Caligula.
a pity for the world to lose such a remarkable artist. later barbaric nature due to his parentage. His It is no wonder that Agrippina had been forced
In the distance, he heard the rumble of hooves: father, Gnaeus, was known as a dangerous to turn herself into steel to survive; she was done
they were coming for his blood, but he would and violent man who had been charged with being passed around like a chess piece – she
not give it to them. They had called him greedy, treason, adultery and incest. It is said that when wanted control, and it started with marrying the
frivolous, self-indulgent, and now he would be he was congratulated on the birth of his son, he emperor Claudius. Agrippina was a sly woman, well
– his blood was his own, not the Senate’s or the proclaimed that anything born to him and his wife versed in the subtleties of the Roman court, and
usurper’s, and blood was all Nero had left. would be a “disaster”. by using her web of political alliances, she found

28
 ROMAN EMPERORS

herself married to Claudius – despite the fact he timing of the emperor’s demise, a natural death With the relationship souring, Nero purposely
was her uncle. seems an all-too-convenient explanation. began to act out. He had long loathed the political
Although Claudius had his own son, Britannicus, In 54 CE, before he could officially re-instate his marriage he had been forced into with Octavia and
he was still young in a society with high mortality own son as heir, Claudius passed away and the instead began an affair with a former slave. When
rates, so 13-year-old Nero was swiftly made his heir. position of emperor fell to Nero. It is unknown if his outraged mother found out and demanded he
Agrippina couldn’t be emperor herself; she was, Nero played a part in the poisoning, or even if he rid himself of her, Nero instead began living with
after all, a woman. But she could control it so that was privy to the details, but it is peculiar that from her as his wife. It was a very unsubtle message
her own son sat on the throne, and he was just an then on, Nero proclaimed mushrooms to be “the – Nero wasn’t a child anymore, and his mother
inexperienced youth who would easily bend to her food of the gods”. didn’t control him. Nero swiftly moved Agrippina
will. To further solidify her son’s position, she had To the public, Nero was a welcome change. In out of the palace, denied her the protection of the
him married to Octavia, Claudius’ daughter. fact, the early part of his reign was hailed as Praetorian Guard and banned her from the
However, it wasn’t long after this that Claudius a golden age. Nero was obsessed with gladiatorial contests.
began to waver; he seemed to regret marrying personal popularity – more than Agrippina, however, wasn’t one to go
Nero to his daughter and started to focus more anything, he wanted to be liked. In down quietly. Finally realising that
on his own son, preparing him for the imperial his early years he abolished capital she had completely lost grip on a son
throne. To regain control, Agrippina needed to act punishment, lowered taxes, gave who had inherited her own ruthless
quickly. Ancient sources state that she poisoned her more rights to slaves and gave aid ambition, she turned her attention
husband with a plate of mushrooms, while others to other cities. He loved the arts and elsewhere, to the one other person
suspect that Agrippina actually had nothing to do he put on lavish games, concerts, who could claim the throne and
with Claudius’ death. However, considering the chariot races and tournaments. To the Agrippina’s influence can reinstate her power – Britannicus. He
be seen from this coin
people, it seemed that he was genuinely that features her image was still a minor, but suddenly, in 55
interested in being a good ruler, but it alongside her son – a very CE, the day before he was due to be
rare occurrence
is likely he was still worried about the declared an adult, Claudius’ true son
ever-looming threat of Claudius’ true son claiming died while at a banquet. Agrippina had taught her
the throne. If the people liked him, then it was son two things: how to succeed, and how to kill –
less likely they would support his rival. To Nero, and now he was a master of both.
popularity meant power. In 58 CE, Nero finally decided he was finished
However, things at home were less than stable. with his loveless marriage and declared his wish
Nero was only 17 when he became emperor, to marry another – Poppaea Sabina. However,
making him the youngest ever to assume the his mother refused to stay quiet and she let her
throne up until that point. His ascension not only opposition to the divorce be heard clearly among
transformed him into an emperor, but also into a the Roman population, who also did not wish
man. While his mother’s scheming and influence Nero to divorce Octavia. Feeling his support
had been useful in the struggle for succession, now waning and finally pushed to breaking point, Nero
he was ruler he had his own ambitions, many of made a decision – it was time to rid himself of his
which did not involve her. Having a mother figure interfering mother once and for all.
so strong and domineering was plainly frustrating Nero’s decision to kill his mother was not a
to the ambitious young man, and, much to his sudden, rash one. It was thought out and planned
After failed attempts at mother’s annoyance, he began to rely more on the down to the last detail. At first he had experts
killing her, Nero had his guidance of his advisors. His advisors’ opinions craft a device that could be affixed to her ceiling
mother stabbed to death
were clear – Agrippina wasn’t to be trusted. and would then crush her in her sleep. When that

5 MOST MURDEROUS EMPERORS

The men who ruled Rome with fear, blood and death

5,750 9,500 9,000 12,000 3,000

NERO TIBERIUS CALIGULA COMMODUS SEVERUS

B.15 DEC 37 CE – D.9 JUN 68 CE B.16 NOV 42 BCE – D.16 MAR 37 CE B.31 AUG 12 CE – D.24 JAN 41 CE B.31 AUG 161 – D.31 DEC 192 B.11 APR 145 – D.4 FEB 211
13 OCT 54 CE – 9 JUN 68 CE 18 SEP 14 CE – 16 MAR 37 CE 18 MAR 37 CE – 24 JAN 41 CE 177 – 31 DEC 192 14 APR 193 – 4 FEB 211
Nero’s tyrannical reputation is Accounts of Tiberius’ murderous Death surrounded Caligula Rather than being a ruthless Severus claimed the throne
well earned – not only did he streak differ – some sources claim from an early age, with almost tyrant, Commodus is often through bloody means, deposing
direct his murderous intents only four innocents died under his entire family destroyed by painted as a figure of cowardice, the previous emperor and waging
towards innocent Christians, his reign. However, others paint Tiberius. Caligula was known to easily influenced by men with war on his rivals. Soon his cruelty
beginning a tradition of torture the picture of a ruthless emperor, have an insatiable lust for power. dark intentions. It was repeated became renowned and he earned
and persecution that would last killing anyone he suspected of Although we cannot verify them, attempts upon his life that himself the nickname ‘the Punic
hundreds of years, but he also plotting against him, leaving there are many outrageous pushed the emperor to kill for Sulla’ in reference to the infamous
killed those closest to him. heaps of dead bodies in his wake. stories of murder and tyranny. almost no reason at all. dictator Sulla.

30
 NERO

Seneca, Nero’s beloved tutor, was

caught up in the Pisonian conspiracy
and the emperor was forced to order
him to commit suicide

“The same man who had abolished Christians were

crucified and burned
after the Fire of Rome

capital punishment began executing

anyone who he suspected of
conspiring against him”
proved too complicated, he opted for a boat made kept secret: Nero had ordered her execution. Her
to sink. However, Agrippina escaped by swimming popularity was turning the public against him,
to shore. Finally, out of options, he returned to therefore she had to be eliminated. As the people
tradition and had her stabbed to death. wept, the emperor had her head sent to his new
Shortly after Agrippina’s murder, Nero began wife as a gift.
to change. Perhaps it was something to do with The people of Rome were not idiots, and the
murdering his own mother that haunted his mind. sudden death of Octavia and swift remarriage
Whether it was guilt or something animal within had made many people suspect Nero’s hidden
him being unleashed, the kind, fair ruler that the murderous ways. Accusations of treason against
people loved seemed to vanish almost overnight. the emperor began to emerge, but rather than heed
Nero had always been self-indulgent, but his this warning and lay low, he instead became more
hedonistic lifestyle became so over the top that vicious than ever.
it began to sicken the very people who had once The same man who had abolished capital
loved him. punishment began executing anyone who he
He spent an outrageous amount of money on suspected of conspiring against him. Eventually
himself and his artistic pursuits, and he began to this cull extended to people who said any bad word
give public performances, an action criticised as about him; one commander was even executed for
shameful by many ancient historians. He forbade making a negative comment at a party. It is said
anyone from leaving while he performed, and some that Nero was haunted by memories of his mother
likely inflated accounts write of women giving and wife, and the guilt transformed him into a In 64 CE, something even more devastating
birth in the arena and men flinging themselves off bloodthirsty animal, killing without moderation than Nero’s rage distracted the Roman public.
the high walls to escape the boredom. If Nero had or consideration. Although his murderous actions A great fire consumed the city, destroying three
simply been a hedonistic ruler, that would not have could be chalked up to rage and suspicion, it did districts, damaging seven and leaving thousands
been so terrible; he had always been lavish and mean one thing: Nero’s rivals were eliminated. of citizens homeless. Accidental fires were not
craved the people’s attention. Now he was cruel, Nero seemed to have decided that if he couldn’t uncommon at the time, but a rumour soon sprung
too. This cruelty was directed at the woman he have power by popularity, then he would have up that it was Nero himself who had started it in
likely viewed as the last thorn in his side – his wife. power by dominance. Over this period, he slowly order to clear space for his new luxury complex,
With nobody to oppose him, Nero divorced usurped authority from the Senate. Just ten years the Domus Aurea. Although it is impossible to
the nation’s darling, Octavia, and banished her after promising senators power equivalent to that confirm who ignited the fire, the fact that his
on grounds of infertility. This left him free to they had held under the republic, Nero had all but subjects all believed Nero capable of starting it to
marry Poppaea, by that point heavily pregnant. stripped them of their worth. To the emperor, this benefit himself is indicative of how far the beloved
Eventually Nero bowed to public protests and let meant more power for him, but the Senate was emperor had fallen. Nero was quick to shift the
Octavia return, but not for long. Officially her death also full of dangerous, ambitious men, and ignoring blame, pointing the fingers at Christians, and in
was deemed a suicide, but the truth was a badly them would later prove his downfall. doing so began years of torture and persecution.

31
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE DOMUS AUREA

Nero’s self-indulgence is no secret – the emperor Enlisting the help of the celebrated architect After Nero’s suicide just four years later, the lake
did not shrink at the idea of spending enormous Severus and the engineer Celer, Nero created a was drained and vast areas of the palace were torn
amounts on himself while his subjects suffered. pleasure palace unlike any seen before. The vast down by Vespasian, who also began constructing
After the great fire of 64 CE destroyed vast areas complex included landscaped gardens, a huge the Colosseum where the lake had stood. Baths
of land, Nero saw an opportunity to build the man-made lake and an imperial retreat with 150 were also later built on the land. It wasn’t until the
grandest palace the world had ever seen. Nero beautifully decorated rooms. Glimmering with Renaissance that interest surrounding the remains
seized this land, actually owned by several delicate gold leaf, semi-precious stones and ivory, was renewed – many famous painters explored the
aristocrats, and set about building his dream upon the project’s completion Nero proclaimed, ruins, marvelled at the beauty and were inspired
home: the Domus Aurea or ‘Golden House’. “Now I can begin to live like a human being.” in their own work.

Palace entrance
The courtyard that served as the
main gateway into the complex was
along the via Sacra. The entrance
featured a towering 30-metre-high
gilt-bronze statue of Nero himself,
also known as the Colossus Neronis.

Banquet rooms
Despite there being no evidence Baths
of a kitchen on site, there were A staple in Roman life, Nero had a luscious bath
countless banquet rooms. In the house built on the grounds. The bath featured
West Wing alone, one rectangular running cold and hot water, and water was a main
courtyard was surrounded by at feature throughout the complex – with waterfalls
least 50 banquet rooms. running down the walls, ornamental fountains
and pools built into the floors.

East Wing
Our knowledge of the
East Wing is limited, as
the West Wing is the
best preserved part of
the building. However,
it is likely it matched the
splendour of its twin, with
sitting-rooms, sun courts, Gardens
fountains and intricately The palace was surrounded by a
painted frescoes. The two luscious landscaped garden covering
wings were joined by a 50 hectares. The gardens included
large colonnade, which ploughed fields, vineyards, pastures
may have extended over and woodlands. It is also recorded
two levels. that domestic and wild animals
roamed freely in the gardens.

The room of the Golden Vault

The Golden Vault was in the West Wing and
featured a huge gilded ceiling and marble
panelling. The main attraction, however, was a
towering painting of Zeus abducting Ganymede.
These beautiful and innovative frescoes were
featured throughout the entire Golden House and
would go on to inspire artists such as Raphael.

32
 NERO

Across Rome, Christians were arrested, devoured Anxious and panic stricken, he sent hasty messages
by dogs, crucified and burned. There are even to his friends’ chambers, but no replies came. Even
accounts of Nero using oil-soaked Christians as they had forsaken him. Nero had lost everything –
torches in his gardens. his safety, his throne and his cherished popularity.
The public had been right about one thing: Nero He called for anyone adept with a sword to come
did want to build his huge villa, and the newly and end his life, but nobody appeared, and his cries
cleared land made the perfect spot. However, after echoed in his empty palace: “Have I neither friend
excessively spending on his own artistic pursuits, nor foe?”
the emperor was running low on funds. In order The emperor managed to escape to a villa
to pay for his ambitious building project, he sold six kilometres outside the city with four loyal
senior positions in public office to the highest freedmen, where he ordered them to dig a grave
bidders, raised taxes and took money from temples. for him. Before it was finished, a message arrived
Nero’s frivolous spending had caused the currency – Nero had been declared a public enemy and the
to devalue for the first time in the empire’s history, Senate was to execute him by beating. It is unlikely
and to try to rebuild his funds, he reinstated a that this would have occurred; there was, after all,
policy that allowed him to confiscate property from still some devotion to the Julio-Claudian family,
those suspected of treason. of which Nero was the last in line. If there was no

THE
For many people, this was the final straw. In 65 loyalty to Nero, the bloodline at least would give
CE, a plot was hatched to assassinate Nero and him a chance of survival.

COLOSSUS place Piso, an aristocrat, in his place. However,

the plot was discovered before it could be carried
Nero, however, did not see this. He had been
abandoned by everyone, he had lost everything,
OF NERO out. Many of the men
involved were Nero’s
and he was convinced
his life was next. First
When Nero was building his Domus Aurea, 25 ROMAN EMPERORS’
he decided its crowning glory would be a previous advisers and he begged one of his
close friends, but Nero 20
CAUSES OF DEATH companions to kill him,
huge, imposing bronze statue of himself.
14-395 CE an act they refused
Designed by the Greek architect Zenodorus, showed no restraint
this mammoth work of art took four years 15
in having them all to comply with, and
to construct. Sources differ on the statue’s executed. Killing his then, upon hearing the
10
true height, but we can presume it was at
enemies had worked horsemen approaching,
least 30 metres tall. 5
After Nero’s death, with public opinion very well for Nero so far, he had no option but
of the emperor at an all time low, the statue but that was when he 0 to take his own life.
ASSASSINATED

ASSASSINATED
NATURAL

BATTLE
POSSIBLY

SUICIDE

EXECUTED

CAPTIVITY

UNKNOWN
was moved next to the Colosseum and only had a few rivals. Even here he failed;
Nero’s face was replaced with that of the Now almost all of Rome consumed by fear, he
sun god. Emperor Commodus later altered it hated him, and he forced his secretary to
to his own face until, after his death, it was
couldn’t kill everyone. do the deed for him.
changed back. Today nothing remains of
this sculpture except for its foundations.
Three years later, Nero still lived as the
Gaius Julius Vindex, a governor, publicly rebelled horsemen entered, and he survived long enough
against Nero’s harsh tax policies. He was swiftly to utter his last words as the men struggled to stop
joined by another governor, Servius Sulpicius Galba. the bleeding: “Too late! This is fidelity!” On 9 June
Entertainment Although Gaius’ forces were squashed and Gaius 68 CE, on the anniversary of Octavia’s death, the
rooms executed, Galba still lived, and as the main living last in the Julio-Claudian line was dead.
The palace was not for
living, but for entertaining. force against Nero, he quickly gained support. Nero By the time he reached Rome, Galba had already
This can be deduced by declared him a public enemy, but this seemed only been proclaimed emperor. As favoured as he was,
the fact that there were no to increase his follower numbers. Even the prefect Galba’s reign would not be a peaceful one and he
sleeping quarters, kitchens
or latrines in a complex of Nero’s Praetorian Guard abandoned him and would be dead within a year. Nero had not been a
comprising more than 300 declared his allegiance to Galba. Many men who good emperor, but with his ancient line dried up,
rooms. Some of the party had likely been too scared to act alone saw this as chaos claimed the city and war waged.
rooms even showered
guests in flower petals and
their chance to finally raise their voices against the Nero’s legacy, however, would live on. To
perfume as they entered. emperor and his greedy, ruthless ways, and Galba’s Christians he became a figure so rooted in pain and
support grew and grew. anguish that he took on the form of the Antichrist.
Nero was self-indulgent and tyrannical, but A rumour began that Nero had not died at all and
he wasn’t stupid. He knew it was time to run. instead would return. This became a legend almost
He decided to flee east to the provinces that Christ-like in its retelling, surviving hundreds of
were still loyal to him. However, even his own years after his death, even into the 5th century, and
© Alamy, Getty Images, Joe Cummings, National Geographic

officers refused to help him, quoting a line from at least three imposters proclaiming to be Nero led
Vergil’s Aeneid: “Is it so dreadful a thing then to rebellions in his name.
die?” Escape was too good for Nero. Disgrace was Because of these things and the influence
too kind to the man who had slaughtered and they had on historians, it is almost impossible to
Octagonal room destroyed the lives of his people. Death was what distinguish who Nero really was. Today he has
The Octagonal Room possessed a large concrete
the people, and his own men, craved. taken on a super-villain status that increases with
dome covered with a glass mosaic. It is said that
this revolved incessantly, day and night. Recent Nero had no option but to return home to his every retelling of his life. The real man behind
excavations have suggested that water or slaves palace, his last place of sanctuary. However, he the myth may be dead forever, but the spectre of
may have been used to power this rotation, which struggled to sleep, and when he awoke, he found Emperor Nero, and the pain he brought his people,
followed the movement of the Sun.
that the palace guard had also abandoned him. flourishes to this day.

33
 YEAR OF THE 68-69 CE

FOUR EMPERORS
DID
YOU KNOW?
The year-long civil war was
further complicated by an
imposter who claimed to be
the still-living Nero, but his
attempt to regain the
throne was quickly
defeated

O 9 June 68 CE O 15 January 69 CE O Early 69 CE O 16 April 69 CE

Nero orders his secretary to kill him, Galba is hacked down by soldiers of the Vitellius is proclaimed emperor by his Otho chooses to commit suicide after
bringing to an end the 95-year rule of Praetorian Guard who had turned against armies at Cologne, probably before defeat in battle by Vitellius, despite being
the Julio-Claudian dynasty. him and backed Otho instead. news of Otho’s coup reaches them. urged to carry on by his officers.

34
 T
he suicide of Nero in 68 CE may have brought an
end to one of the most infamous imperial reigns
in history, but it also resulting in the collapse
of the rule of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. With no male
member of the family left who could claim to be an heir to
Julius Caesar and Augustus, Rome was faced with a power
vacuum and the army imploded as its generals led a series
of coups and counter-coups.
The first to make a move was Galba, a wealthy noble who
was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. He marched on
Rome upon hearing of Nero’s suicide and was acclaimed
emperor, but demonstrated a level of paranoia that rivalled
his predecessor. Galba’s supporters quickly deserted him
as he summarily executed opponents and undid the few
popular reforms enacted by Nero.
After only seven months, Galba was killed by soldiers
of the Praetorian Guard, who hailed another provincial
governor as his replacement. However, Otho – the governor
of Lusitania and a former ally of Galba – managed only
three months in charge until he was in turn defeated by
Vitellius, commander of the army in Germania Inferior, who
had marched on Rome from the north.
Vitellius became the third emperor in ten months,
but the armies in the east had proclaimed yet another

© Creative Commons: Irton33, Louisonze, Marie-Lan Nguyen, Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com,
candidate for the imperial title. Their choice was Vespasian,
a renowned military commander who had seen action
during the invasion of Britain and been sent to Judaea to
quash a Jewish revolt.
Legions supporting Vespasian entered Italy and defeated
Vitellius, who was killed and thrown in the Tiber. Although
he faced further rebellions and threats to his position,
Vespasian secured his grip on power – the last emperor
standing in a short-lived but vicious civil war.

WHO WAS INVOLVED?

Wolfgang Sauber, shakko, Arnaud Gaillard

GALBA
3 BCE – 69 CE
The assisted suicide of
At the age of 71, Galba was the oldest
Nero triggered the Year emperor to date and lacked the energy to
of the Four Emperors as
he hadn’t named an heir maintain power.

OTHO
32-69 CE
Otho turned against his former ally Galba
after he was passed over as the emperor’s
chosen successor.

VITELLIUS
15-69 CE
Vitellius tried to resign as emperor when
faced with Vespasian’s rebellion but was
prevented by the Praetorian Guard.

VESPASIAN
O 24 October 69 CE O Summer 70 CE 9-79 CE
Vespasian’s allies win the Second Battle Vespasian finally reaches Rome, having Vespasian came from an undistinguished
of Bedriacum, opening the way for them subdued a revolt in Egypt while his allies
to enter Rome and depose Vitellius. secured the imperial throne for him. family but rose through the ranks on the
back of a successful military career.

35
 Under Vespasian and his sons,
the Roman Empire entered a new
golden age after years of instability
 THE FLAVIANS

THE
FLAVIANS
Inside the dynasty whose time on the throne may have been
short, but ended the 1st century with a bang
Written by Scott Reeves

T
he Flavian dynasty was short-lived, lasting was surprisingly tranquil. Only one major rebellion
only 27 years across the reigns of three occurred, led by an officer in Gaul and Germania
emperors. It was born in civil war, ended who claimed to be the great-grandson of Julius
in assassination and was witness to fire, eruption Caesar. The revolt was put down within a year
and plague. Yet, despite the many problems they by Vespasian’s brother-in-law, Quintus Petillius
had to overcome, the Flavians successfully quelled Cerialis, while Vespasian’s son Titus continued the
the chaos of the later Julio-Claudian years and laid suppression of the Judean revolt, bringing to an end
a solid foundation that would allow the Roman the campaign that Vespasian was fighting upon
Empire to survive for another 200 years. being acclaimed emperor.
Vespasian’s priority upon taking power was Aware that territorial expansion was the best way
to consolidate support and retain the throne for to ensure the empire remained affluent, Vespasian
more than a few months – something his three ordered Gnaeus Julius Agricola to Britannia
immediate predecessors had failed to do. The with orders to push back the northern frontier.
emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty could claim Vespasian’s interest in the distant island province
legitimacy through their familial and adoptive links came from past experience – more than three
to Julius Caesar and Augustus, but Vespasian was decades before he had taken part in the invasion
merely the general who had outlasted the other of Britain at the head of Legio II Augusta, subduing

“One rebellion occurred, led by an officer

in Gaul and Germania who claimed to
be the great-grandson of Julius Caesar”
contenders in the Year of the Four Emperors that and conquering most of the southwest and setting
followed Nero’s death. up his headquarters at Exeter.
In Rome, the new emperor quickly sidelined Vespasian spent the spoils of war seized in
his opponents by restructuring the ranks of the Britannia and Judaea on a number of building
senatorial and equestrian classes, promoting projects in Rome designed to increase his
those he could trust. Soldiers who fought on the popularity. He expanded the Temple of Peace and
side of his predecessor Vitellius were dismissed, Temple of Claudius and erected a large statue to
replaced by Vespasian’s loyal legionaries. Vespasian Apollo, grand monuments that gave an impression
constantly reminded the public of his military his rule was blessed by the gods, but Vespasian
victories in an attempt to bolster his popularity, also catered to his people’s base needs. Aware that
rewarding those who wrote about his campaigns. an entertained Roman population was less likely In this 1885 painting, Vespasian
is followed in a triumphal
Considering the upheaval of the civil war, to complain about his rule, Vespasian quickly procession by Titus and Domitian,
the sons who would succeed him
Vespasian’s transformation from general to emperor dismissed Nero’s plans for the construction of a

37
 ROMAN EMPERORS

FASTER, HIGHER,
private imperial retreat next to the Forum and
instead ordered the building of a vast amphitheatre
to hold public games. However, the emperor died
as the structure reached the third story, famously
STRONGER, DEADER
declaring “I think I’m becoming a god” when the Grab your ticket for the inaugural games at the
end was nigh.
Instead, the opening of the Colosseum – the
Flavian Amphitheatre
Flavian dynasty’s most famous The opening of the Colosseum followed the standard The Colosseum, or
legacy – occurred during format of Roman games: animal entertainments in Flavian Amphitheatre,
the morning, the execution of criminals at midday began life as a gigantic
the short reign of triumphal monument
and gladiator fights and battle re-enactments in
Vespasian’s son Titus. the afternoon. Where the Flavian games differed,
It was the first time however, was in their scale. Up to 9,000 animals
the imperial title were killed over the 100-day celebration; an elephant
had passed from that won a battle with a bull reputedly bowed to the
a father to his emperor. The most famous fight was that between
son rather than two gladiators, Verus and Priscus, whose long fight
to exhaustion saw them both granted freedom by
to an extended
the emperor.
or adopted family
member. Vespasian
had deliberately but it appeared there was little to celebrate. On 24 largely ceremonial. However, he was acclaimed
groomed his son for the October 79 CE, only four months after Vespasian’s emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after his
succession, hoping death, Mount Vesuvius erupted, destroying the brother’s death and quickly established himself as a
that he would be cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum and killing shrewd political operator.
the next ruler from thousands of people. Titus was quick to respond, Unlike every previous emperor dating back to
a long and mighty sending two former consuls to coordinate the relief Augustus, Domitian made little attempt to disguise
dynasty. Titus effort and personally visiting the area twice. the reality of imperial power. He sidelined the
had already been While the emperor was absent from the capital Senate, removing most of its decision-making
awarded a triumph on his second visit to the eruption zone in 80 CE, powers and executing at least 20 senators over
for conquering a second disaster struck – a fire broke out in Rome, his 15-year reign. By dispensing with the long-
Jerusalem destroying many notable buildings including the standing façade that Rome was a republic and
and ending the Pantheon, Temple of Jupiter, Theatre of Pompey overtly moving power to the imperial court and
Judaean revolt. He and Saepta Julia. Then, as the ravaged city his own appointees, Domitian made it possible for
also commanded the recovered, plague tore through its streets. As in the the emperor to personally supervise every aspect
Praetorian Guard case of the volcanic eruption, Titus paid money of government. He issued edicts and oversaw
and was appointed from the imperial treasury to help recover and an efficient and effective imperial bureaucracy.
consul seven times rebuild after the natural disasters. Domitian’s actions inevitably won him many
during Vespasian’s A final tragedy struck the empire shortly after enemies among Rome’s political classes, but he
ten-year reign. the inaugural games at the Colosseum, when Titus ensured his popularity with the masses through
Titus may have contracted a fever and died. He had been emperor congiaria (huge donations of grain made to the
been emperor for just over two years, a reign marked by both population of Rome) and by funding the Capitoline
during the massive catastrophe and celebration, and was succeeded Games in a purpose-built stadium located in the
Under the Flavians – top to games built to by his younger brother, Domitian. As a second son, Campus Martius.
bottom, Vespasian, Titus
and Domitian – the economy mark the opening Domitian was less prepared to take power since With greater political power at his disposal,
stabilised and thrived of the Colosseum, the positions he held during his father’s reign were Domitian enacted a series of economic reforms.

O The Flavians take power O Triumph of Vespasian and Titus O Work begins on the Colosseum O Vesuvius erupts
Vespasian finally enters Rome, months Father and son are honoured by the The first foundations are dug for the A volcanic eruption begins the reign of
after being acclaimed emperor and people of Rome for their parts in Colosseum, the amphitheatre that Titus in disastrous fashion, although the
defeating Vitellius in battle. conquering Jerusalem and quashing the would come to symbolise the Flavian emperor is commended for his role in the
70 CE Judaean revolt. dynasty at its peak. relief effort.
71 CE 72 CE 79 CE

38
 THE FLAVIANS

Vespasian and Titus had already increased imperial to deal with the Senate. The senators, for their assassination may suggest. While he was a tyrant,
income through taxation – including a urine tax part, reacted to the assassination by passing an like his father and brother he was an efficient and
levied on public toilets – but Domitian set up a act of damnatio memoriae: Domitian’s reign was effective ruler of an ever-growing empire. The
rigorous tax collection system. He ensured that the condemned to oblivion by erasing his name from Flavian dynasty came to power at a time when
treasury remained full and the economy balanced public records, coins bearing his likeness were the future of the empire itself was teetering on
despite a building programme that rivalled that removed from circulation, statues and monuments the edge of collapse after Julio-Claudian misrule
of Augustus. Fire damage at the Temple of Jupiter to him were torn down. It was a post-mortem insult and civil war. Despite facing natural disasters,
was repaired, while another level was added to the to the emperor whose heavy-handed wielding of Vespasian, Titus and Domitian all managed to
Colosseum. A palace was built on the Palantine Hill, imperial power had marginalised them. stabilise the empire and they led it into a long
while the Temple of Vespasian and Titus was built Domitian’s reign may have ended at the point of period of renaissance and prosperity under their
and dedicated to Domitian’s now-deified father and a dagger, but he was far more successful than his successors, the Nerva-Antonines.
brother. A sign of Domitian’s thriving economy
was his revaluation of Roman coinage, which had
been steadily devalued over the past decades.
Domitian initially revalued it back to the level
WHAT HAPPENED NEXT?
under Augustus, then amended it to the pre-civil The end of the Flavians saw the birth of a new dynasty
war value under Nero. After Domitian’s murder, there was no gap between he took the imperial throne, and he never got better.
Where Domitian did not live up to the high emperors – Nerva seemed ready to swoop in and His adoption of Trajan would spark new life in the Pax
standard set by his father and brother was in the save the day. Was he privy to the plot to assassinate Romana, a period of stability in the Roman Empire,
military sphere. Although he claimed successes Domitian? Most likely. The Senate didn’t bat an and it would be just under a century before another
in Germania and Dacia early in his reign, both eyelid as he took power, and it was the beginning of tyrant would plunge Rome into civil war once more.
provinces would continue to pose a problem – the happier times.

© Getty, Diliff , Jean-Pol Grandmont, Jimmy Walker, Livioandronico2013, Sailko, Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com)
Even though Nerva only ruled for two years, he
governor of Germania Superior would rebel in 89
is generally viewed as the first of the Five Good
CE, while a standard of the Praetorian Guard was Emperors. The Senate gave him honorific of pater
captured in Dacia in 86 CE. Agricola was recalled patriae, or father of the country, and statues of
from the governorship of Britannia in 85 CE, Domitian were destroyed. It was the end of his
possibly because his victories outshone those of tyranny and the beginning of a new government.
his emperor. But not everyone was on board. The army and
the Praetorian Guard had been happy with the old
On 18 September 96 CE, Domitian was
regime, and Domitian had given them a nice pay
approached at his desk by a servant named rise - the first since Augustus’ reign. In 97 CE, the
Stephanus, who had worn a bandage on his Praetorian Guard staged a mutiny and Nerva was
arm for several days due to a supposed injury. imprisoned in the imperial palace. While he was
Suddenly pulling a dagger from the bandage, unharmed, not having the support of the army
Stephanus lurched forwards and stabbed Domitian wasn’t great for the leader of a state that was known
for its military prowess. Fearing for his life and with
in the groin. The emperor fought back, fatally
no heirs of his own, Nerva adopted the governor of
wounding his assailant with the same dagger, but Upper Germany, the man who would become Trajan,
he eventually succumbed to further injuries when as his heir.
three or four further attackers joined in to finish While Nerva only ruled for about 16 months, he
the murder. is remembered for stabilising the empire after the
Whether the assassination was organised or tumultuous reign of Domitian. He also managed to fit
improvised is unclear, but it the plot probably arose a fair few building projects into that time, repairing
the Colosseum, roads and aqueducts, and allotting Nerva would begin
from Domitian’s sidelined enemies in the Senate. the reign of the Five
more land to the poor. When he died, it wasn’t
He was replaced by a little-known politician named Good Emperors
because of assassination – Nerva had been ill when
Nerva who would presumably be more willing

O Flavian Games O A rival is sidelined O Temple of Vespasian and Titus O The dynasty is dead
Titus finally has something to celebrate Agricola is recalled from his successful Domitian honours the memory of his The assassination of
with the opening of the Colosseum, but campaign in Britannia and enters a quiet deified father and brother when a temple Domitian ends the
he is dead within weeks. retirement, possibly at the request of dedicated to them is completed. Flavian dynasty after
81 CE Domitian himself. 87 CE 27 eventful years.
85 CE 96 CE
 2 ND
CENTURY
As the Pax Romana comes to a close, uncover the Five
Good Emperors and the man who ended the peace

42 TRAJAN

44 HADRIAN 46 ANTONINUS PIUS

40
48 MARCUS AURELIUS

54 COMMODUS 58 YEAR OF THE FIVE EMPERORS

41
42
 TRAJAN
98-117 CE
It was under the watchful eye of Emperor Trajan that the
Roman Empire reached the largest it would ever be. The
borders grew and grew, with the realm now stretching from
Scotland to modern-day Iraq, and the bounties brought
back funded a new forum in Rome, pictured here, as well
as Trajan’s Column, which memorialises the victory in
the Dacian Campaign. The second of Rome’s Five Good
Emperors, he was the first of the empire’s leaders to be born
outside of the Italian peninsula and he has been described by
the Roman historian Cassius Dio as “most conspicuous for his
justice, for his bravery, and for the simplicity of his habits” –
a glowing comment if ever there was one.

© Getty Images

43
ROMAN EMPERORS

117-138 CE
HADRIAN
Meet the emperor who turned the Roman Empire
from conquest to consolidation
Written by Scott Reeves

W
hen the death of his father left ten- Hadrian’s public service saw him serve in the army Hadrian was supervising a distinct shift in
year-old Publius Aelius Hadrianus and hold a number of political offices. Roman foreign policy. No more was the empire
an orphan, it was the beginning of a When Trajan succumbed to illness in August 117, to be one of conquest; instead it was to be one of
remarkable series of fortuitous events that would the now-41-year-old Hadrian was told that he had cosmopolitan assimilation. Trajan’s expansionist
end in the boy reaching the highest rank in Ancient been adopted by the emperor on his deathbed and ambitions in Mesopotamia were abandoned, with
Rome. Young Hadrian was named a ward of his named as his heir. Doubts of his legitimacy arose Hadrian choosing to secure the borders of the
father’s cousin, a rising army officer named Trajan. almost immediately: the adoption document was empire instead. Aside from Hadrian’s Wall, he built
Just over a decade later, as Hadrian was beginning signed by Trajan’s wife rather than the emperor fortifications along the Rhine and Danube.
his own career, Trajan was named the successor himself; the servant who had stayed at Trajan’s Compared with his predecessors, Hadrian’s reign
of Emperor Nerva and over the next 20 years, side during his final hours had conveniently died was remarkably peaceful, with only the Bar Kokhba
soon after his master; and four leading senators and Revolt in Judaea giving military officers a chance to
potential rivals were summarily executed by the test themselves in action. Instead, Hadrian looked
Praetorian Guard. to improve the existing provinces he had inherited.

“Hadrian’s 21-year reign saw near-

incessant travelling throughout
the empire”
Hadrian was absent from Rome during the Rather than imposing colonies of Roman citizens
machinations that resulted in his succession. He on far-flung territories, Hadrian ordered the creation
returned from the east to claim the crown, but of semi-autonomous provincial towns governed by
he did not stay long. Unlike previous emperors, the locals. In Rome itself, he rebuilt the Pantheon
who tended to live in the capital unless leading and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma,
a military campaign, Hadrian’s 21-year reign saw the largest temple in the capital. He may have
near-incessant travelling throughout the empire. ordered the repair of war damage in the wealthy
His first major expedition saw him survey Serapeum of Alexandria, and constructed a number
the distant province of Britannia and order the of opulent temples and buildings in Athens.
building of the wall that bears his name. Over the Hadrian’s relationship with the Senate was
next four years he undertook similar trips to what testy, stemming from the suspicious nature of his
have now become France, Spain, Algeria and succession, and he had two more senators executed
Turkey. He would return to Greece and the for an alleged plot in 137. However, when he died the
troublesome eastern frontier time and following year, Hadrian’s chosen heir – Antoninus
again, eventually visiting almost every Pius – inherited a largely stable empire that Hadrian
province during had transformed from one of aggressive expansion
his reign. into one of peaceful consolidation.
Hadrian is perhaps most
remembered for his wall that marked
the northernmost border of the
empire. Parts of it still stand today

© Creative Commons; anGavinoEN, Entoaggie09 at English Wikipedia, Livioandronico2013,

Among Hadrian’s building projects

THE GAY
was his personal villa, a countryside
retreat just outside Rome

EMPEROR
The love of Hadrian’s life was not his childless wife
but a Greek boy called Antinous. They first met
when Hadrian was around 48 and Antinous was
just 12. Pederasty – a sexual relationship between
a man and a boy – was a common practice in
Greece, but less recognised in Rome.
Antinous joined Hadrian on his journeys
through the empire but drowned in an Egyptian
river at the age of 18, possibly an accident,
possibly a deliberate act of suicide or murder. The
devastated emperor immediately declared that his
young companion had become a god and spent
the rest if his life mourning his loss.

The emperor and his lover captured Despite becoming emperor at 41,
in marble at the British Museum Hadrian’s 21-year reign was the
fourth-longest of the Principate

45
46
 ANTONINUS PIUS
138-161 CE
Antoninus (depicted in the centre) wasn’t born with the name
‘Pius’ – that was added during his time at the helm of one of
the world’s greatest empires. The consul-turned-emperor was
insistent that his predecessor be given the divine honours
that were due to him, and when his wife Faustina died, he
founded a charity in her name – the Puellae Faustinianae – for
the daughters of the poor. Militarily, Antoninus Pius’ reign was
an odd time for the always-battle-ready Romans as not much
happened. A rebellion was quashed in Britannia and the
Antonine Wall was built 100 miles north of Hadrian’s Wall to
extend the Roman boundary, but the peace would end soon
after Antoninus’ death.
© Getty Images

47
 ROMAN EMPERORS

161-180 CE
MARCUS
AURELIUS
It’s time to re-examine the legacy that the last
of the Five Good Emperors has left behind
Written by Katharine Marsh

W
ar raged on the Danube in the on the upmarket Caelian Hill in Rome, the world
170s CE. On one side were the was at his feet.
Celtic tribes, who had launched a Educating children in Ancient Rome was about
threatening invasion over the river and into Roman giving them the best start in life – especially the
territory. On the other side were the fearsome boys – and so Domitia Lucilla made sure to provide
Roman legions, an imposing force with their that for her son. It was usually down to the lady of
military discipline and ruthless training. At their house to organise her sons’ educations, and with
head was one of the co-emperors, Marcus Aurelius, Marcus’ father dying when he was a young boy,
the man who brought them to the cusp of victory the burden rested on Lucilla’s shoulders, although
before his death. But when he wasn’t leading his Marcus’ grandfather did help. A tutor was found for
troops, he had time to kill in Germany. Greek lessons, and another for elocution. A third
It’s at this time, when Marcus was leading his would be in charge of his moral welfare and general
troops in the Marcomannic Wars in 166-180 CE development as he grew into his teens. It was a
that it’s thought he wrote Meditations, the work classic education, and it was clear that Marcus was
he has since become famous for. When people being primed for one thing: his rise through Rome’s
think of the emperor now, they don’t remember political hierarchy.
his time at war. They don’t recall his leadership In his teens, more teachers came. One taught
of his nation through drought and plague. geometry, another music. But it was the art teacher
Everyone knows Marcus as the philosopher-king, who found something within the young Marcus;
the Stoic who became the last of the so-called Diognetus introduced him to philosophy, and it
Five Good Emperors before, in Edward Gibbon’s was something that Marcus would never forget.
eyes, Commodus took over and precipitated the “From Diognetus… [I learned] to have an affinity
empire’s downfall. After almost 2,000 years, it’s the for philosophy,” he would write in his Meditations.
philosophy we remember. But is it fair to shoehorn Diognetus would be the sixth mentioned out of
such a complex character into such a small box? 17 people who had an impact on his life – not bad
To answer the question, it’s important to go going for a secondary school teacher.
back to Marcus’ youth. Like many an emperor When he was 12, Marcus did what many 12-year-
before him, he wasn’t born in the purple – that is, olds do: he declared what he wanted to be when he
he wasn’t born to an emperor. No one knew that was older. His dream was to be a philosopher, and
one day he would rule one of antiquity’s greatest he began to dress like one. He slept in a Greek cloak
empires. However, having said that, his upbringing on the ground until his mother begged him not to.
was certainly upper class; brought up in a mansion His heart was set on this new direction.

48
© Jean-Michel Girard/The Art Agency
 ROMAN EMPERORS

So philosophy would always be Marcus’ first afoot. The rivalry between Parthia and Rome had headed home for his triumph – but he should have
love but, as it would transpire, he was going to finally reached boiling point, and King Vologases stayed away.
rule some day. At the age of just 17, his life would IV decided to invade Syria, managing to overthrow As the legions spread back through the empire,
change forever when he found out that he would its governor. The time had finally come to sort the they brought something with them that was more
be emperor. It would take 20 years until he finally Parthians out. deadly than their weapons. Seeping into every city
donned the purple toga, and during that time Out of Rome’s two co-emperors, Marcus was and settlement was a vicious plague. The disease
it was a battle between politics and philosophy. definitely considered to be the senior of the pair swept across the empire and down the Italian
Marcus would become consul three times and from the start, and it was he who noticed that the peninsula, killing 5 million Romans before it died
he was forced to move to the imperial palace. He presence of an emperor was needed on the eastern out itself 15 years later. It was clear to all that the
wasn’t too fond of his new abode, as he makes border. But it wouldn’t be Marcus who would go – mighty Roman Empire was weakened, and it
clear in Meditations: “Let nobody any more hear you he would send Lucius wouldn’t take long before
blaming palace life: don’t hear yourself blaming it.” to sort out the problem, outsiders realised that
Up, up, up the cursus honorum (course of
offices) he’d gone, until the fateful day arrived in
while he stayed in
Rome to consolidate
“In a rare this was their chance to
invade.
161. Antoninus Pius was dead. He’d gone relatively
peacefully, but now the burden of the Roman
their rule. But despite
the fact that he didn’t
occurrence with the To the north were
Germanic tribes, but they
Empire lay on the shoulders of Marcus and his
adoptive brother, Lucius Verus. Hobbies and
travel there himself,
Marcus knew exactly
Roman rulership, weren’t considered too
much of a threat. Having
interests had to be put to one side because they
were in for a bumpy ride.
what needed to be sent,
dispatching three of the
we have a chance signed a peace treaty with
the Romans, they were
Duty came before anything else. As Marcus was
bestowed the standard imperial titles of Augustus
top legions that were
currently on the Rhine
to see directly into expected to stay on their
side of the Danube, but
and Pontifex Maximus, he accepted them with a
heavy heart. Gone was his
and the Danube, as well
as part of the Praetorian
an emperor’s mind” with unrest and rioting
among the tribes, they
freedom. Almost Guard and thousands of auxiliaries. It was a shrewd needed to spread out. The Marcomanni and Quadi
immediately, war was move, and it was one that was designed to result in tribes headed further and further south, until they
an early victory for the adoptive brothers. Moreover, found themselves at the Roman border. Luckily for
it was an impressive feat for someone who them, it was largely undefended thanks to Marcus
had had minimal military experience. having sent most of its soldiers to Parthia and
The Romans would be victorious; in suffering from plague. The Marcomannic Wars had
165-166, Roman soldiers began to come begun. It was to be one of Marcus’ greatest tests,
back to Rome as the war eased off, the final but it would also cement his legacy in another field.
victory being won in 166. Marcus and In 168, both co-emperors made their way to
Lucius claimed the names Armeniacus the border along with a Roman force to dispel
and Particus in celebration, and Lucius the barbarians. Leaving the legions there, they

Arguably the most famous statue of

Marcus Aurelius, he sits astride his
horse on the Capitoline Hill in Rome

50
 MARCUS AURELIUS

WEIGHING
soon made their way back to Rome, but time was that fame that has increased Marcus’ legacy as
running short for one of them. In 169, Lucius died, a philosopher above all else. Having said that,
leaving Marcus, the reluctant ruler, in sole charge of
the Roman Empire. Realising he had to step up and
there were things that he did in his lifetime to
support this view, such as creating four Chairs THE LEGACY
take charge, Marcus headed to the warzone once
more. He couldn’t risk the empire looking weak
of Philosophy in Athens, with one each for
the principal philosophical traditions: Platonic,
Was Marcus Aurelius
after the death of another emperor. Aristotelian, Stoic and Epicurean. Out of those more of a philosopher
Leading the Roman war machine from four, though, it was Stoicism that would define or a despot?
Carnuntum, 40 kilometres from modern-day the emperor. He was described as a Stoic by Julius
Vienna, Austria, this was where Marcus’ complex Capitolinus, one of his ancient biographers, and he
character began to come into play. While directing makes reference to a number of Stoics who had
an army against a foreign invasion, the emperor taught him throughout Meditations.
began to write down some of his thoughts – his Marcus seemed to refer to the version of Stoicism
meditations, if you will – in a rambling collection that was put forward by Epictetus, who proposed
that grew over time. three areas of study that an apprentice philosopher
Later dubbed Meditations, Marcus’ writings are should be trained in: desires and aversions, the
arguably what has brought him the most fame, impulse to act and not to act, and freedom from
but the irony is that they were never meant to be deception. These corresponded to the early Stoic
seen. Taking the form of a personal notebook, it ideas of the physical, the ethical and the logical.
seems to have been a way for Marcus to engage Marcus was certainly a follower of this strand of
in philosophical exercises that would change Stoicism, as can be seen in Meditations 9.7: “Erase
his behaviour and way of thinking, for in the the print of imagination, stop impulse, quench
ancient world, that’s what philosophy was all desire: keep your directing mind its own master.” PHILOSOPHER DESPOT
about. It wasn’t about theoretical arguments, but The reflection upon oneself was also a Stoic idea,
discovering how to carry out your life. As such, it’s and the emperor does seem to have been analysing
possible, to a certain extent, to treat Meditations his own thoughts, while rejecting those he thinks Writing Was able to
autobiographically. In a rare occurrence with the detrimental to his person. It was clearly a personal something like command
Roman rulership, we have a chance to see directly process, as he had no audience to define himself to. Meditations was incredible
into an emperor’s mind. And as a seemingly unending war raged on outside a very Stoic respect from
The original name of Marcus’ writings was Ta his camp, Marcus wrote. But why? thing to do his subjects
eis heauton, or To Himself, and the emperor refers Many have suggested that philosophy was
to himself in both the first and third person always Marcus’ first love, and that’s hard to refute
throughout as he pens his thoughts on himself, when you learn of his upbringing and his love of Set up the Spent time on
leadership and life. It’s almost become a textbook philosophy as a teenager. Others have put forward four Chairs of the front in the
for Stoics over the preceding centuries, and it’s the idea that he felt intellectually unstimulated Philosophy in Marcomannic
Athens War
Marcus wrote the 12
books of the Meditations
in Koine Greek Became Was ruler
deeply during era
enamoured of increased
with philosophy persecution of
from a very Christians in
young age provinces

Accepted Flattered
leadership the Senate
somewhat by asking
unwillingly – he permission
had wanted to for spending
dedicate his life despite being
to philosophy supreme leader

Generally Chose a
tried to live hereditary heir
his life by to succeed
philosophical him, the first
principles – at emperor to do
The Mausoleum of Hadrian least, as far as so for nearly
– also called the Castel we can tell 100 years
Sant’Angelo – in Rome,
where Marcus and many
other emperors were interred

51
 The Column of Marcus Aurelius,
possibly erected by Commodus,
shows his military victories –
prowess in war was the mark of
a good Roman leader

RISE TO POWER O Birth

Born to Marcus
O A young priest
Aged just eight,
There were 20 Annius Verus III
and Domitia Lucilla,
Marcus is made a
priest of Mars in the
years between being Marcus enjoys a
wealthy upbringing
college of the Salii.
He would become a
named an heir and on the Caelian Hill. leader of the dance,
121 CE seer and master.
becoming emperor 128 CE
 MARCUS AURELIUS

(historically inaccurately) strangles him. “Will I be But then perhaps this was Marcus reaching for a
LIKE FATHER, known as the philosopher, the warrior, the tyrant?” philosophical ideal, as he wrote: “Wrestle to be the

LIKE SON?
he chokes out. It has been impossible to go through man philosophy wished to make you.”
every piece of evidence that points to the legacy So why do we remember Marcus more for his
Marcus has left behind – entire books have been philosophy than his leadership? Is it because he left
Sometimes it just doesn’t written on the subjects, after all – but we’ve gained something tangible behind with his Meditations?
run in the family a solid understanding of who the emperor was and Or is it because his rule was overshadowed by his
If there’s one thing that the 2000 epic Gladiator got where he came from. son Commodus, who has come to be considered
right, it’s that Marcus and his son Commodus were There are strong arguments for Marcus the one of Rome’s most depraved rulers? Does he even
entirely different characters. Where Marcus was philosopher, but to what extent can he actually deserve the reputation he’s been left with?
revered by his people, Commodus was hated at an be classed as one? The largest surviving relic However you see Marcus Aurelius – whether it’s
almost Nero-like level, with ancient historians later we have is Meditations, but does that make him as a philosopher, a leader, or anything else – his
calling him “accursed and foul”.
a philosopher, or just a follower of philosophy? words echo down the centuries. It’s perhaps a little
Of around 13 children, only five of Marcus and
Faustina’s offspring lived to adulthood, the only boy
He came up with no original treatises, instead ironic that the man whose legacy has lasted for
being Commodus – in fact, he’d had a twin brother choosing to study and follow the greats like almost 2,000 years once wrote: “You do not have
who had died. But many had wished Commodus Epictetus and Epicurus, and it’s hard to know how thousands of years to live. Urgency is on you. While
had perished with him; Julius Capitolinus went so much he actually wrote. It could also be argued you live, while you can, become good.”
far as to write: “Had [Marcus] been truly fortunate, that he’s only remembered as a philosopher
he would not have left a son.” Of course, he was because he was the only emperor of that ilk –
writing with hindsight, but the point still stands:
why were father and son so different?
Marcus tried to give his son the best start in
life, with an unrivalled education that Commodus
seemed to enjoy. But the drive just wasn’t there,
“This was a man
and he couldn’t have been less interested in politics.
While he served in the Roman army by his father’s
who commanded
side in the Marcomannic Wars, he was keen to seek
peace after Marcus’ death, with many questioning
respect, who had
if his mother had had an affair. Surely this man who
began a 12-year reign of terror couldn’t be the son seen Rome through
of the great Marcus Aurelius?
flood and famine”
being away from his court for so long, so he set the others are remembered for being tyrannical,
himself the exercise of writing down his thoughts. unmatched in war or for their reforms.
From the evidence we’ve seen so far, there seems Leadership and military command seemed
to have been almost a 50-50 split between Marcus’ to suit Marcus well. Cassius Dio wrote that “he
acts as a Roman leader and a philosopher – but ruled better than any others who had ever been
there is another piece of evidence to support the in any position of power”, and while he suffered
former. In 175, rumours were circulating. There losses, he ultimately kept the empire together
were whispers that the emperor was dead, and when it was at risk of being torn asunder by
so in Antioch, one of his former generals, Avidius invaders. He led his people through famine,
Cassius, proclaimed himself leader of the empire. plague and war, keeping peace internally
But Marcus wasn’t dead, and he made the trek east while showing little mercy to his enemies.
to prove it. The speed with which the insurrection He was also actively involved in internal
was put down, and with such little bloodshed, state affairs, and evidence can be found of
proved Marcus’ power, and that wasn’t something this on his triumphal column in Rome. One
that came from philosophy. This was a man who panel shows a relief of the emperor reading a
commanded respect, who had seen the city of petition, and it’s well known that he read and
Rome through flood and famine, who had subdued replied to similar items that came from all over
the Parthians. the empire. On top of this, he acted as a judge and
Marcus is one of the most
Those familiar with the 2000 film Gladiator attended Senate meetings, showing that his role fascinating, layered figures
may remember Marcus’ last words as his son was something that he took incredibly seriously. in all Roman history
© Getty Images, Jean-Michel Girard/The Art Agency

O The first engagement O Adopted by O Consul O Consul again; O Vivat Caesar

Marcus is engaged to Antoninus Pius Marcus serves as marriage to Faustina In his dying days,
Ceionia Fabia, the daughter Shortly before Hadrian’s consul alongside his Marcus’ engagement to Antoninus Pius
of Lucius Aelius and sister of death, he announces father-in-law Emperor Ceionia Fabia is broken formally declares
later emperor Lucius Verus, two generations of Antoninus Pius. off, and he instead Marcus his successor.
who was next in line to rule heirs: first Antoninus This would be the marries Faustina the Finally, in 161, the day
until he died two years later. Pius, then Marcus and first time of three that Younger, daughter of arrives, and Marcus
He also takes the toga virilis. Lucius Verus. he would be consul. Antoninus Pius. takes the purple.
136 CE 138 CE 140 CE 145 CE 161 CE

53
 ROMAN EMPERORS

177-192 CE
COMMODUS Though he was groomed from birth to become emperor,
he proved one of the most notoriously inept of all time
Written by Hareth Al Bustani

A
fter the murder of the tyrant Domitian, Having secured peace with the Parthians, Lucius He arrived in Rome to a fanfare of flowers and
Rome’s imperial succession had become died of the plague while fighting off the tribes laurel branches – a welcome befitting an emperor
determined through merit-based adoption north of the Danube, and Annius perished soon of his stock. Those who had not seen him before
rather than birth. It had proved a fantastic after. When Commodus came of age, desperate to were struck by his strong eyes, which “flashed like
system, producing five successive brilliant rulers. secure a smooth succession, his father nominated lightning” and curly blond locks, glistening like gold
However, Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Five him a fellow Augustus and the two campaigned dust. Some even reported a divine light around
Good Emperors, found himself with an empire against the northern tribes. Even as Marcus his head. Having visited the Temple of Jupiter,
at its peak – far too large for one man to rule. He breathed his last in 180 CE, he said, “Go to the according to Cassius Dio, who lived through the
shared responsibility with Lucius Verus, who, like rising sun; I am already setting,” paving the path for events, he allegedly made a trivial speech to the
Marcus, had been adopted by the emperor Hadrian. Commodus, who ascended as sole emperor with no Senate, recounting his great exploits.
In securing the future, he turned to his sons doubt of his credentials. After surviving an early assassination attempt,
Commodus and Annius – bequeathing them the On one hand the young prince held great the emperor grew increasingly paranoid, purging
titles of Caesar, or junior emperor. promise – his father, the great philosopher, soldier suspected enemies, senators and generals alike
and statesman, had prepared him his whole life – regardless of their innocence. According to Dio,
for this moment. However, while he had spent his anyone too powerful, noble, well-educated or
entire youth beneath the burden of empire, remarkable in any other way was quickly killed –
Commodus had never experienced the from the ex-consuls Paternus and Salvius to the
pleasures of power. In a seemingly wealthy Quintilius brothers. One of the Quintilius’
auspicious ceremony, as his father was sons was said to have escaped by faking his own
laid to rest Commodus delivered a death, and when rumour of this broke out, scores
speech to the troops, expressing of lookalikes were put to the sword.
solidarity and kinship, afterwards However, just as he spread fear through the
handing out money for good upper ranks, Commodus handed out money to
measure. Later, he met with the masses – 140 denarii a piece, with senators,
Marcus’ trusted advisors, who their wives and children donating two denarii
beseeched he continue his each. He also rewarded his friends, appointing
father’s attempts to subjugate them into positions of power. The most successful
the northern tribes and expand was Cleander, a former slave who rose through
Rome’s realm. the ranks to become Commodus’ chamberlain.
Though he heeded them at first, Cleander deeply resented the renowned Praetorian
as the campaign dragged on others prefect, Perennis, for undermining his power and
reminded him incessantly of the schemes. After amassing enough clout, he turned
temptations that lay back in Rome. both the Praetorians and Commodus against
Eventually, Commodus chose to ignore Perennis and had him executed for treason, thereby
his father’s advisors, negotiating a peace paving the way for his own usurpation of the fallen
Commodus built a cult of treaty with the Marcomanni and Quadi, prefect’s power.
personality around himself,
rewarding his friends and murdering supposedly to better secure his position By 190 CE, Cleander had made himself the
any he considered a threat
back home. second most powerful man in Rome. In recognition

54
 Though scandalous, the emperor
was a brilliant performer, one known
to decapitate ostriches with single,
crescent-shaped arrows

55
 ROMAN EMPERORS

However, things did not turn out quite as planned. to the Colosseum. Nothing was more grotesque to
When a riot broke out calling for Cleander’s head, the patricians, nor more endearing to the plebeians.
Commodus panicked and simply had his friend Skipping his public performances was not an
killed, along with his son and friends – an act that option, as he entered the arena in a purple robe
wiped out his greatest threat and ally. with gold spangles, a Greek cloak and a crown
As his friends grew powerful, Commodus filled with Indian gems, holding a staff like that of
withdrew from matters of the state and hurled Mercury. Then, like a true showman, he would cast
himself into delusions of grandeur. He ordered aside his entrance attire and battle against man and
Rome be renamed Commodiana and the legions beast alike dressed in just a tunic. To his credit he
called Commodian. He not only styled himself was quite the performer. One on occasion he killed
after but claimed to be Hercules, erecting statues of 100 bears with arrows – taking a break to gulp
himself across Rome dressed as the Greek hero. He down a spectator’s wine as the crowd roared, “Long
even went so far as to cut the head off the Colossus life to you!”.
of Nero, replacing it with his own – perfected with On another occasion, having been trained by
a Herculean club and a lion at its feet, alongside expert Persian bowmen and Moroccan javelinmen,
an inscription celebrating his left-handed martial he slayed a tiger, hippopotamus and elephant –
prowess. In 192 CE he made the Senate recognise from an upper terrace he had built to keep him
him as a god: Hercules Romanus. safe. Plebeians had never seen such creatures

“Commodus’ history has been written

While Marcus Aurelius was
a visionary emperor, he
by his detractors, and he probably was
failed to foresee his son’s
descent into megalomania
much beloved by the masses”
of his newfound influence, Commodus named With Cleander gone, senators and generals alike before, and watching their emperor slay them with
him ‘The Dagger’. With his rival out of the way, grew terrified of the increasingly unpredictable single arrows or javelins was quite the spectacle.
Cleander revelled in his newfound authority – emperor. While he had once called the prefect Holding a shield in his right hand and a wooden
making careers, ending lives and allegedly selling Julianus ‘father’, publicly kissing and embracing sword in his left, he battled warriors, taking 1
consulships for profit, appointing 25 in just one him, now he had him killed, along with countless million sesterces for each victory. Soon he began
year, including one Septimius Severus. others senators and civilians. Dio says it was not introducing real weapons and pulling stunts such
However, Cleander’s reputation would soon begin unusual for 2,000 people to be killed in the capital as fastening men together and commanding them
to prove a curse. In 189 CE, with Rome already in a single day, with criminals paid to inject poison to kill each other. For 14 days Commodus staged
decimated by a plague, a famine broke out, and the into people. such spectacles, growing increasingly violent and
grain commissioner deliberately exacerbated the At first Commodus entertained his athletic absurd. Eager to act out his Herculean adventures,
food shortage. Apparently, in anticipation of such aspirations in private, with gladiatorial bouts he gathered all the men from Rome who had lost
an event, Cleander had previously placed most of that often ended in him ‘accidentally’ cutting off their feet through disease
the grain supply in storage so he could come to the people’s noses and ears. However, before long he or accident, fastened
rescue, handing out food to the grateful masses. began reinforcing his own myth-making by taking a serpent-like

By his death, Commodus’ Commodus increasingly

elaborate circuses, with beasts fashioned himself after Hercules,
dragged from all corners of the commissioning statues depicting
empire, had bankrupted Rome him with a club and a lion’s hide

56
 COMMODUS

On New Year’s Eve in 192 CE,

Commodus was poisoned and
then strangled by a wrestler

Commodus reinvented himself as a

gladiator, frequently performing in
the Colosseum, much to the ire of
the Senate and the joy of the masses

appendage to their bodies and dragged them into and the palace chamberlain decided enough was
the Colosseum. There they were given sponges to enough and poisoned Commodus. However, the
throw while Commodus clubbed them to death, all binge-drinking emperor simply vomited it back up.
the while pretending they were giants. When he retired to his bath the plotters instead
The emperor even had the nerve to behead an sent a wrestler called Narcissus to strangle him.
ostrich and approach the Senate grinning with his Commodus was just 31 years old.
sword raised – a move they all perceived as a clear Though Rome had managed to rid itself of a
threat. Dio says that their greatest fear was erupting tyrant, one who had rarely ventured outside the much by his role as a witness to proceedings as
in laughter, for that would be an immediate death capital and left the treasury bare, Commodus’ it is encumbered by his personal bias against the
sentence. However, the immense sums of money murder triggered an earthquake of chaos emperor. He said the ascension of Commodus was
spent gathering beasts from around the world was that would soon set off an avalanche as the the moment the empire turned from one “of gold to
no laughing matter. emperorship descended into anarchy and Rome’s one of iron and rust”. Perhaps the greatest tragedy
With Commodus withdrawn from matters of golden age came to a jarring end. was the wasted potential of an emperor who
state, his new Praetorian prefect, Quintus Aemilius Of course, Commodus’ history has been written inherited an empire at its peak, whose perfectly
Laetus, began filling posts with fellow North by his detractors, and he probably was much planned succession instead sowed the seeds of civil
Africans. On New Year’s Eve in 192 CE, Laetus beloved by the masses. Dio’s account is aided as war for the century to come.

DAMNATIO MEMORIAE
After his death Commodus enjoyed an awkward legacy,
first being wiped from public memory before then
being reinstated and even deified
Following his death, Commodus was succeeded After Pertinax’s murder, however, Didius Julianus
by the reluctant senator Pertinax, who sought to began restoring the images of Commodus and even
return the empire to its virtuous past. The soldiers added the name to his own. His successor, Septimius
referred to Commodus not as the former emperor Severus, secured legitimacy by having himself adopted
but disparagingly as ‘the gladiator’, ‘the charioteer’, as the grandson of Marcus Aurelius posthumously. He
‘the left-handed’ and ‘the ruptured’. Though they had no choice but to restore Commodus’ legacy and
were furious about losing the privileges their fallen forced the Senate to deify the fallen emperor in 197
emperor had bestowed upon them, Commodus was CE, just four years after his condemnation.
© Alamy, Getty, Creative Commons

declared a public enemy, and in an act of damnatio As Roman history was written by the patricians,
memoriae – damnation of memory – Rome was who loathed Commodus’ athletic antics, he has been
rid of any trace of his existence. His statues were immortalised as a murderous buffoon. While it is likely
removed from public view, his likeness chiselled that he was beloved by the masses, this, and any of his
off columns and the Colossus of Nero restored to most remarkable accomplishments, have been wiped After his death, images of Commodus, ranging from
statues to inscriptions, were defaced and removed
its original form. out by the caricature of the gladiator-emperor.

57
 YEAR OF THE

FIVE
EMPERORS
After the death of Commodus, the empire was
thrown into chaos, with the military-minded
Septimius Severus emerging supreme
Written by Hareth Al Bustani

O
n New Year’s Eve in 192 CE, the They murdered Pertinax just months into
emperor Commodus, son of Marcus his reign. The Praetorians then proceeded
Aurelius, was strangled to death to auction off his imperial position to Didius
on the orders of his Praetorian prefect, Julianus, a wealthy businessman living
Aemilius Laetus. Having endured a 12-year in exile. When word of this scandal broke
descent into tyranny and corruption, the out, three outraged generals began making
empire longed for a return to the Five Good plans of their own. Chief among them was
Emperors who had ruled just prior. Septimius Severus, who had the shortest
Commodus was replaced by Pertinax, path to Rome.
a virtuous senator who accepted the post Allying with the governor of Britain,
with great reluctance. A disciplinarian, he Clodius Albinus, he marched on the capital,
instated reforms clearly geared at instilling dissolving the Praetorian Guard while the
honesty and duty back into the ranks and Senate had Julianus executed. After dealing
attempting to reverse the damage caused with his strongest rival, Pescennius Niger,
by his predecessor. However, the Praetorian to the east, he later came head to head
Guard, who had prospered under the chaos with Albinus – emerging supreme and
of Commodus, had other ideas. establishing a dynasty of his own.

58
 YEAR OF THE FIVE EMPERORS

PERTINAX
JANUARY – MARCH 193 CE
Perhaps the most deserving of the imperial purple,
Pertinax fell prey to the Praetorian Guard’s vulgar vices
Born the son of a slave, Pertinax rose and ran to the palace naked. Rather than
through the military ranks, becoming an pursue a path of revenge, Pertinax set
equestrian before ascending to the senate. about reversing the damage done by
His brilliance saw him appointed various Commodus. He recalled exiles, supported
governorships, before he was reluctantly the families of executed men, sold off
declared emperor at 67 years old. Though excess slaves and set about ridding his
Pertinax was awarded all the standard court of dead weight.
imperial honours, he denied the titles of Though he inherited an empty treasury,
Augusta and Caesar on behalf of his wife he had wisely paid the Praetorians and
and son. His disciplinarian desire to restore masses their customary donatives, albeit
virtue to the empire was well received by less than usual, before restoring the
the Senate, but did little to endear him to silver denarius, which had been severely
the Praetorian Guard, accustomed to the debased. Eager to stimulate the economy,
liberality of Commodus’ reign. he lowered customs and granted waste
When summoned in order to pledge lands, with a decade of tax exemptions.
their loyalty to the new emperor, a group However, just 87 days into his rule, he
dragged in the senator Triarius Maternus was murdered on the orders of Laetus, the
and declared him emperor instead – but kingslayer, who had now murdered both the
Pertinax’s attempts to he fled, tearing the clothes off his body most foul and the most virtuous of men.
reform the Roman military
and economy were cut
short by his assassination

DIDIUS JULIANUS
MARCH – JUNE 193 CE
With Rome in chaos, one wealthy businessman made
the riskiest investment of them all, and came up short
In one of the most grotesque and shameful As he was carried to the Senate, his
moments in the history of the Roman enemies, and friends of Pertinax, feared
Empire, after murdering Pertinax, the his wrath. To cap off the chaotic day,
Praetorian Guard decided there was no Julianus delivered a speech to the senate
need to bother with the delicate art of house, declaring “I am here alone”, while
appointing a successor, and they simply surrounded by Praetorian soldiers. When
auctioned the title off. the masses later protested his usurpation,
Among the various bidders for the Julianus ordered them killed, but this only
‘honour’ was Didius Julianus, a wealthy further enflamed their rage.
businessman with a loose purse, whose Though he feigned humility and
ambition had led Commodus to exile him flattery, when he heard that the general
to Milan. Having travelled to Rome, he Septimius Severus was marching against
entered into a bidding war with Pertinax’s him, Julianus executed Laetus, the
father-in-law and prefect of the city, Praetorian prefect, and promptly had the
Flavius Sulpicianus. Finally, at 25,000 Senate declare Severus a public enemy.
sesterces, Julianus, who reminded the However, when the Praetorians began
Praetorians that Sulpicianus might very negotiating with Severus, the Senate
well seek revenge, had his way – a small instead condemned Julianus to death and
sum for an empire. proclaimed his rival as the new emperor. For all his wealth,
Didius Julianus had
no business facing off
with Septimius Severus

59
 ROMAN EMPERORS

PESCENNIUS NIGER
APRIL 193 – MAY 194 CE
Though he commanded great resources, the
dangerous governor lacked the ability to succeed
An Italian equestrian, the general back into Syria. This loss was significant
Pescennius Niger was made governor enough to send several of the cities
of Syria by Commodus. Though not previously loyal to Niger over to Severus’
especially gifted, he still managed cause, fearful that they had picked the
to lead an enormous army with vast losing side.
resources at his disposal. When his men By spring 194 CE, Niger suffered a
heard about the capital’s discontent at decisive defeat on the plain of Issus, where
the rule of Julianus, they proclaimed Alexander the Great had fought Darius
him emperor instead. Niger’s powerful centuries earlier. His army was no match
position, especially after he had secured for Severus’ Illyrian troops and shock
the empire’s breadbasket of Egypt, forced cavalry, and Niger ended up fleeing the
Severus into setting up an alliance with field in shame – supposedly seeking refuge
Clodius Albinus. among the Persians. However, his rout
Although Severus reached the capital was cut short when he was captured and
first, Niger enjoyed the support of Asellius subsequently killed – with his head sent to
Aemilianus, the proconsul of Asia, Byzantium, now a rebellious city without
and a brilliant diplomat and strategist. a leader. At the end of 195 CE, when
However, when Aemilianus was defeated Byzantium finally fell to Severus, it was
at Byzantium, Niger found himself pushed razed to the ground. Though Severus considered
Niger his greatest threat, he
managed to deal with him
swiftly and decisively

CLODIUS ALBINUS
193 – FEBRUARY 197 CE
The governor of Britain tried to play the long game, but
failed to secure enough allegiances to defeat Severus
As Severus began his march on Rome, he snub by naming his own son, Septimius
offered the governor of Britain, Clodius Bassianus, as Caesar – flying in the face of
Albinus, an olive branch – he would name their previous agreement. At the end of
him his junior emperor and successor, or 195 CE or the start of 196, Albinus rose to
Caesar, should he support his claim. This the challenge, declaring himself Augustus,
would allow him to march east against backed by several key senators. He quickly
Niger without having to worry about advanced into Gaul and began minting his
defending Rome itself. own currency at Lugdunum, in modern
With no hope of beating Severus to the Lyon, France.
capital, this arrangement suited Albinus, However, even while he was in Gaul,
who needed time to shore up his base Albinus failed to amass universal support.
of Britain. Though the two were allies of Severus had declared him an enemy of
convenience, neither doubted they would the people and succeeded in securing
one day have to fight for supremacy. But the Spanish legion’s loyalty. When the
for now, Albinus claimed his place in the two inevitably clashed at the epic Battle
Year of the Five Emperors. of Lyon in February 197 CE, Albinus was
Before long, arrangements started totally crushed – either committing suicide
to crumble. In 195 CE, having defeated or executed – before Severus lay waste to
While his army rivalled Niger, Severus handed Albinus a serious the city.
Severus’ in size, Albinus fell
short at the Battle of Lyon,
meeting his death there

60
 YEAR OF THE FIVE EMPERORS

SEPTIMIUS
SEVERUS
APRIL 193 –
FEBRUARY 211 CE
Through a combination of
fortune, wit and military
might, Septimius Severus
emerged from the chaos with
a dynasty of his own
Not only was Septimius Severus in charge
of three legions, but he also had a short path
to Rome, a decisive advantage in the wars
to come. He had also married Julia Domna,
who was prophesised to be an emperor’s wife,
and who gave him access to a wide network
of powerful contacts in the east. Sensing the
changing of the guard, he began writing to
his fellow governors, securing allegiances and
shoring up support, just in case.
When news of Pertinax’s shameful death
and Julianus’ disgraceful purchase of the
purple reached Severus, he headed straight
for Rome. He was welcomed as a liberator,
saviour and the hand of justice, coming down
to bear on the forces of corruption. He even
incorporated Pertinax’s name into his own
for dramatic effect. Fearing the worst, the
Praetorian Guard immediately left the city to
negotiate with him, only to be captured and
dismissed – uprooting the rotten core from the
imperial court and later replacing them with a
larger Guard.
Though he brought his army to Rome, he
entered in civilian garb, pledging to never
execute a senator without trial, and handing
out money to the public. After defeating
Born in Libya, the
Niger and Albinus, he rolled out proscriptions, general Severus began
executing scores of senators who were loyal planning his rise to
power long before he
to his former rivals. He had named his son was proclaimed emperor
Caracalla his heir before adopting himself into
Marcus Aurelius’ family in order to provide
legitimacy, deifying the damned Commodus Creating a new legion at Alba, near Rome, the eastern provinces, as well as Egypt,
in the process. he led an army of 30,000, with loyalists returning to Rome a hero.
Having secured a dynasty of his own, occupying positions of leadership. Among In the ensuing decade and a half, Severus
Severus began reforming the Roman state, those to benefit was his friend Plautianus, who would continue to reform the empire,
which, many argue, set in motion a lot of the was appointed prefect of the newly expanded fortifying and extending control in North
reforms that would later drag the empire to Praetorian Guard. Africa and reforming Roman law, before
its knees. A military man, he gave the soldiers In 197 CE, with the Parthians fighting travelling to Britain with his sons Caracalla
a pay rise, along with the right to marry, amongst themselves, Severus campaigned and Geta. There, he repaired Hadrian’s Wall,
while simultaneously increasing fluidity against them for a second time, crossing over before invading the Caledonians further north.
in the ranks. His new legions were led by the Euphrates, annexing Mesopotamia and In 211 CE, while preparing for a third invasion,
equestrians, rather than senators, as were plundering the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. he succumbed to disease in York, leaving the
© Alamy, Getty

many of his eastern provinces. On the way back, Severus visited and reformed empire to his sons.

61
 3 RD
CENTURY
In a century marred by crisis and death, find out who
managed to come out on top

66 THE CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY

64 THE SEVERANS 72 DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMIAN

62
76 THE TETRARCHY

63
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE SEVERAN
JULIUS BASSIANUS
Dates unknown
By marrying his eldest daughter to Septimius
Severus, this high priest of the Sun god Elagabal
of Emesa in Syria would become grandfather and

DYNASTY
great-grandfather to emperors.

Following the Pax Romana, a

new dynasty entered Roman
politics. The Severans would
leave behind a mixed legacy
SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS JULIA DOMNA
of greatness and madness – c.145-211 CE Reigned: 193-211 CE
Bringing with him a sense of stability after the
c.170-217 CE
A wife and mother to emperors, Julia Domna

not unlike imperial families tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors, Septimius
Severus made his mark by increasing the size of the
army, giving the soldiers a pay rise from 300 to 500
enjoyed court life and surrounded herself with
philosophers while also serving as ‘mother of the
Senate and the fatherland’ under her son, Caracalla.
denarii, and allowing them to marry. After a reign of However, when Caracalla was murdered, she
that had come before 18 years, he died in modern-day York, England. apparently starved herself her death, although
it’s unknown if this was from grief or if she’d been
ordered to by Macrinus, the new emperor.

PUBLIA FULVIA CARACALLA GETA

PLAUTILLA c.188-217 CE Reigned: 211-217 CE c.189-211 CE Reigned: 209-211 CE
c.187-211 CE Caracalla’s perhaps most lasting legacy has been Made co-ruler by his father in 209 CE, Geta would
the Constitutio Antoniniana, which gave Roman hardly outlive him. After Severus died in 211 CE,
The marriage of Plautilla and Caracalla was short,
citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. By Geta was eventually murdered by his brother
and certainly not sweet. Just two years after their
doing this he was able to create a larger tax base, Caracalla, who then became emperor.
wedding, the bride’s father was killed and Caracalla
exiled his wife to Lipara, one of the Aeolian Islands. and the edict also created a new upper and lower
As soon as he became emperor, it is thought he class division.
sent an assassin to murder her.

JULIA PAULA AQUILIA SEVERA ANNIA FAUSTINA

Dates unknown Dates unknown c.201-222 CE
Married to Elagabalus in 219 CE, Julia Paula was Elagabalus’ second marriage caused quite the The third wife of Emperor Elagabalus, Annia
the first wife of the emperor and had the title of scandal as he divorced his first wife in order to wed Faustina was a noblewoman from Anatolia who
Augusta bestowed upon her, although the match a Vestal Virgin – a Roman priestess who couldn’t claimed descent from the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
only lasted about a year. Before her wedding she marry and was sworn to celibacy. Cassius Dio wrote However, when their marriage collapsed she was
had been known as the daughter of the Praetorian that he married her “in order that godlike children cast aside in favour of Elagabalus’ third wife,
prefect Julius Paulus. might spring from me”. They later married again. Aquilia Severa.

64
 THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

“In a reign marked by uprisings

A BRIEF INTERLUDE
and invasions, Severus Alexander After Caracalla, the Severans had
had to keep on top of everything” a break from the imperial throne
When Caracalla was assassinated, it was heavily
believed that a man called Macrinus was
behind the plot. While this may have
been slander, it worked out well for
the soldier – he was proclaimed
emperor in April 217 CE. He made his
son, Diadumenianus, his heir, and he
managed to get a peace treaty signed
with Parthia, which Caracalla had been
trying to do before he was killed.
Macrinus was on top of the world.
But rebellion was brewing. Julia
Maesa, Caracalla’s aunt, wanted the
JULIA MAESA JULIUS AVITUS Severan dynasty restored and she’d
stop at nothing to achieve her aim. The
c.165-224 CE ALEXIANUS people, the Senate and the army were
After the death of Septimius Severus, Julia Maesa’s c.155-217 CE
aim was to get one of her grandsons onto the drawn to her side. Macrinus and his
While little is known of the man who was
imperial throne. She launched a successful rebellion son were killed, and the Severans were
grandfather of two emperors, we do know that he
and the reign of Elagabalus began. She died shortly
after the succession of another grandson, Severus
worked his way up the political hierarchy to the restored under Elagabalus. Little did they
consulship, and that he served in the Roman Army know the division he would bring.
Alexander, and he deified her.
in Britain and Parthia.

SEXTUS VARIUS GESSIUS

MARCELLUS JULIA SOAEMIAS JULIA MAMAEA MARCIANUS
c.165-215 CE c.180-222 CE c.180-235 CE Unknown-218 CE
Father of Elagabalus, Marcellus would Being the mother of an emperor was tough – After the death of her mother, Julia Mamaea A member of the equestrian
never see his son rule as emperor. He especially when it was Elagabalus. Unable to keep achieved a first in the Roman Empire – she was class in Syria, Gessius Marcianus
served as procurator of Rome’s water her son in check, she was murdered alongside him bestowed the title consors imperii, which made her married Julia Mamaea. Some have
supply and Britain before taking in March 222 CE. the first officially recognised empress of the Roman suggested that this match was
charge of the private finances of Empire. However, she would later be murdered made to strengthen Septimius
emperors Caracalla and Geta. alongside her son Severus Alexander in Mainz. Severus’ power in the east.

© Sailko, antmoose, Marie-Lan Nguyen, MM, Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com, Wolfgang Sauber,
José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / CC BY-SA 4.0, Marie-Lan Nguyen

ELAGABALUS SEVERUS ALEXANDER SALLUSTIA ORBIANA

c.204-222 CE Reigned: 218-222 CE c.208-235 CE Reigned: 222-235 CE Unknown
A priest of Elagabal the Sun god before he became In a reign marked by uprisings and invasions, Severus Although married to the emperor, when Sallustia
emperor, Elegabalus’ rule would go on to be defined Alexander had to keep on top of everything or lose his Orbiana’s father alledgedly staged a coup in 227 CE,
by the deity. He brought the cult of Elagabal to throne. In the end, he and his mother, Julia Mamaea, she was exiled to Africa for the rest of her life.
Rome against the wishes of his people, and hardly were murdered in Mainz by soldiers from the II
anyone joined. When he was just 18, he was Parthica and XXII Primigenia legions.
assassinated by his Praetorian Guard along with his
mother, Julia Soaemias.

65
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE CRISIS OF THE

THIRD CENTURY The 3rd century was a time of murder, betrayal and
revolution, as Rome’s imperial purple went up for grabs
to whoever was bold enough to seize it
Written by Hareth Al Bustani

I
n 235 CE, Severus Alexander, the last of the However, not all the troops along the Rhine and taxes across the empire. In Tunisia, a group of
Severan Dynasty, was murdered by a group of Danube were taken by their new leader. Quartinus, wealthy nobles revolted, killing a procurator and
his own soldiers, led by his Thracian general, a friend of Alexander, was proclaimed emperor, appointing an emperor of their own – the 79-year-
Maximinus Thrax. After 13 years of sole rule, the and then killed, by the Osroenian archers in Upper old proconsul Gordian I, who shared the title with
military had risen against its master, declaring for Mesopotamia. Another group failed to replace his son, Gordian II.
one of their own – a man who had clawed his way Maximinus with a senator by the name of Magnus. In Maximinus’ absence, the Senate damned
from the bottom through his ability alone. Eager to stem the tide of sedition, Maximinus his memory and declared for the Gordians. The
Though the Senate viewed Maximinus as a appointed his son Caesar and demoted Alexander’s Praetorian prefect was assassinated and the
barbarian, unfit for the purple, with no alternative, closest allies, while sparing their lives. capital’s prefect was torn apart by a mob. However,
they confirmed his appointment as emperor. Eager Instead of returning to Rome to shore up support the Gordians too were attacked at Carthage by the
to appease his men, who had loathed Alexander’s and woo the senate, he continued leading his army governor of Numidia, with the younger killed in
decision to bribe the Alamanni away from the against the northern tribes – alienating himself battle and his father committing suicide. In their
northern frontiers, Maximinus immediately from noble and common citizen alike. He gave place the Senate elected 20 of its most esteemed
declared war on them. his soldiers a pay rise, financed by levying huge members to form a temporary government

Maximinus Thrax, the first Proclaimed emperor in Africa,

‘barracks general’, was killed by his Gordian I was defeated at
own men while besieging Aquileia Carthage alongside his son and
ended up committing suicide

66
Finally restoring peace to the
realm, Probus had his soldiers
plant vines on the hillsides of
Gaul, Pannonia and Moesia
 ROMAN EMPERORS

An Iranian rock relief at

Naqsh-e Rustam depicts
Shapur’s victories over
Valerian and Philip the Arab

before selecting two of them to rule as joint army, sending them back home while keeping the Keen to withdraw from Persia, Philip settled a
emperors: Pupienus and Balbinus. At the urging Germans as his personal bodyguard – a move that peace treaty, giving him Osroene and Mesopotamia
of the Praetorian Guard, Gordian II’s nephew was isolated Balbinus and aroused the suspicion of the for 500,000 denarii. Returning west, he made
nominated Caesar. Praetorian Guard. Rather than risk being replaced, his brother Priscus prefect of Mesopotamia and
Outraged, Maximinus marched from the Danube the Guard stormed the palace, stripping the two governor of Syria, where he earned a reputation
towards Italy, laying siege to Aquileia, where, emperors naked, dragging them through the streets of being “intolerably evil”. Back in Rome, Philip
hungry and disillusioned, his men murdered and torturing them to death. Afterwards they appointed his son as Augustus in 247 CE, before
him and his son. Pupienus took command of the declared 13-year-old Gordian III emperor. deifying his father Marinus – an unprecedented
Finally, the empire seemed to have a ruler both move for a man who had never been emperor.
the military and nobles could agree upon. Eager Philip’s rule proved popular with the Senate,
to refill the treasury, the empire tightened up the as he defended the Danube against the Carpi
army, disbanding the legion responsible for the and Quadi and celebrated the Secular Games,
deaths of the first two Gordians. Though this made commemorating the first millennium of Rome.
way for the rebellion of Sabianus in Carthage, he Emboldened, he ceased paying the Goths
was quelled by the governor of Mauretania. subsidies, and when they responded by invading
However, the peace would not last. While Gaul Moesia and Thrace, two generals broke out
and Germany were ravaged by the Goths, to the in rebellion. On the Danube, Pacatianus, the
east the Persian king Ardashir had capitalised commander of Pannonia and Moesia, was
on Rome’s chaos and now loomed over Syria. In pronounced emperor by his men and minted coins
241 CE, Gordian’s Praetorian prefect, Timesitheus, in his name. Meanwhile, Jotapianus was declared
married his daughter to the emperor. After emperor in Cappadocia and similarly issued his
quashing the Goths and German tribes plaguing own coinage.
Illyricum, he travelled east with Gordian, attacking Overwhelmed, Philip offered to resign but the
the Persians in 243 CE. However, having won senator Trajan Decius reassured him, leading to
numerous battles he died at the peak of the the campaign against Pacatianus. When Decius
conflict, and Gordian marched into the Persian defeated the rebel, who was killed by his own men,
The usurper Ingenuus was proclaimed emperor at
capital of Ctesiphon with the new prefect, Philip the his army proclaimed him emperor. In the ensuing
Illyricum, killing Gallienus’ son before being murdered Arab. Whether murdered or slain in battle, Gordian civil war, Decius emerged supreme and Philip was
by his own soldiers
soon died, and Philip was nominated his successor. killed. Back in Rome, in order to simplify matters,

68
 THE CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY

the Praetorians ruthlessly murdered Philip’s 11-year-

MEET THE BARBARIANS

old son.
When Decius was confirmed emperor in 249 CE,
hoping to bring his people together, he re-embraced
Rome loosely referred to the unsettled tribes beyond and conflict, usually depending on how strong the
the traditional Roman religion, reviving rituals
its borders as ‘barbarians’ – people who, they empire was. A hallmark of Roman diplomacy was to
and restoring temples. Conversely, he banned any traditionally believed, lived a life of raping and pillaging. ally with client kings, gifting them cash, supplies, food,
cult he considered detrimental to Roman unity However, these groups were far from homogenous, experts or other payments in kind.
– most notoriously Christianity. Christians across with each possessing distinctive leadership structures, In the 3rd century, the empire had a notoriously
the empire were ordered to make sacrifices to the languages and lifestyles. difficult time with its neighbouring tribes, who had
Roman gods or face execution. They had also been assimilated into the Roman begun to form large confederations, chiefly the
army, and even society. The Gauls, who had once Germanic Alemanni and Franks along the Upper and
In 250 CE the Carpi invaded Dacia and the Goths
sacked Rome, played a crucial role in the armies of the Lower Rhine, the Vandals along the Danube, and the
attacked Moesia. Having defeated the Carpi, Decius 3rd century, as did Palmyrene archers. Postumus even newly encountered Goths. Other tribes included the
nominated his son Herennius Etruscus a fellow recruited Franks to fight against other Franks. Germanic Juthungi, Marcomanni and Quadi north of
Augustus and left his younger son Hostilianus As such, Rome’s relationship with its bordering tribes the Danube, the Black Sea Heruli, as well as the Carpi
in Rome with the esteemed senator Valerian. was complex at best, ebbing between co-operation and the Sarmatians, originally from Iran.
Regardless, the Romans rose up in rebellion
against their absent emperor, nominating the
senator Licinianus his replacement. Though this
informal claim was quickly suppressed, Decius and
Herennius Etruscus were killed chasing the Goths
into modern Bulgaria. The legions pronounced the
governor of Moesia, Gallus, the new emperor.
Desperate to get back to Rome, Gallus resumed
payments to the Goths and let them make off
with their booty and slaves. Back in the capital he
adopted Hostilianus, making him and his biological
son joint Augusti. In 252 CE the empire was
decimated by a plague, which killed Hostilianus,
and Ardashir’s son Shapur then mounted a fresh
invasion. As Nisibis and Antioch fell, the Syrians
turned to Uranius Antoninus, who minted his own
coins but soon faded into obscurity.
More significantly, along the Danube in Lower
Moesia, the soldiers proclaimed the governor
Aemilius Aemilianus emperor. Aemilianus once
The Romans fought the Goths
again ceased payments to the Goths and defeated many times over the 3rd century,
them before writing to the Senate proposing a with Decius and his son Herrenius
Etruscus both killed in battle
power-share. As the usurper marched towards
Rome, Gallus sent Valerian and the Rhine legions to

deal with him, but they instead declared Valerian Silvanus. In his absence the Goths laid waste to
emperor. Panicked, Gallus’ men killed him and his the Black Sea coast while the Alamanni surged
son, and Aemilianus’ army followed suit. into Germany and Rhaetia. Elsewhere, in Pannonia,
After decades of chaos, Valerian knew the the locals nominated the general Regalianus their
empire’s problems were far too great for any one emperor only to then lose their chosen ruler to the
man to cope with. Nominating his son Gallienus invading Sarmatians.
joint emperor, he rode east to Antioch to fight off In Syria, Valerian’s crippled former logistical
the Persians, while Gallienus went to secure the officer Macrianus named his two sons, Macrianus
Rhine and Danube from Germanic barbarians. Minor and Quietus, joint Augusti. Simultaneously,
After a brief family reunion in Cologne in 257 in Gaul, the Batavian general Postumus was
CE, Valerian launched a violent persecution of the nominated emperor by his men, murdering
Christians before travelling back to the eastern Silvanus and Saloninus and forming the Gallic
frontier. In 260 CE, with Gallienus preparing to Empire alongside Britain and Spain.
battle the Alemanni from Milan, Valerian’s army Facing multiple fronts, Gallienus reformed the
was annihilated at Edessa. Foolishly, he agreed to military, amalgamating all his cavalry under the
meet Shapur only to be kidnapped and taken to leadership of a single trusted general, Aureolus, in
Persia. In the wake of this ultimate humiliation the Milan. He also appointed equestrians rather than
powder keg exploded. senators into high office and began to debase his
In Illyricum, the general Ingenuus was currency, leading to a huge spike in inflation.
proclaimed emperor and proceeded to kill Aureolus intercepted and killed Macrianus Major
Gallienus’ son, Valerian the Younger, before and Minor in Pannonia, while Quietus was killed
Decius, one of the century’s senatorial
being murdered by his own men. With the east by the Palmyrene general Odaenathus. Mussius
emperors, launched a violent persecution of the crumbling, Gallienus left Cologne in the hands of Aemilianus, a supporter of the Macriani, had no
Christians and was killed fighting the Goths
his younger son Saloninus, along with his advisor choice but to declare for himself in Egypt but was

69
 ROMAN EMPERORS

later rushed to Rome to have Gallienus deified.

“At his most glorious moment, While Zenobia had swept through Syria and Egypt
– taking over Rome’s bread basket – Claudius had
for which he was named Parthicus more pressing matters to attend to.
Having recently discovered ships, the Goths
Maximus, he died suddenly” had amassed an army of 300,000 that they were
now readying to unleash on the Romans. The two
promptly dealt with. Having been named governor commanders raised a false alarm and murdered sides clashed at the Battle of Naissus, with Claudius
of all the east, Odaenathus was later murdered, him. Postumus, too, would be killed by his annihilating the Goths and earning himself the
leaving his wife, Zenobia, ruling as queen regent. followers for the crime of refusing to let them sack name Claudius Gothicus.
Presiding over a powerful polity in its own right, a conquered city. After defeating the Alemanni at Lake Garda,
she declared independence. Gallienus was replaced by Claudius II, a general he received the additional title of Germanicus
With Gallienus busy dealing with the barbarians who may have played a role in his master’s death. Maximus. However, in 270 CE, while fighting
assaulting Thrace, Athens, Sparta, Corinth and When Aureolus handed himself over, expecting against the Juthungi and Vandals near the Danube,
Thessalonica, Aureolus suddenly rose up in mercy, he was promptly put to the sword. Claudius the emperor succumbed to the plague, but not
revolt. As Gallienus lay siege to Milan, one of his silenced any dissent with generous donatives and before nominating his brother Quintillus as his
successor. The soldiers, meanwhile, declared for
Aurelian, one of Claudius’ most senior officers, who
With the Italian peninsula
vulnerable to invading tribes, was busy fighting the Vandals and Juthungi – news
Aurelian built a wall around Rome so shocking Quintillus supposedly slit his wrists.
Aurelian immediately began minting gold coins
to give to his men. His reputation preceded him;
he was nicknamed manu ad ferrum, or ‘sword
in hand’, for his martial vigour and unapologetic
resolve. He defeated the Juthungi, taking 40,000
horsemen and 80,000 soldiers before letting them
return home. Meanwhile, he destroyed the land

Although Emperor Gallus hurried

back to Rome to shore up support,
when Valerian’s army declared for
him he was murdered

70
 THE CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY

around the Vandals, starving them out, and later

demanded 2,000 horsemen in return for food and
safe passage.
Returning to Rome, he quashed a mint workers’
revolt before suppressing the rebellions of the
usurpers Septiminus, Domitianus and Urbanus. In
the capital, he handed out money to the masses
and cancelled all debts to the treasury, burning
records, before raising taxes on the wealthy. He
stripped the Senate of their legislative powers and
even their authority to issue coinage. After chasing
the Juthungi out of Italy, he also built a wall around
Rome, creating a serious deterrent to invading
tribesmen without the means to mount a siege.
When Zenobia’s son, Vaballathus, proclaimed
himself emperor in Palmyra, Aurelian knew it was
time to act. Heading east, he wiped out the Goths
while one of his generals retook Egypt. He clashed
with Zenobia just east of Antioch, where, utilising
a false retreat, he ambushed and decimated the
enemy’s heavy cavalry. After another victory at
Emesa, he besieged Palmyra itself and captured
Zenobia en route to Persia.
On the way back west he defeated the Carpi
on the Danube before returning east to defeat a
Palmyrene rebellion. This time he razed the city
to the ground before wiping out a similar revolt in
Egypt and punishing the locals by raising taxes.
Following the death of Postumus, his successors
Marius and Victorinus were both murdered. The
final Gallic emperor, Tetricus, betrayed his empire
to Aurelian, begging him to relieve him of his duty.
In the meantime another pretender, Faustinus,
popped up at Trier, but he did not last long. After
defeating the Gallic Empire at Châlons-sur-Marne,
Aurelian was proclaimed Restorer of the World,
holding a great triumph at Rome where he paraded
Zenobia and Tetricus in chains.
In recognition of his accomplishments Aurelian
was named a living god. Seeking to restore prestige Claudius Gothicus carried on
to the purple, he wore a diadem, actively building Gallienus’ work, defeating
the Goths and the Alemanni
his cult of personality. He introduced the Sun god, before dying of the plague
Sol, as the pre-eminent deity, rebranding traditional
religion in the most inclusive manner possible. The either killed by his own men or perhaps forced to up in rebellion. The men sent to put him down
emperor also attempted to revive the devastated commit suicide. instead joined his cause and proclaimed him
economy, improving the quality of severely Probus secured the Rhine and Danube, emperor in 282 CE. Without paying lip service
debased silver and gold currencies. rebuilding damaged cities and forts and allegedly to the Senate, he elevated his sons Carinus and
In 275 CE, with Persia weakened by a defeating nine barbarian kings. Hoping to secure Numerian to joint Augusti, sending Carinus to the
successional crisis, Aurelian turned his attention a lasting peace, he settled the tribes inside the west and Numerian to the east.
east. However, while marching through Thrace empire with mixed results. Probus had to put With the Persians in no position to resist, Carus
he fell victim to a conspiracy. An official had down rebellions in Africa, as well as a usurper marched all the way to Ctesiphon. However, at his
somehow convinced several army officers that the called Saturninus, who was declared emperor in most glorious moment, for which he was named
infamously stern emperor planned to kill them. Syria or Egypt. Two more pretenders, Bonosus and Parthicus Maximus, he died suddenly. During the
Fearing the worst, as Aurelian left the city with Proculus, were dealt with at Cologne. retreat west, his son Numerian also died.
a small guard they fell upon him, murdering the Having defeated usurpers, pirates and brigands Though fanciful, tradition dictates that the
man who had saved the world. alike, Probus enjoyed a triumph in 281 CE. He had Praetorian prefect Aper kept Numerian’s death
At the urging of the army, the Senate nominated his men plant vines and work on drainage systems, a secret so he could seize power, but he was
the elderly senator Tacitus his successor. He would indicating that peace had perhaps come at last. betrayed by the stench of his master’s corpse.
die just six months later having scored several Like Aurelian, having strengthened the empire, he Numerian was instead replaced by the
victories over the Goths. Simultaneously, his half- decided to have another go at the Persians, and, commander of his guard, Diocles, who personally
brother, Florian, a Praetorian prefect, and Probus, like his predecessor, he was promptly assassinated executed Aper in front of his men, fulfilling a
the commander of Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt, before the campaign even began. prophecy that he would one day become emperor;
were both proclaimed emperor by their armies. His replacement was Carus, a Praetorian prefect an emperor who would forever change the face of
The two clashed at Tarsus, where Florian was in Rhaetia and Noricum who had already risen an empire dragged to hell and back.

71
 ROMAN EMPERORS

DIOCLETIAN
& MAXIMIAN
After decades of political turmoil that approached the level of
anarchy, two old army pals sought to restore the empire’s fortunes
Written by Jon Wright

I
n 289, an anonymous orator launched into one If we are to believe the sources, Diocletian’s able soldier. This was reflected in the terms often
of those astonishingly sycophantic panegyrics ascendancy came as a huge relief, and can be seen applied to them: Diocletian being wise Jove, and
that had always been lavished on Roman as marking the end of the turmoil that had blighted Maximian being Hercules, the man who could get
emperors. With a focus on Maximian, co-emperor the previous decades. One poem, penned in 285, things done. It is important to stress, however, that
of Diocletian, the orator raced through a list of “the was particularly effusive: “Zeus took pity at last on in many ways, Diocletian was the senior partner in
victories which exalted your reputation”, praised the human race and gave the lordship of all the the relationship, and the two men did not always
the emperor’s “divine foresight”, and concluded earth and the sea to godlike king Diocletian.” He get along.
that, with Maximian on the scene, even Alexander had “extinguished the memory of former griefs” Things got off to an excellent start. Diocletian
the Great “now seems insignificant to me”. Better and “the whole land takes delight in its joy as at secured victories against old enemies like the
yet, he had the greatest of allies in Diocletian: “The the light of a golden age”. As he began his rule, Sarmatians, and even achieved détente with Persia.
harmony between you is ever increasing and you Diocletian behaved with restraint. There were no Bahram II, the Persian ruler, sent gifts, extended
are brothers in virtue, which is a surer tie than invitations for the 3rd-century equivalent of a state
visit, and even allowed Diocletian control over
any tie of blood.” Things certainly seemed to be
looking brighter in 289 than during the dark days “Diocletian’s Armenia. In the empire’s western half, Maximian
also made headway. He took on the Bagaudae of
of the so-called Crisis of the Third Century. Though,
beyond the rhetoric, troubles still lay ahead. ascendancy Gaul with some success, and confronted an array of
Germanic tribes. The orator in 289 insisted that, in
It had all begun with Diocletian. Born in around
the year 244 in Dalmatia, Diocletian had humble
roots. He was known as Diocles back then, only
[marked] the end the wake of any victories, Maximian always tried
to show clemency. He was faced by people set on
adopting the more glamorous Latinate name of
Diocletian after becoming emperor. He rose swiftly
of the turmoil that “insane mutual destruction throughout the world,”
but while they were “suppressed by your bravery,”
through the military, reaching the rank of cavalry
commander and acquitting himself well in battle.
had blighted the they were “calmed by your mercy.”
“Savage despotism” was the furthest thing
The empire’s descent into chaos turned out to
be Diocletian’s golden opportunity. Following the
previous decades” from Maximian’s mind. This was the kind of
thing Roman crowds always liked to hear: the
death of Carus, Numerian (one of his sons) was purges, and most officials and provincial governors ideal soldier-emperor was supposed to be tough
assassinated. Diocletian killed the alleged assassin, were allowed to remain in office. The trouble but fair. How far it reflects the reality is unclear,
Aper (a Praetorian prefect and Numerian’s father- was that Diocletian had to govern a huge empire, and subsequent events certainly cast doubt. The
in-law). Earlier in life, a druidess had predicted that ranging from Gaul to Egypt, which was brimful Germanic tribes refused to simmer down and,
Diocletian would become emperor if he slayed of enemies. He turned to Maximian, with whom in the years up to 288, a ruthless, scorched-earth
a boar. Aper turned out to be the boar and, on he had likely served on campaign, and appointed policy – crops and food set aflame – was adopted,
the very same day in 284, he was proclaimed as him as Caesar in 285. Within a year, Maximian was with Diocletian travelling west to lend a hand in
emperor by his troops. This did leave the small granted the loftier title of Augustus, and became a the carnage.
matter of Carus’ other son, Carinus. Diocletian fully fledged co-emperor. He would watch over the During this period a serious problem arose in
quickly announced that Carinus was a tyrant, western half of the empire, while Diocletian would another part of the empire. Maximian entrusted
headed west, and at the Battle of the Margus, in focus on the east. In many ways, it was an imperial Carausius with the task of blotting out piracy in the
present-day Serbia, Carinus met his maker, killed dream team: Diocletian was the better strategist seas above northern Gaul. Carausius did well but
by his own troops. and politician, while Maximian was the more developed a bad habit of seizing the treasure and

72
 Diocletian, emperor of
Rome from 284 to 305 CE
 The Camp at Palmyra in the Syrian
desert: a major military headquarters

not returning it to its original owners. Maximian the house. All cried out with joy.” It is likely that
was displeased and ordered Carausius’ death. In Maximian would have been willing to tolerate
response, Carausius went over to Britain, declared Carausius, so long as he limited his sphere of
that he was the true Augustus and launched an influence, but Diocletian was having none of it.
open rebellion. Support in Britain and parts of This would be the spark that created the Tetrarchy,
northern Gaul was easily won, and the empire had but more on that later. There was simply too much
a potential usurper in its midst. An invasion plan to do, so a couple more deputy-emperors were
against Carausius failed – it may be that the required, bringing the total to four.
imperial fleet was simply lost at sea – This dynamic, if troubled period was
and in the winter of 290-291, about a good deal more than military
Maximian and Diocletian adventure and misadventure.
met in Milan (they Diocletian, especially,
would not see each was an extremely hard-
other again until working politician with
303) to discuss a keen eye for detail.
strategy. They Censuses were taken
seem to have and the empire’s
put on quite armies doubled in size,
the show. By though some might
one account, say that Diocletian was
when the two a little too keen when
emperors rode it came to fine-tuning
through the city’s the empire’s affairs. His
streets “every man, restructuring of the imperial
woman, tiny child administration and provincial
and aged person networks added layer upon
either ran out through layer of bureaucracy and, along
their doors into the with all the wars, resulted in The Baths of Diocletian in
open or hung out of tax hikes that pleased no one. Rome, commissioned by the
emperor in the late 3rd century
the upper thresholds of He was, though, an avid builder

74
Diocletian, the great restorer
of the empire’s fortunes
 DIOCLETIAN & MAXIMIAN

and even the devastating wars produced useful

improvements in roads, town walls and defences.
The crowning achievement on the military front
was the Ripa Sarmatia, a series of improved forts
that stretched for 200 miles along the Danube: a
necessary measure since parts of the river could
freeze over in winter, making it all too easy for
invaders to sneak across. The truly memorable
architectural achievements had little to do with
martial matters, however. The Diocletian Baths
in Rome, commissioned by the emperor himself,
were an astonishing sight, crammed with mosaics
and sculptures, and able to accommodate some
3,000 people. Diocletian’s huge palace at Split – his
retirement home – was one of the wonders of the
ancient world.
Notable, also, is that the ‘Roman’ nature of the
Roman Empire became increasingly insignificant.
Diocletian did not set foot in
The Diocletian Palace in
the city until 303, and Split, where the abdicated
the old concept of emperor spent his final years
the empire’s centre
being wherever in renewed conflicts with the Sarmatians his time between periods of depression and happier
the emperor and Persians), confront revolts in Egypt, moments tending to his gardens close by the
happened to be and inflict one of the worst periods of Adriatic sea: vegetables were his chief passion. It
situated took persecution on the fledgling Christian was a long way from the imperial glory days when
hold. Not that faith. The latter was particularly galling he wore a crown at every opportunity, forbade
Diocletian’s for his wife, Prisca, and daughter, Valeria, anyone else from wearing purple silk, and only
tenure would who appear to have had Christian allowed the highest and the mightiest to kiss his
last forever. Under sympathies. By 305, plagued by ill health, robes. Pruning had replaced the extraordinarily
the Tetrarchy, he Maximian, Diocletian’s Diocletian would abdicate – a shocking elaborate rules of protocol. Diocletian died, a broken
would continue his co-emperor and a event in the context of Roman history. He man, on a date that historians have never been able
military success story,
military exploits (engaging most of the time returned to his Dalmatian homeland and divided to pin down with precision.

Fausta, the ill-fated

WIVES AND
daughter of Maximian

DAUGHTERS
Rather too frequently, the women in
emperors’ lives were treated as political
pawns, and they could sometimes
meet grizzly ends. Maximian and
his wife Eutropia’s daughter, Fausta,
appeared to secure an enviable
marriage – albeit one of political
convenience – to Constantine the
Great. Constantine was even willing to
set aside his existing wife. It all ended
rather badly, however, and Constantine
would order Fausta’s death: she was
thrown into a vat of boiling water.
Diocletian’s family did not fare any
better in the long run. Wife Prisca and
daughter Valeria had to live through the
spectacle of Christian persecutions –
they were sympathetic to the faith and
© Getty Images, Antmoose / Anthony M, Bernard Gagnon,

perhaps even believers – and Valeria

endured a very unhappy and childless
marriage of convenience with Galerius.
Following Diocletian’s death, with the
troubles of the Tetrarchy mounting,
G.dallorto, Mbzt, Rasiel Suarez

they embarked upon a constant search

for refuge. Sadly, they were spotted in
Thessaloniki, were beheaded, and had
their bodies cast into the sea. High status
carried its risks in the Roman Empire.

75
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE
TETRARCHY One emperor not enough? Let’s have four
Written by Edoardo Albert

B
y the end of the 3rd century, the Roman the general led, there was also an incentive to
Empire, long the colossus of the world, was acclaim their general emperor: a successful bid for
tottering. It was beset by enemies from the purple would ensure that every man in the
without and torn by division from within. The usurping general’s army would be well rewarded
long series of crises that had preceded Diocletian’s for their support.
accession to the imperial throne had seen a It was a recipe for chronic chaos and instability.
succession of emperors reigning briefly, only to be This Diocletian, secure on the throne for the
cut down by assassins and usurpers. moment, saw with all the clarity of a man who
The chief problem was that Rome was being had fought his way up from the depths of Roman
assailed by powerful foes on different fronts: in the society. For the empire to survive, it needed more
east, the Sasanian Empire, the last iteration of the emperors. So Diocletian made one. And then, when
various Persian Empires of ancient history, was that worked, he added two more. That, in a nutshell,
a serious rival to Rome. Indeed, so powerful had was the Tetrarchy, although the name itself is a
the Sasanian Empire become that in 260 CE, its much later invention.

“That an emperor might be treated

in such a way was an extraordinary
humiliation for Rome”
ruler Shapur defeated and captured Valerian, the Maximian was the first co-ruler that Diocletian
emperor of Rome, holding him captive for the rest appointed, giving him the title Caesar (that
of his life. That an emperor might be treated in is junior ruler) in 285 CE before making him
such a way was an extraordinary humiliation for Augustus (co-emperor) in 286. Maximian came
Rome. Meanwhile, a seemingly endless succession from a background that was almost as humble as
of barbarian tribes were attempting to infiltrate Diocletian’s own – his family were shopkeepers
across Rome’s long northern frontier, while and he had entered imperial service as a young
Germanic pirates were raiding the shores of the man. Born around 250 CE, by 285 Maximian was
North Sea. a seasoned veteran who had learned his trade
With so many enemies threatening the empire, soldiering on Rome’s frontiers in the war against
the emperor essentially needed to be everywhere, aggressive Germanic tribes. Where Diocletian was
for without his personal presence things simply the consummate politician, Maximian’s interests
did not get done. However, the multiple, widely did not stretch much further than the battlefield,
separated enemies threatening Rome meant that making him the ideal candidate for co-ruler. There
sometimes he had to entrust legions to a general is also circumstantial evidence to suggest the two
to deal with one threat while he faced another. The men were old colleagues.
problem with this, though, was that a successful Although the empire was beset on all sides,
general might all too readily decide to make a its chief enemies were the Sasanians in the east
play for the top job himself. For the legions that and the Germanic tribes in the north. Diocletian

76
 A stickler for the old
ways, Diocletian also
unleashed the last great
anti-Christian persecution
by the Roman Empire
 A relief from the Arch of Galerius
shows the emperor attacking the
Sassanid Shah Narses

took the rule of the eastern half of the empire so Maximian appointed Carausius as commander The relative success of the rule of two combined
for himself, while allotting the western half to be of the combined navy and army on what came to with the continuing issues of rebellion and invasion
controlled by Maximian. be called the Saxon Shore, giving him Maximian’s suggested to Diocletian that two emperors weren’t
As ruler of the west, Maximian put down a revolt own ships to deal with the threat. But, in an ironic actually enough: the empire needed more. So in
among the Gauls before returning to the Rhine recapitulation of the problems of the previous 293 CE, the diarchy became a tetrarchy, with two
frontier to deal with Germanic incursions. However, decades, Carausius’ success led to his naming Caesars appointed as junior rulers alongside the
ship-born pirates, the Saxons, were causing havoc himself Augustus of an independent state in Britain. two senior Augusti. Galerius, born a herdsman,
along the coasts of Britain and the Low Countries, The rebel state would endure for ten years. had risen through the ranks of the army and

THE TETRARCHY
MAPPED
Who was in charge of what
The four tetrarchs each established regional headquarters. While the
tetrarchs themselves led peripatetic existences campaigning against
the empire’s many enemies, their capitals became administrative
and military centres. Rome remained the capital of the empire with a
Prefect of the City. Diocletian, guarding the east against Rome’s most
dangerous enemy, the Sasanian Empire, made Nicomedia his capital
(İzmit in Turkey). From there he could react to danger both from the
Persians to the east and incursions across the Danube into Thracia.
Galerius, Diocletian’s Caesar, made Sirmium his capital (Sremska
Mitrovica in Serbia), from where he guarded the Balkans and the
Danube frontier. Maximian, Augustus of the West, made Mediolanum
(Milan) his headquarters, from where he administered Italy, Spain and
north Africa; his province was the one least affected by barbarian
incursions. Finally, the Caesar of the west, Constantinus Chlorus, made
his headquarters at Augusta Treverorum (Trier in Germany), near the
strategic, and often crossed, Rhine border. Given the exigencies of
warfare and statecraft, a Caesar might find himself campaigning in the
territory of his Augustus, and vice versa. As the territories were more
spheres of main influence rather than strict boundaries, this did not
cause difficulties for the operation of the Tetrarchy.

78
 THE TETRARCHY

Augustus. However, Maxentius, the overlooked son

of the original tetrarch Maximian, raised an army
to pursue his claim to the throne and, meeting
Severus in battle, defeated him and later arranged
his assassination. Just to make things really
complicated, Maximian came out of retirement to
declare himself Augustus again.
In an effort to sort out the mess, in 308 CE
Galerian called a conference with Diocletian and
Maximian (the original tetrarch). The solution –
installing a new Augustus, Licinius, in the west with
Constantine as his Caesar, while Galerius remained
Augustus in the east with Maximinus as his Caesar
– only made things worse. Maxentius retained
power in Italy and Africa while Constantine was not
at all happy to see Licinius promoted over his head.
Faced with such a mess, there was only one way
of resolving who held power: war. A messy series
of civil wars between 309 and 313 CE gradually
whittled down the number of claimants to the
throne. Maximian, the original tetrarch, was invited
to commit suicide by Constantine in 310 CE, while
his son, Maxentius, was defeated by Constantine
at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE. In the
east, Galerius died from natural causes in 311 CE
and Licinius defeated Maximinus in 313 CE, after
which Maximinus committed suicide. So by 313
The peristyle of Diocletian’s CE, there were two emperors left standing. The
Palace in Split, Croatia
tetrarchy had returned to its original form of a
diarchy, with Constantine the ruler of the western
Diocletian adopted him as his Caesar, marrying his other’s abilities and, while imperial propaganda Roman Empire and Licinius in charge of the east.

© Getty, Coppermine Photo Gallery

daughter to him and giving into his authority the portrayed the tetrarchs as equal, in practice But the peace between Constantine and Licinius
Roman province of Iliyria (essentially the Balkans). Diocletian remained primus inter pares. was uneasy; it did not take a particularly insightful
Meanwhile, Maximian adopted Constantius As the 20 years Diocletian had planned on observer to suspect that, in the end, the empire
Chlorus, who divorced his wife, Helena to marry ruling drew to a close, the emperor could look with might only be big enough for one emperor.
Maximian’s daughter. History, however, would satisfaction upon an empire that had recovered
prove Helena was not a woman to be put aside. its strength and prestige: government had been
But while Diocletian had no sons, and therefore centralised – albeit at four different centres – to a
could not have his issue inherit the throne, degree never before seen, the imperial bureaucracy
Maximian did. His son was called Maxentius and had been strengthened and its tax-raising powers
he was none too pleased to be passed over for the raised considerably. The empire now had funds to
rank of Caesar in favour of Constantius Chlorus. pay for legions sufficient to defend its borders.
However, with Diocletian still in overall charge By all accounts weary after his labours, Diocletian
of the empire, Maxentius had no choice but to went through with his plan to step down from
accept Diocletian’s decision that the Augusti should government. Maximian, although less eager to
choose their heirs from outside their family, as abdicate, had no choice but to relinquish the purple,
had been done by the 2nd-century emperors from too. The two Augusti retired to substantial country
Nerva through to Marcus Aurelius, whose reigns palaces – the palace of Diocletian forms the centre of
were a golden age of peace and stability. the Croatian city of Split and appeared in Game of
Diocletian’s plan was that after ruling for 20 Thrones, while the new Augusti, Constantinus Chlorus
years as Augustus, he and Maximian would in the west and Galerius in the east, appointed two
voluntarily step aside, installing their Caesars, new Caesars: Flavius Valerius Severus became Caesar
Galerius and Constantinus Chlorus, as the new to Constantinus Chlorus and Maximinus (there are a
Augusti, whereupon two new Caesars would be confusing number of Maxs during the next decade)
appointed who would in due turn ascend to the Caesar to Galerius.
status of Augustus, and thus the cycle would be set So the first stage of Diocletian’s plan to avoid the
up to continue. succession crises of the 3rd century had worked.
Under the rule of the four, the empire stabilised But events, as they will, threw a spanner into the
and its string of military setbacks was reversed. plans. On 25 July 306 CE, Constantius Chlorus
Constantius reincorporated Britain back into the died, just over a year into the second tetrarchy. He
empire. Galerius defeated the Sasanian forces, died in the far north of his province, in the city of
forcing terms favourable to Rome on to the York in Britannia, and his legions acclaimed as his The tetrarchs portrayed as
Persians. The tetrarchs were four tough and successor his popular son, Constantine. Meanwhile, completely united and, as a sign of
this, all sculpted with the same face
experienced military men who respected each Galerius, following the plan, promoting Severus to
 4 TH
CENTURY
As the Roman Empire begins its switch to Christianity,
meet the emperors who shunned the pagan religion

82 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT

80
86 CONSTANTINE'S DYNASTY

94 THE VALENTINIANS 96 THE THEODOSIANS

81
 ROMAN EMPERORS

306-337 CE
CONSTANTINE
THE GREAT
Christians had been lion fodder for centuries, but under
Constantine they clawed their way to acceptability

T
he young Roman emperor peered opposing men were duly defeated by his army and Rome had been infamously unkind to Christians.
skywards towards the clouds, deep in Maxentius drowned in the River Tiber, Constantine It had been the case from the very beginning: Jesus
prayer in an area of northern Rome was said to have attributed the victory to the had been crucified in 33 CE despite great reluctance
between the Milvian Bridge and Saxa Rubra, a Christian God – a moment that paved the way for on the part of Judaea’s governor Pontius Pilate.
village on the ancient Via Flaminia. As the ruler a huge change in the way the empire viewed the But when followers began to believe that Christ
of Britain and Gaul in an empire by now split fast-growing Christian religion. Constantine, until had risen, a distinct religious sect began to grow.
into territories, Constantine had travelled a great then a pagan monotheist, promptly turned years of Persecution of the Christians began when Rome
distance to wage war against his brother-in-law Christian persecution on its head and began to fully suffered a ferocious fire in 64 CE, which burned for
Maxentius, who had seized control of central and support the movement. six days and destroyed one-third of the city. Emperor
southern Italy from Emperor Galerius to become Of course, this all sounds very fanciful, with Nero sought to temper accusations that he had
the region’s self-proclaimed imperial leader. many a historian casting doubt on such claims started it by pointing the finger at the Christians
It was 27 October 312 CE and what Constantine (some say Christianity was instilled in him by instead. He gathered up some of the followers and
saw that day as his armies engulfed them in flames.
prepared for battle gave
him great confidence “Constantine, until then a pagan Rome suddenly had
an enemy within, Nero
that he would defeat his
rival, and it went on to monotheist, promptly turned years of suggested, and widespread
disapproval of them grew.
change the entire course
of religion in the empire. Christian persecution on its head” Christians would be
executed in large numbers,
For according to Eusebius, usually for entertainment
one of the early historians of the Christian Church, his mother, Helena, but this hasn’t been verified in the Colosseum and provincial arenas. Domitian,
while Constantine prayed at noon, a “marvellous either). Although a team of geologists in 2003 who ruled between 81 and 96 CE, made being
sign appeared to him from heaven”. It was, he said, found evidence that pointed to a meteor appearing Christian illegal, but it didn’t appear to deter the
the Chi-Rho (the combination of Greek X and P, the over central Italy in 312, perhaps explaining the religion’s growth. On 7 March 203, Vibia Perpetua
first two letters of the name of Christ) just above light across the sky, an account just one year later was among five Christians led into an arena in
the Sun, bearing a Greek inscription that translated makes no reference to the cross appearing from the Carthage, North Africa. Wild beasts attacked them
as “in this sign conquer”. heavens. The first time the dream and the scrawl and Perpetua was wounded by a bull – a sword
Constantine believed this to be a divine on the shields appeared to make it into literature finishing her off. And yet it was seen as a victory
intervention, a hunch confirmed to him in a dream was at the hands of the Christian author Lactantius for faith over death by the Christians who were
that night when he recalled Jesus Christ had willed in 314 CE. But whatever the motivation, the unafraid of becoming martyrs and could show the
him to use the cross in battle. He did, painting the outcome was the same: Constantine would come Romans that persecution was pointless. Christians
first two letters of Christ’s name in Greek on the to believe he was the 13th apostle and he would go continued to be killed, though – Diocletian was
soldier’s shields. Little surprise, then, that when the down in history as the first Christian emperor. tyrannical against them – but it only served to make

82
 A painting depicting the
First Council of Nicaea
which was produced in the
first half of 16th century
 Raphael’s depiction of
Constantine the Great defeating
Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge

the religion stronger. It was in this environment Holy Scriptures being burned, church property that people were free to worship any deity they
that Constantine came to rule from 306 CE. As being investigated and privileges and rights being wished, heralding what is widely seen as the
a ruthless, commendable soldier who had risen removed. But it was under Constantine that the touchstone of religious tolerance. For the first time,
through the empire’s eastern ranks to become a greater strides were made. religions, whether Jewish, Christian, pagan or those
military tribune under Diocletian and Galerius, In February 313 CE, he and Licinius, who that followed the traditional Roman gods, could all
he would have had first-hand experience of how controlled the Balkans, met in Milan and thrashed exist together.
the Romans treated the Christians. But, just as out an agreement that promised religious toleration But it was also the first time Christianity had
importantly, he would have seen how his father, for Christianity within the Roman Empire. “No one been backed by the Roman Empire. It became
Constantius, played no part in such persecutions. whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to institutionalised, with male bishops becoming
Constantius had became the senior Western give his heart to the observance of the Christian government figures and women pushed into the
emperor to rule Britain and Gaul in 305 CE, and religion,” it said. In recognition of the empire being background. At the same time, Christian property
Constantine, born in the west of the empire, had predominantly non-Christian, it also proclaimed was returned and churches were permitted. But
returned to his roots to be with him shortly after.
He barely got time to know his father, who died on
25 July 306 CE during a winter break in a battle Defining moment Defining moment
against the Picts. But, on Constantius’ deathbed Trouble and strife
Constantine sent east
recommendation, Constantine was promptly hailed 306 CE
293 CE
Augustus by his troops. And while he was only In order for Diocletian to foster loyalty among When Constantine gave notice to Galerius that
accepted as Caesar of the west by Galerius, there those who promoted to rule Rome’s territories, he was now the emperor, the eastern leadery
was a sense of change in the air. sons – including Constantine – were sent eastward. refused to acknowledge the status and instead
There they resided in Diocletian’s court where granted him the title of Caesar, handing the
To many people’s surprise, Galerius ended the
they were trained as fighters, taught both Latin honour of Augustus to Severus. But Constantine
Diocletianic Persecution of Christianity by issuing and Greek, and became schooled in the ways of still held great power, ruling over Britain, Gaul
an edict of toleration in Serdica in 311 CE, despite Rome so that, should the time come, they could be and Spain. When Maximian’s son, Maxentius,
being an opponent of the religion (although the effective emperors too. Diocletian ruled a period of rebelled in Rome, it was Severus who was sent to
growing threat to Rome’s imperial authority made relative stability, but mainly because of the way he deal with the situation. But he hadn’t reckoned
quashed those who threatened his power, among on Maxentius offering his father co-rule, their
the move inevitable). This meant Christianity would
them Christians. It is generally thought that joint force earning loyalty from the soldiers and
be recognised and accepted by the empire, and Constantine would have witnessed the relentless securing victory over Severus. The following year,
it ended eight years of churches being destroyed, persecution of the Christians. Severus was executed.

O Constantine is born O Father becomes Caesar O Father made emperor O Constantine proclaims
Although the actual Emperor Diocletian When Diocletian retired, himself emperor
year is not certain, appointed two junior both Constantius and When Constantius
Constantine was born emperors, or Caesars: Galerius were promoted died in Eboracum, or
to a Roman army elevating Galerius in to Augustus of their modern-day York, the
officer called Flavius the East and allowing territories. Constantine, Tetrarchy began to
Valerius Constantius Maximian to promote overlooked as Caesar unravel. Constantius
and his consort, Constantius in the West. at the time, travelled to had asked his soldiers
Helena, who today is It was part of a tetrarchy, Britain to help his father to make Constantine his
revered as a saint. or ‘rule of four’. on his campaign. successor, and they did.
February c.272 CE 293 CE 305 CE 306 CE

84
 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT

as well as restoring peace, stability and security, interpretation of the faith – but it allowed it to
Constantine also turned Christianity into a fighting firmly establish itself without fear.
religion and troops fought under the symbol of the Despite overseeing so much religious change,
cross. On 18 September 324, Constantine battled Constantine himself was only baptised during his
Licinius at Chrysopolis and won, leaving him the dying days, although that was quite common at
sole emperor of Rome, thus ending the Tetrarchy the time. His conversion to Christianity came in
that had cut the empire into four and had so 337 CE, shortly after Easter when he had fallen
caused the bitter divisions. ill. Choosing the River Jordan because it was said
The victor felt a fresh start was needed and so to be where Christ himself had been baptised by
he turned to the site of old Byzantium. There he John the Baptist, the Arianising bishop Eusebius
sought to established a new capital, Constantinople of Nicomedia performed the ceremony, absolving
– modern-day Istanbul in Turkey – which not only the emperor of the many sins he felt he had
bore his name but grew, after his death, into the accumulated. Constantine would die soon after
largest and wealthiest city in Europe. Thought to be on 22 May 337, aged 65, his legacy secure for the
easily defendable and holding a strategic position, centuries to come.

“It ended eight years The Column of Constantine in

of churches being Çemberlitaş was taken from

the Temple of Apollo in Rome
to Constantinople in 330 CE

destroyed, Holy
BUILDING A
Scriptures being NEW ROME
burned, church They say Rome wasn’t built in a day, and neither,
come to that, was the empire’s new capital, which
property being came to be built upon the Ancient Greek colony of
Byzantium. Constantine had earmarked the site in

investigated” 324 CE, noting that it stood between Europe and

Asia, far closer to the eastern part of the empire
than Rome and offering the chance of a fresh
start for a new, combined land that was brought
it also became a Christian city. Not that Rome
together under his rule.
wasn’t turned around, too; Constantine oversaw a The foot of Colossus of The New Rome was built over six years and it
massive religious building programme, ordering the Constantine at Musei was split into 14 regions, just like Rome had been.
Capitolini in Rome
construction of a basilica over the top of Ancient Consecrated in 330 CE, it was walled for defence
Rome’s Circus of Nero between 318 and 322. It was and filled with art taken from Greek and Roman
completed in 360 CE, years after his death. Vatican cities. There were new palaces and churches, and a
City is situated in that spot today. Defining moment ceremonial square – the Augustaion – was also laid,
surrounded by porticoes. But, since Christians were
But even then, Constantine’s Christian plans Battle of Mardia not in favour of the bloody gladiatorial games that
were not satiated and he went to great lengths to 317 CE had taken place elsewhere, the amphitheatre found
make the religion fully legalised across the empire. Although Constantine and Licinius had worked itself abandoned.
together – the Edict of Milan having paved the way
The First Council of Nicaea, a council of Christian The city became known as Constantinople, in
for Christian tolerance – any peace was not to last.
bishops, was convened in 325 CE. This ratified honour of the emperor, and it was seen as the
Constantine had invaded the Balkan provinces ruled
the doctrine of the Trinity: the combination of gateway to Europe. It was also the centre for
by Licinius the year before and now they were to
trade and, for a long time, the world’s largest and
the Jewish God as the Father, Jesus his son, and battle again. It led Licinius agreeing Constantine was
his superior in government and a peace which lasted richest city. But centuries later, as the Ottoman
the Holy Spirit being the natural force. The full Empire grew all around it, Christian Europe would
for seven years. In the meantime, Licinius (in 320) had
acceptance of Christianity didn’t lead to entirely begun to oppress Christians again. In 324, civil war eventually fear its fall. The city, then one of the last
peaceful times – Christians ended up turning broke out. There were numerous battled culminating bastions of the Roman Empire, finally succumbed
on each other amid controversy over the precise in Licinius being defeated in the Battle of Chrysopolis. to the Islamists in 1453 CE.

O Continued O Battle of the O Constantine backs O A United O First Council O Constantine

unsettling rebellion Milvian Bridge Christianity empire of Nicaea baptised and dies
Licinius had been appointed The rivalries having come 312 was said to have Constantine Constantine looked Constantine became
Augustus in the West, but to a head, Constantine and had a profound became sole to establish the first a Christian himself in
Maximian and Maxentius Maxentius – both brothers- effect on Constantine emperor. The ecumenical council of the last days of his life
still caused problems for in-law – fought a fierce and he ensured the Tetrarchy ended and he was free the Christian Church, when he washed away
Constantine. Maximian battle. Maxentius was killed. persecution of the to push forward with his vision and he laid many of the his sins in a baptism at
committed suicide in 310, The day before, Constantine Christians was over for the empire. He looked to traditions that would the River Jordan. He
© Getty Images

and the following year had apparently received a with a declaration of move the capital from Rome to become part and parcel then died of illness on
Maxentius fought Licinius. message from Christ. religious tolerance. what became Constantinople. of Christianity. 22 May 337.
310 CE 28 October 312 CE 313 CE 324 CE 325 CE 22 May 337 CE

85
 ROMAN EMPERORS

CONSTANTINE'S
DYNASTY As Constantine’s sons found to their cost, being the children of one
of Rome’s great rulers could be tricky – or even fatal
Written by Edoardo Albert

B
eing the son of the emperor was a privileged a new, political, wife: Fausta, the daughter of the children with him; while they were married in
position: all the wealth and resources of the Augustus Maximian, who had been one of the 307 CE, their first son, also called Constantine,
empire were devoted to the upbringing of the original tetrarchs alongside Diocletian. There is no was only born in 317. By then Crispus was already
son of Caesar. But it could also be a risky, even fatal, official record of Constantine divorcing Minervina, at least 12, and possibly quite a bit older. Fausta
relationship. So it proved for Constantine’s eldest which suggests that she was either a concubine did at least then produce two more sons in rapid
son, Flavius Julius Crispus. But it had not seemed or that by 307 CE Constantine was a widower. succession in Constantius and Constans, as well as
it would end that way. For many years, Crispus was However, although Constantine had, in marrying three daughters. But, in the race to be imperial heir,
his father’s trusted right-hand man, the Caesar to Fausta, married the daughter of an emperor, he Crispus had at least a decade headstart.
Constantine’s Augustus, and thus the most likely both acknowledged and adopted Crispus, his All the ancient records agree that Constantine
successor to the rulership of the empire. son by Minervina. In this Constantine followed was a good father to his eldest son and that
So great was Crispus’ eventual downfall that we the example of his own father, who had put Crispus was raised with all the advantages his birth
don’t even know the year of his birth (sometime aside Constantine’s mother, Helena, for a political could give, including being tutored by the leading
before 305 CE). We do know that his mother was marriage but who had nevertheless accepted his scholars of the day. By contrast, Constantine’s own
Minervina, but whether she was Constantine’s first son by Helena as his heir. education had been more piecemeal, and he always
wife or a concubine we again don’t know. What Constantine may have been influenced by remained more comfortable speaking and reading
we do know is that in 307 CE, Constantine had the length of time it took Fausta to produce any Latin rather than Greek.

An aerial view of the city Constantine

founded: New Rome, Constantinople

86
A colossal head of Constantine,
now in the Capitoline
Museum, Rome. Constantine
liked his statues big
 ROMAN EMPERORS

For his part, Crispus appears to have been a to damnatio memoriae: all official portraits, records
dutiful and able son, so much so that Constantine and memorials to Crispus and Fausta were painted
invested him Caesar on 1 March 317 CE (along over, burned and destroyed. They were expunged
with his half-brother Constantine, but as Fausta’s from history.
first son was still a baby, this was an honorific It wasn’t supposed to have been that way. In 326
rather than practical title). But Constantine was CE, Constantine had been emperor for 20 years – a
sufficiently confident of Crispus’ abilities to give notable achievement in itself. He had founded New
him military commands: his son bore out that Rome, Constantinople, in 324 CE but to celebrate
confidence by winning a succession of victories two decades in power and the consolidation of the
against barbarian tribes. So when the uneasy empire under his sole rule, Constantine decided
co-existence between Constantine, Augustus of to return to old Rome in 326 CE to mark his
the West, and Licinius, triumph. Sometime during
Augustus of the East,
came to an end in 324 CE,
“All official that journey he learned
intelligence concerning his
Constantine entrusted his
eldest son with command
portraits, records son that was so damning
that Crispus was hauled
of the fleet that won the
decisive Battle of the
and memorials to before a local court in
what is today Croatia,
Hellespont before helping
his father to final victory
Crispus and Fausta condemned and executed.
Within a couple of months
at the Battle of Chrysopolis
on 18 September 324 CE.
were painted over Fausta was also sentenced
to death and killed at her
As his father’s battle-
tested and trusted right-
and destroyed” husband’s command.
In Rome, Constantine
Constantine II, Constantine’s eldest
son with his wife, Fausta

hand man, the future of Cripus seemed assured: a refused to take part in pagan ritual sacrifices and
decade older than his half-brothers, he had earned was greeted coldly by the local aristocracy. It was no contemporary sources tell why the emperor’s
his father’s confidence and the approbation of the a short visit and one that he would never repeat: heir apparent and his wife were killed. The reason
people of Rome. from now on, Rome was to be left in splendid remains a mystery to this day, although there is
Less than two years later, Crispus was dead. Not isolation, the titular font of the empire but an origin general agreement that the deaths were linked in
long afterwards, the empress, Fausta, was dead too. now far from genuine power. some fashion.
Constantine had ordered the execution of his oldest So successful was the expunging of Crispus and The most popular explanation, and the one
son and his wife. Both of them were then subject Fausta from official and unofficial records that advanced in various forms by ancient authors, is

THE NEO-FLAVIAN DYNASTY

It’s time to meet the sons of Constantine

CONSTANTIUS
THEODORA CHLORUS
250–306 CE

JULIUS
CONSTANTINE
LICINIUS CONSTANTIA FAUSTA THE GREAT
CONSTANTIUS 263–325 CE 293–330 CE 289–326 CE 272–337 CE
DIED 337 CE

JULIAN HELENA CONSTANTINE II CONSTANTIUS II CONSTANS

331–363 CE DIED 360 CE 316–340 CE 317–361 CE 323–350 CE

JOVIAN CONSTANTIA GRATIAN

331–364 CE 361–383 CE 359–383 CE

88
 CONSTANTINE'S DYNASTY

The baptism of Constantine as

depicted by students of Raphael

that Fausta, wanting to ensure the accession of treason, and for that torture was allowed in the
her own sons to the throne, accused her stepson, case of credible accusation.
Crispus, of attempting to seduce or rape her. As However, here too Constantine drew back from
Constantine’s second wife, Fausta was nearer in age the full severity of his own laws when applied to
to Crispus than to her own husband. What’s more, his wife. Fausta was executed but, according to
Fausta was the daughter of Maximian and the ancient authors, her death was merciful (at least by
HELENA OF brother of Maxentius, both of whom died through Roman standards): she was locked in a sauna that
CONSTANTINOPLE the agency of her husband, Constantine. While was then heated until she died from hyperthermia.
250-330 CE ancient sources suggest Fausta had betrayed her Traumatised by the tragedy that had torn the
father’s machinations against Constantine to her imperial family apart, Constantine’s formidable
husband, the empress had motive – lots of it. mother went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land,
In 320 CE Constantine had enacted a severe the first such pilgrimage by so eminent a person,
law against the crime of rape (so violent was the where she found the remains of the tomb of
punishment that when the penalty was later Christ buried beneath the temple to Jupiter that
MINERVINA changed to simple execution it was seen as a the emperor Hadrian had built on Temple Mount
mercy). Bound by his own law, Constantine had in Jerusalem in his effort to extirpate for good
no choice but to execute his eldest, and beloved, and all the troublesomely fractious worship of the
son, although the sentence itself was not carried Jews and their Christian offshoot. In Palestine,
out to its normal ferocity, for Crispus was executed Helena embarked on a massive programme of
by poison (or possibly hanging – the few existing church building, as did Constantine, which begs
sources disagree). the question, was this all an effort to expiate the
But when Constantine arrived in Rome at the blood guilt of the deaths of Crispus and Fausta? It’s
CRISPUS end of what had proved to be a miserable journey, impossible to know for sure. Constantine himself
DIED 326 CE things only got worse, for he was met by his never gave any public explanation for their deaths
mother Helena with what appeared to Constantine and his biographer, Eusebius, having eulogised
incontrovertible evidence of his wife’s complicity Crispus in the first edition of his biography of
in the crime for which he had condemned his son. Constantine, excised all mention of the emperor’s
In April 326 CE Constantine had also stiffened the eldest son from his second edition.
ancient penalties against adultery. But Fausta’s part While the above scenario is a possible reading of
in the death of Crispus was not just adultery, it was the reason for the events that transpired, historians

89
 ROMAN EMPERORS

Grandiose Constantinian statuary

extended to bronze depictions of the
emperor: this one is also on display
in the Capitoline Museum, Rome

have asked why, if Constantine was indeed Constantine had made manifest, in the splendour
convinced that Crispus had been unjustly accused, of the New Rome, the underlying cultural split of
the damnatio memoriae against him was never the empire into a Greek-speaking east and a Latin
reversed. What is also notable is that Fausta’s own west. The founding of Constantinople meant that
sons, when they came to power after Constantine’s the Roman Empire, in its eastern iteration, would
death, never sought to rehabilitate their mother. endure for 1,000 years after the fall of Rome,
So while she had, in some manner, ensured their providing a vital bulwark against what seemed at
own accession to the throne, they did not thank her one point the unstoppable advance of Arab armies.
publicly for her efforts. Constantine also reformed the military, creating a
The true reason why Constantine executed his mobile field army better suited to dealing with the
son and wife was something the emperor took to many incursions the empire faced: it was during
his grave. Although a Christian, Constantine was and after his reign that cavalry came to be the key
not baptised until his final illness in 337 CE. By wing of the Roman military, rather than the foot-
then he had reigned as Caesar then Augustus of slogging legionaries who had originally carved out
the West and following that as ruler of the whole the empire.
empire for nearly 31 years, the longest reign after Through his conversion to Christianity and
that of Augustus himself. Baptism meant not just his promotion of Christians into key imperial
formal entry into the Church; it was the washing positions, Constantine also fostered the growth
away of all the sins of Constantine’s life. Of these of a specifically Christian, biblical culture among
none weighed so heavily as the executions. the empire’s elite that ran parallel with their old
Julian, who came to be
On 22 May 337 CE Constantine died. It had Classical heritage. It was this dual culture that known as Julian the
been the most momentous reign of any emperor ensured the survival of much of that Classical Apostate by history, striking
a suitably philosophical pose
apart from Augustus. By founding Constantinople, heritage even after the empire that had fostered

90
 CONSTANTINE'S DYNASTY

Classical learning had fallen. An emperor’s public

role was to preserve Rome’s sacred past, but “The three sons of Constantine were not
Constantine went beyond that, for he created
something genuinely new, a civilisation that about to have a couple of cousins share
combined the legacies of Athens, Rome and
Jerusalem in an entirely new synthesis that would
eventually change everything.
rulership of the empire with them”
While Constantine’s reforms would ultimately
change the world, what he had not sorted out
was the succession. With Crispus, his eldest son,
dead, the succession passed to the sons of Fausta:
ROME'S GREAT ENEMY
Constantine (called Constantine II to distinguish The Persian Sassanid Empire was Rome’s only
him from his father), Constantius and Constans. serious rival for centuries
Constantine had already appointed all his sons
Caesars – junior rulers under his presiding
Augustus – and following his death the empire was
divided between them. But just to make things
really complicated, there were also two nephews
of Constantine, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, who
had also been raised to the rank of Caesar and
given provinces to command.
This arrangement did not survive much past
Constantine’s death. The three sons of Constantine
and Fausta were not about to have a couple of
cousins share rulership of the empire with them.
Dalmatius had only been raised to the rank of
Caesar in September of 335 CE, with the provinces
of Macedonia, Thracia and Achaea given into his
control. His brother Hannibalianus had married
Constantine’s eldest daughter, Constantina, in the
same year.
Being part of the imperial family in the period
following the death of as commanding a figure as
Constantine was a dangerous business. The sources
are unclear as to exactly who was responsible for
the purge that followed, but by the end of 337 CE,
Dalmatius and Hanniabalianus were dead, along
with four other cousins and two uncles of the
imperial brothers. The sons of Fausta had cleared
the field. Now they could divide the spoils.

According to some accounts, after

capturing the Emperor Valerian,
Shapur used him as a footstool
when mounting his horse

Persia has seen many empires over the centuries, from reaching a sapping climax during the bloody,
that of Cyrus the Great in 550 BCE to its final iteration protracted and ultimately inconclusive series of wars
as the Sassanid Empire between 224 and 651 CE. It between 602 and 628. Fortunes swung backwards
was the latter that proved Rome’s deadliest and most and forwards during this decades-long conflict, with
determined foe. During the many conflicts between the Sassanids even besieging Constantinople in 626,
the two empires, the Sassanids captured one emperor, but at the war’s end both powers were so exhausted,
Valerian in 260 CE, while two others died while militarily and financially, that they fell victim to the
campaigning against them, Carus in 283 CE and Julian sudden explosion of Arab armies out of Arabia riding
in 363 CE. By contrast, none of the Sassanid emperors under the banner of Islam. The Sassanid Empire was
were killed in action against the Romans. completely destroyed. The Byzantine Empire tottered
© Alamy; Getty Images

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and almost fell before recovering in later centuries, to
conflict continued between the Byzantine eastern endure for a further 800 years before finally falling to
Bust of Constantius II, the middle Roman Empire and the Sassanids, with the conflict the Ottomans in 1453.
of Constantine’s three sons,
whose rule endured the longest

91
 ROMAN EMPERORS

The three brothers met (it must have been

a tense meeting with carefully set out rules to
prevent treachery) and on 9 September 337 CE
split the empire between themselves. Constantine
II, the eldest, took Britain, Gaul and Spain.
Constantius, the middle son and the one most
heavily implicated in the purge of the imperial
family following his father’s death, had control
of Constantinople and the eastern provinces
of Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, Asia and Egypt.
Constans, the youngest son, received Italy, Africa
and Illyricum.
However, Constans was only about 15 at
this time, so his eldest brother, Constantine
II, remained his official guardian. This was
not an arrangement calculated to produce
stability between the two Augusti. Sure enough,
Constantine II demanded more territory as his
due as eldest son, which Constans ceded to him.
However, tensions between the two brothers
continued, with quarrels as to which bits of
Africa they each controlled. It all came to a head
when Constans reached maturity but his elder
brother refused to relinquish the role of guardian.
Constantine II assembled an army and invaded
Italy but it all ended ignominiously, and fatally,
for him when he was ambushed and killed by an
advance party of Constans’ men at Aquileia.
So by 340 CE the empire was once again split
between an Augustus of the West, Constans, and
an Augustus of the East, Constantius. Constans
started well, defeating the Franks, and in 343
CE he became the last emperor to visit Britain.
However, Constans lost the support of the army as
a result of favouritism and rumours of homosexual
dalliances with handsome barbarian hostages,
leading to the rebellion of General Magnentius and
the legions of the Rhine in 350 CE. Constans fled
for his life but Magnentius caught up with him on
the border of Gaul and Spain and killed him.
As the sole surviving son of Constantine,
Constantius was not about to share the throne
with a usurper such as Magnentius. The two
rival emperors gathered their armies and, on 22
September 351 CE, met at the Battle of Mursa
Major. It was a bloody day, with over 50,000
casualties. Magnentius fought in the thick of
the fray but his army was routed, with the
usurper only just escaping with his life. However,
Magnentius was determined as well as brave. He
withdrew to Italy, vowing to continue the fight.
Constantius, after dealing with threats on the
Danube frontier, finally pursued Magnentius into
Italy in 353 CE and the two men and their armies
fought again, this time on 3 July, at the Battle of
Mons Seleucus. It was another bloody encounter,
but again Constantius won the day although
without killing his rival. However, deserted even
by his own household troops, Magnentius realised
that he was a beaten man and, rather than fall into
Constantius’ hands, he committed suicide in the
fashion of a Roman soldier: he fell upon his sword. The man in the foreground
This left Constantius as the unchallenged ruler shows just how big this statue
of Constantine was originally
of the Roman Empire. He remained in sole charge

92
 CONSTANTINE'S DYNASTY

A bust of Constans, the

youngest of Constantine’s
three sons by Fausta

This rock-carved relief shows Shapur

II trampling the defeated Julian the
Shapur II, longest-reigning of Apostate beneath his feet. Both emperors
the Sasanian emperors and persecuted Christians, but Shapur did so
nemesis of Julian the Apostate much more savagely than Julian

for two years but soon realised, as Diocletian had

before him, that he needed help to run so vast an
“The rival emperors met at the Battle of
enterprise, particularly with the Sassanid Empire
in Persia an aggressive and active foe and waves of
Mursa Major. It was a bloody day, with
barbarian invaders in the north. So, on 6 November
355 CE, Constantius made his last surviving male
over 50,000 casualties”
relative, Julian, Caesar and sent him off to Gaul. Faced with the ongoing threat of Shapur II, was a badge of status rather than a call to a devout
Julian was the son of Constantine’s half-brother, Constantius could do little but send reproving and serious life. After initially promising toleration
Julius Constantius (they were both sons of letters to Julian. However, by 361 CE Constantius of all religions, Julian moved quickly towards
Constantinus Chlorus but had different mothers). clearly felt he had no choice but to march west suppressing Christianity, dismissing Christians
While raised as a Christian, as a young man he to face his cousin in battle. However, Constantius from senior positions in the army.
rejected the new religion in favour of a synthesis fell ill on the way and, having been baptised, he While secure in the west, Julian needed a victory
of ancient Roman pagan beliefs and philosophical died on 3 November 361 CE. Before his death to cement his position in the east. To that end,
© Getty Images; Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.; Philippe Chavin; Panairjdde

neo-Platonism: his imperial heroes were Hadrian Constantius altered his will to recognise his cousin Rome’s perennial enemy, the Persians, provided
and Marcus Aurelius. As Caesar of Gaul, Julian led Julian as his legitimate heir and the ruler of the a worthy obstacle. Julian’s campaign against the
successful campaigns against Germanic tribes, Roman Empire. Sasanians proved disastrous. Despite assembling
gaining popularity among his troops and prestige For the born-again pagan Julian, this was clearly the largest Roman army ever to invade Persia and
with the wider populace. Meanwhile, in the east, the result of the gods’ favour. Now emperor, reaching the Persian capital, the Persians made
Constantius was embroiled in an ongoing series Julian attempted the restoration of the old gods skilful use of the desert territory and Julian’s lack
of actions against the Sasanian emperor, Shapur and pagan sacrificial rituals. But not content with of a clear-cut strategic objective to force the
II. To reinforce his forces for war against Shapur, the old, amorphous paganism, Julian attempted Romans to retreat. It was during this retreat that
Constantius ordered half of Julian’s legions to come to impose a sort of pagan orthodoxy on these Julian was wounded by a spear, an injury that
east. In response, the western legions – which had restored priests as well as calling them to the claimed him the next day. There would be no
mainly been recruited from German barbarians sort of moral life that was expected of Christian further pagan emperors. Although Julian’s last
– decided to ignore their summons and revolt, priests but that had never been a requirement for words are apocryphal, they express the truth of
proclaiming Julian as Augustus. the officiators at pagan rituals, for whom the rank his short reign: “You have won, Galilean.”

93
 ROMAN EMPERORS

GRATIANUS THE ELDER

Dates unknown

VALENS VALENTINIAN I
c.328-378 Reigned: 364-378 MARINA SEVERA c.321-375 Reigned: 364-375 JUSTINA
Ruling the Eastern Roman Empire while his brother Proclaimed emperor at Nicaea, Valentinian took
governed the West, spent much of his reign at war Unknown – c.375 charge of the Western Roman Empire and made a c.340-388
or putting down uprisings. However, it was on the First wife of Valentinian I. point of fortifying the border along the Rhine. His Second wife of Valentinian I.
battlefield that he would take his last breath as he reign was largely successful, and he even managed
was killed at the Battle of Adrianopole in August 378. to leave an heir, his young son Gratian, who he
appointed co-emperor in 367 when the boy was
just eight years old.

VALENTINIAN II
c.371-392 Reigned: 375-392
With the death of Valentinian I in 375, his very
young second son was proclaimed emperor by the
army. But there was already an emperor: Gratian,
his half-brother. He reluctantly accepted to co-rule,
and growing up as a leader of the Roman Empire,
Valentinian II became influenced by his court and
his mother. However, when Magnus Maximus rose
up in 383, he managed to keep control of Italy for
a few years, before Maximus tried to invade in 387.
However, the usurper was defeated and Valentinian’s

GRATIAN
rule continued.

c.359-383 Reigned: 367-383

Although he had been ruling since he was just a
boy, Gratian became sole emperor of the Western
Roman Empire when his father died in 375. Gratian
continued the trend of Roman emperors, rejecting
the title of Pontifex Maximus, and instead embracing
Christianity, but he was overthrown by Magnus
Maximus in 383 and killed fleeing over the Alps
in August of that year.

CONSTANTIUS III
c.358-421 Reigned: 421
With a reign of just seven months, it was hard for
Constantius to make much of an impact on the GALLA PLACIDIA
Western Roman Empire, but some historians have
suggested that he could have changed its fate with c.390-450
his ability to keep barbarians at bay. He died in
September 421 from pleurisy.

VALENTINIAN III
c.419-455 Reigned: 425-455
Emperor of the West, Valentinian would see himself LICINIA EUDOXIA
assassinated in Rome after 30 years in charge. It was c.422-462
during his reign that the Huns under the command of
Attila would invade in the 450s.

OLYBRIUS
While Valentinian II died Unknown – 472 Reigned: 472
PLACIDIA
when he was only 21, he Ruling the West for under a year, Olybrius’s
had reigned the Roman premiership wasn’t recognised by his colleague in
Empire for around 17 years Unknown – c.484 the East, Leo I.

94
 THE VALENTINIAN DYNASTY

THE VALENTINIAN
DYNASTY
Intermingled with the Theodosians, the Valentinians were sure
to leave their mark on the Roman Empire in one way or another

GALLA THEODOSIUS I AELIA FLACCILLA

c.370-394 c.347-395 Reigned: 392-395 c.356-386
Second wife of Theodosius I. See page 98. First wife of Theodosius I.

ARCADIUS HONORIUS
EUDOXIA c.377-408 Reigned: 383-395 c.384-423 Reigned: 393-423
Unknown – 404 See page 98. See page 98.

PULCHERIA
c.398-453
Known for her piety and chastity,

© Creative Commons: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com (x5), Rasiel Suarez,
Pulcheria served as regent for her

EUDOCIA THEODOSIUS II
younger brother, Theodosius II. She
later married the future emperor, MARCIAN
c.401-460 c.401-450 Reigned: 402-450 Marcian, but it was for her Christian c.392-457 Reigned: 450-457
faith that she would be remembered, See page 98.
See page 98.
as she built many cathedrals in
Constantinople and made sure that
her possessions would be donated to
the poor after her death.
York Museums Trust (Yorkshire Museum)

95
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE
THEODOSIANS Meet the last imperial family of the whole empire
Written by Edoardo Albert

T
he empire was in trouble. Serious trouble. launched a coordinated attack on Britain in 368 CE. proceeded to dazzle the barbarian with the
On 9 August 378 CE, the Augustus of the His son, Theodosius, had been a key instrument wealth, opulence and magnificence of what
east, Emperor Valens, had led his troops in that campaign before distinguishing himself was the greatest city on Earth. Athanaric was
into battle against an army of Goths near the in further campaigns against the barbarians. so enthralled with what was presented that he
city of Adrianople. Expecting to achieve an easy But in 376 CE, Theodosius the Elder, despite an agreed to Theodosius’ offer of alliance, with
victory over the barbarians, some Roman soldiers unblemished military record and a history of the Goths answering to Athanaric serving the
attacked precipitately while negotiations were still loyalty to the emperor, was fatally caught up in imperial standard. And even though Athanaric
continuing between Valens and the barbarian king. imperial politics and executed. Fearing for his own died soon afterwards, his chieftains were so
With Roman discipline and coordination beginning life and that of his family, the son had withdrawn impressed with the splendour of the funeral that
to dissolve, the Goths delivered a final, fatal blow to family estates in Spain, far from the snake pits of Theodosius laid on for Athanaric that they kept
when their cavalry, which had been away from the emperor’s courts. to the treaty. Meanwhile, Theodosius, through
camp foraging through the countryside, returned The invitation to take command of the East was, careful intelligence and skilful campaigning, slowly
and surrounded the extended and disorganised effectively, a promise of the imperial purple, and destroyed the Gothic chieftains unwilling to agree
Roman forces. Theodosius accepted the offer. He was faced with to his terms.
The Roman army, the key imperial military the question of what to do about the Goths. Large The final treaty, which was signed on 3 October
force in the east, was utterly routed. Emperor numbers of them had settled within the empire in 382 CE, enabled the Goths to settle in Thrace,
Valens himself was killed in the chaos, dying the Balkans, and Theodosius soon recognised that south of the Danube frontier, and
an anonymous death among the thousands of it was impractical and probably impossible to expel to fight in the Roman
legionaries who died that day. It was a humiliation them. What he needed to do was co-opt those who army as a
from which the empire never really recovered were amenable to accepting Rome as their overlord,
– indeed, some historians trace the fall of the while isolating and destroying those
Western Empire to this catastrophic defeat. In the who were set on carving out
chaos that followed, the surviving emperor, Gratian, independent kingdoms
Augustus of the west, needed an experienced within the empire.
general to take over in the east and bring some Theodosius set about
stability to the situation. In desperate straits, this with considerable
Gratian sent messengers to a general living quietly guile and skill, inviting
in Spain. His name was Theodosius and his father, the paramount Gothic
Theodosius the Elder, had played the key role in chieftain, Athanaric,
the defeat of what the Romans called the Great to Constantinople,
Conspiracy, when the Picts, Saxons and the Gaels where the emperor

“Theodosius slowly
destroyed the Gothic
chieftains unwilling to The sarcophagus of
Stilicho, the general

agree to his terms” whom some call the

last of the Romans

96
 A bust of Emperor
Theodosius II, whose
reign was long in part
because he wielded
almost no power himself

97
 ROMAN EMPERORS

national contingent. Theodosius had managed to to ensure stability against the empire’s most
quell the immediate crisis. formidable foe – to move against Magnus Maximus.
THE But of course, such was the sea of troubles The emperor and the usurper met at the Battle

THEODOSIANS
afflicting the empire at the end of the 4th century of the Save in yet another conflict that bled the
that no sooner had one crisis been resolved empire of its manpower in civil strife.
than another one flared up. In 383 CE, there was Theodosius won: the usurper never ascended
The family that split rebellion in the west, where the usurper Magnus to imperial legitimacy through victory but fell to
the empire Maximus had killed the Western Augustus, Gratian, ignominious execution. Theodosius was now de
and installed himself in his place. It was five years facto ruler of the whole empire: he would be the
THEODOSIUS I before Theodosius was sufficiently confident of last emperor of both the Western and Eastern
Dates ruled: 379-395 the security of the eastern border – he signed a Empires. Having celebrated a triumph in Rome on
Area ruled: Last emperor peace treaty with the aggressive Sasanian Empire 13 June 389 CE, and having stayed for two years
to rule East and West
Theodosius stabilised Following a massacre carried out
the Eastern Empire, then by his soldiers, Ambrose, Bishop
of Milan, refused Theodosius I
ruled it all for the final years of his reign. But entrance to his church until he
Theodosius neglected to provide heirs up the had done public penance
roles given them.

HONORIUS
Dates ruled: 395-423
Area ruled: Western
Roman Empire
As emperor, Honorius
proved entirely
inadequate to the challenges facing the Empire,
his only talent being personal survival, his
chief failing an unerring ability to listen to bad
counsel.

ARCADIUS
Dates ruled: 395-408
Area ruled: Eastern
Roman Empire
The elder brother to
Honorius, Arcadius was an
ineffectual as his sibling but without the latter’s
preternatural talent for surviving personal
incompetence.

THEODOSIUS II
Dates ruled: 408-450
Area ruled: Eastern
Roman Empire
The son of Arcadius,
Theodosius would have
been better suited to life as a scholar. He left
running the Empire to ministers and relatives,
notably his sister, Pulcheria.

MARCIAN
Dates ruled: 450-457
Area ruled: Eastern
Roman Empire
A Theodosian by virtue
of marriage to Pulcheria,
the sister of Theodosius II, Marcian was an
able administrator who managed to keep
the Eastern out of the chaos engulfing the
Western Empire.

98
 THE THEODOSIANS

Theodosius I doing what

he did best: fighting

“Both boys proved entirely inadequate to the demands placed

upon them: indeed the two young emperors only contributed
to the stench of decay that had settled upon Rome”
in Milan where he installed a puppet Augustus of was initially disastrous for Theodosius and Stilicho the two young emperors only contributed to the
the West, Theodosius returned to Constantinople in but they rallied their men and renewed the assault overwhelming stench of decay that had settled
November 391 CE. on the following day, breaking the enemy’s forces upon the rotting corpse of Rome.
But in the emperor’s absence, another usurper and killing the usurper. Not long after this victory, While his sons proved incompetent, Theodosius
attempted to take the title of Augustus of the Theodosius fell ill. The ailing emperor was taken to nonetheless possessed the foresight to appoint
West. The empire was set for another bout of civil Milan where he died on 17 January 395 CE. He was his most competent general, Stilicho, as guardian
strife. Again, Theodosius took time assembling his 48. As heirs, he appointed his two sons, Arcadius, to Honorius. While the Augustus of the West was
forces. Among the commanders of his army was 18 years old and designated Augustus of the East, still a minor, Stilicho assumed the rank of magister
a barbarian named Stilicho, the son of a Vandal, and Honorius, ten years old and the Augustus of militum, or master of soldiers, and, to safeguard
who had risen through service in the Roman the West. Unfortunately, both boys proved entirely his position, he married his daughter to Honorius.
armies until he had attained such eminence that inadequate to the demands placed upon them He then set about defending the empire from
Theodosius had married his own niece to him. by an empire beset by enemies from without its myriad enemies, external and internal, with
The battle, when it came on 5 September 394 CE, and dissension and decadence within: indeed, extraordinary vigour.

99
 Ever loyal, Stilicho probably
suspected that enemies were
plotting against him, yet he
made no move to usurp the
throne from Honorius

100
 THE THEODOSIANS

By the end of the 4th century, the Roman army in Britain. Taking advantage of the situation,
was a shadow of its former self: a legion was now Alaric threatened another invasion by his Goths.
composed of 1,000 men rather than the original Stilicho persuaded the Senate to buy time, literally.
6,000. To mount an effective defence against the It cost 4,000 pounds of gold to buy off Alaric.
multiple threats he faced, Stilicho had to move his The rich of the empire grumbled at the cost, and
field forces at speed around the West, at one point court plotters, seeing Stilicho’s prestige weakened,
even sending a commander over to Africa to put started whispering sedition in the credulous ear
down a rebellion there. of Emperor Honorius. A weak man, Honorius
There were barbarian incursions from all sides summoned Stilicho to Ravenna, where the emperor
Of these, the most dangerous were the repeated had set up court in a city protected by marshes,
attacks led by Alaric, king of the Goths. Stilicho and put the general to death on 22 August 408.
managed to defeat him twice, but the barbarian A year later, Alaric was camped outside Rome.
king escaped both times. But then in 405 CE, a The city, brought to near starvation, bought him off
huge invasion of Ostrogoths swept down into again. Honorius, twisting on the wiles of whichever
Italy. Drawing every available man into his forces minister had his ear, tried to alternately buy off,
– Stilicho even promised slaves freedom in return outface and outmanoeuvre Alaric, only for the
for military service – the general defeated the infuriated king to order his men to sack Rome. It
barbarians in battle and then, cutting off their was 24 August 410. It had been 800 years since
supplies, destroyed the invasion. However, this Rome had been last occupied by its enemies. The
defence of Italy had left the Rhine frontier open. shock reverberated around the world.
During the winter of 406-407 CE, the river Honorius clung to power for a further 15 years.
froze. On 31 December 406, taking advantage But when he died of natural causes, Britain, Spain
of this ice bridge, a loose coalition of Vandals, and much of Gaul were no longer under Roman
Alans and other tribes poured over the border, control. The empire was being dismembered. Rome
devastating Gaul and triggering military revolts had not yet fallen, but it was tottering.

101
 5 TH
CENTURY
As the Western Empire fell, it was time for the
Byzantines to rule the world

104 THE LAST DAYS OF THE WEST 110 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

102
116 BLOODY BYZANTINE EMPERORS 118 THE ROMAN EMPIRE'S LAST STAND

124 WHAT IF ROME NEVER FELL?

103
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE LAST DAYS OF

THE WEST
The earth-shattering collapse of the Western Roman Empire was
the result of invasions, corruption and cruelty
Written by Charlie Ginger

T
hroughout history, the fall of mighty agreement was found wanting in March of 456
empires has rarely played out as an CE as the Germanic ‘barbarians’ once again
instantaneous and devastating collapse, resumed hostilities in the south of Italy. Avitus’
and the demise of the Western Roman Empire failure to completely stem the Vandals’ incursions
was certainly no different. Pinpointing a precise was compounded by the Visigoths’ progress in
start date for the empire’s decline has proven to Hispania. The Gaulish ruler of Rome was struggling
be a difficult and contentious task, with many abroad, and it wasn’t long before his domestic
historians pointing the finger of blame at Emperor unpopularity made his position untenable.
Caracalla’s decision to grant all free men within Never slow in seizing an opportunity, Ricimer
the empire citizenship in 212 CE, thereby removing moved quickly to topple Avitus, who
the main incentive to join the Roman legions and was roundly loathed by Rome’s
consequently starting a downward spiral that hungry population (a combination of
would see Rome forever more struggling to field the Vandals choking off Rome’s imports
adequate armies. and the foreign troops that had accompanied
Of course, it is too simplistic to apportion the Avitus resulted in food shortages in the wake of
responsibility for the fall of the Western Empire to the city’s destruction). The general’s machinations
one single factor, for there were many reasons for inevitably spurred Avitus to retaliate, but his hopes
its gradual disintegration. By the time of Emperor were to be dashed. Heading an enormous force,
Avitus’ ascension to power in 455 CE, Rome had Avitus marched to confront Ricimer’s own army
been sacked twice, once by the Visigoths in 410 CE near Piacenza in northern Italy, only to witness
and then again in the year of Avitus’ coronation by the destruction of his host. With no option but to
a rampant horde of Vandals. flee, Avitus is thought to have died during the first
Conscious of his somewhat tenuous grip on month of 457 CE while en route to the safety of
power, the newly appointed Avitus moved quickly Gaul, possibly on the orders of the man who would
to appoint a comes (count of the empire) by the succeed him, an ally of Ricimer’s in the rebellion
name of Ricimer, a general of Germanic descent called Majorian.
who would play a major role in the rise and fall of By the time of Majorian’s coronation in
several emperors. Yet the title bestowed upon him December 457, the Roman Empire was spiralling
by Avitus was not as glamorous as it had previously terminally towards its demise, a monumental
been, for by 455 CE the once enormous sphere of yet gradual collapse resulting from numerous
Roman influence had deflated to such an extent overlapping factors, a primary one being
that it now only encompassed a scattering of continuous barbarian invasions.
regions in southern Gaul and the Italian Peninsula In its prime, the empire had often crushed such
itself. It was an empire that Avitus would not rule uprisings with relative ease, but conquest and
for very long. consolidation cost the empire vast sums of money
Despite managing to secure an – admittedly – funds that, as time went by, could no longer
doomed – truce with the Vandals during his be supplied in the form of war booty. Instead
first winter at the helm, the strength of this Rome’s leaders had to look closer to home, taxing

104
In 410 CE, the Visigoths
succeeded in sacking Rome,
becoming the first army to
do so in eight centuries

© Alamy, Getty
 LIFE & SOCIETY
ROMAN EMPERORS

The Western Roman Empire

as its greatest extent

the wealthiest of its citizens in a desperate bid to

support a failing military machine.
This necessary measure inevitably alienated the
city’s monied inhabitants, many of whom resorted
to leaving Rome in order to keep hold of their King Geiseric, depicted here
watching as Rome burns, was a
wealth. When coupled with rampant corruption constant menace to the security
within the Senate and the inevitable decline in of the Western Roman Empire
slave labour that accompanied the empire’s halting
expansion, this widespread avoidance of tax only who had treacherously accepted payment from the strength as the 5th century wore on. Blessed with
served to weaken an already financially shaky Vandals to betray Rome. greater financial resources than the West, the East
empire at a time when enemies such as the Huns, Crushed by this astounding reversal, Majorian was better placed to bribe ambitious barbarian
Goths and Vandals were strengthening, the latter of soon made for Rome. Upon reaching the city he leaders, which it did successfully when it came
which had inflicted a chastening lesson on Rome must have been startled to be arrested by none to keeping the ruthless Attila the Hun at bay. By
in 435 CE when they began to settle across North other than his old ally Ricimer. His incarceration contrast, the West suffered greatly at the hands of
Africa, a development the Romans were powerless
to stop. If the empire was going to survive, this
vital region would have to be reclaimed, a goal that
Majorian quickly set his sights on.
“Thankfully for the West’s cause, this
An astute leader who sought to curtail the
financial deviance so damaging to his beleaguered
period of unrest between both halves
realm, Majorian took his administrative obligations
as seriously as his military ones, yet he is best
of the empire wouldn’t last”
remembered for his martial efforts. Intent on was tortuous but brief, for five days later Majorian Attila prior to his death in 453 CE, both indirectly
resurrecting Rome’s crumbling empire, Majorian was beheaded on 7 August 461 CE. Yet again, the due to the sudden influx of refugees that poured
swiftly smashed an Alemmanic (German tribe) empire was in need of an emperor. across the Roman borders as the Huns rampaged
invasion before storming into Gaul in 458 and A brief jostle for power ensued as Emperor across Europe, and as a direct result of his invasion
putting King Theodoric II’s Visigoth force to the Leo I of the Eastern Empire sought to promote of northern Italy.
sword at the Battle of Arelate. Success in Hispania a candidate of his choosing, but Ricimer would If gold didn’t prove sufficiently enticing to
would follow for an emperor described by many triumph in the end with the eventual appointment ward off an invasion, the East – again, thanks to
scholars as brilliant in every respect. However, glory of Libius Severus, a man who would rule (under its wealth – could rely on a stable standing army
in the field of battle would prove elusive just when the watchful gaze of Ricimer) for four years before to defend it (not to mention the imposing walls
Majorian needed it most. dying of natural causes. erected to protect Constantinople, a fixture that
Hungry to reclaim the precious resources of Thankfully for the West’s cause, this period of thwarted Attila’s efforts to take the city), something
North Africa, Majorian had wisely accrued a fleet unrest between both halves of the empire wouldn’t that only served to encourage invading tribes to
of 300 vessels with which to transport an invasion last, with the ascension of Anthemius as emperor turn their attentions to the weaker West. Of these
force across the Mediterranean and onto the shores in 467 CE, an elevation that pleased both Ricimer tribes, the Vandals consistently proved to be a
of the former Carthaginian Empire. Sadly for the and Leo I. However, while the two realms worked thorn in Roman sides, and the situation was no
ambitious emperor, he would never even get the to come together again, the differences between different for Anthemius.
chance to attempt a crossing, for his entire fleet them were many and stark. By 468 CE, Anthemius was a year into what
was systematically destroyed while anchored off While its sibling struggled with numerous issues, was turning into a promising reign. Supported by
the coast of Hispania by men in his own ranks the Eastern Roman Empire went from strength to both the ever-present Ricimer and his counterpart

106
 THE LAST DAYS OF THE WEST

ROME'S
King Geiseric led his
Vandal hordes into Rome
in 455 and laid waste to

KINGMAKER the city for a fortnight

Ricimer headed an army

in 456 that succeeded in
defending Italy against an
armada of 60 Vandal ships

Born in 405 CE to Rechila, a member of the Germanic

Suebi tribe and King of Galicia, a region in what is
today northern Spain, and his wife, a daughter of the
King of the Visigoths, Flavius Ricimer would grow into
a ferociously ambitious young man who refused to
allow his barbarian lineage to hold him back.
It is estimated that Ricimer began his service
to the Roman military in the early 420s. He would
rise rapidly through the ranks, befriending a future
emperor in a man called Majorian and raising his
own forces in the mid 450s with which to crush
the Vandals in two key engagements. Both of these
victories came in 456 CE at the battles of Agrigentum
and Corsica – achievements that gained him heroic
status back in Rome.
With glory on the field secured, Ricimer turned
his attention back to Rome’s political scene, aiding
his former comrade Majorian in toppling Avitus
and stealing the throne. Unable to rule due to his
background and Christian faith, Ricimer determined
to take a slightly subtler route to power, controlling a
number of Western Roman emperors for almost 20
years, during which time any incumbent ruler who
displeased him quickly found themselves removed
from power – violently.

in the East, Leo I, Anthemius enjoyed cordial extinguished (according to many historians) the to the emperor and those beholden to Ricimer.
relations with the other half of the empire, a unity last remaining hope of survival for the Western The conflict culminated in a savage engagement
that resulted in both sides determining to work as Roman Empire. in Rome in which Anthemius’ troops were scythed
one to finally put an end to the Vandal presence in Bereft of the resources offered by its former down en masse by a barbarian army that showed
North Africa. African territory, the empire soon found no mercy. Clemency was not even afforded to
Led by the brilliantly named Basiliscus (Leo I’s maintaining its armed forces a far heavier burden, Anthemius, who, having scrambled to the ‘safety’
brother-in-law), an armada of approximately 1,000 one made no easier to bear in 470 CE when a force of a church (some sources claim St Peter’s), was
ships set sail for what is today the coast of Tunisia commanded by Anthemius’ son failed to make promptly arrested and executed.
with a vast army of both Western and Eastern any headway against the Visigoths in Gaul. With No doubt pleased to have yet again bested a
© Getty, Creative Commons; Ichthyovenator, Bigdaddy1204,

troops onboard. Yet while this new invasion force the south lost and Rome’s grip on the western political rival and secured power for his chosen
would better Majorian’s in actually making landfall, provinces loosening, Anthemius’ reign appeared candidate, for once Ricimer had played the wrong
their hopes of victory were dashed just as brutally doomed, and it was little helped by the Senate’s hand. Olybrius (who was deemed an illegitimate
at the Battle of Cape Bon. suspicions of a ruler of Greek birth. Even Ricimer’s ruler by an outraged Eastern Empire) would only
Alert to the real and pressing threat to his support could no longer be relied on. last for seven months, passing away from dropsy.
empire, King Geiseric sent forth a wave of fireships In 472 CE the opportunistic general moved He was soon followed into the afterlife by Ricimer,
into the Roman ranks before unleashing his against his former friend by declaring Olybrius the indomitable military powerhouse eventually
own fleet, causing truly catastrophic losses of (a man close to Leo I) as the new emperor of the laid low by a haemorrhage.
10,000 men and 100 vessels. In one fell swoop West following tensions with Anthemius. This Olybrius was succeeded four months after his
the Germanic ruler and one-time sacker of Rome inevitably sparked open war between forces loyal death by a Dalmatian called Glycerius at the behest

107
 ROMAN EMPERORS

Majorian lost 300 ships at the

Battle of Cartagena in 461, an act
of betrayal that prevented Rome
from retaking North Africa

of Gundobad, king of the Burgundians and nephew

of Ricimer – a second affront to the East. Without
the backing of Ricimer and aware of the East’s
ODOACER: FIRST KING OF ITALY
refusal to accept him as emperor, Glycerius made
overtures to Leo I in a bid to heal the rift between
the empires. His olive branch was snapped and
thrown back in his face with force as Leo, by now
hugely unpopular due to his banning of non-
religious festivals in the East, not only nominated
Julius Nepos as emperor of the West, but then
proceeded to send a fleet to invade Italy and claim
the throne. This was one of the last acts of Leo’s
reign, as dysentery claimed him that year, putting
an end to a reign that had begun in 457 CE.
As the husband to Leo I’s niece, Nepos had
extremely close ties to the Eastern emperor’s
court, which explains why he was Leo’s preferred
choice to replace Glycerius in the summer of
474. Nepos’ fleet duly made for Ostia (near to the
port of Rome) in June, landing on Italian soil at a
time when Glycerius was hopelessly exposed (his
master, Gundobad, had returned to Gaul to rule his
kingdom in Burgundy). The hapless usurper had
little choice but to quit the city, but he was soon
unearthed. Nepos displayed remarkable restraint In spite of the way in which he
came to power, sources suggest
upon his rise to power, choosing to nominate his that Odoacer enjoyed the full
predecessor as a bishop instead of having him put support of the Roman Senate
to death, an act of kindness that he would one day
Believed to have hailed from the eastern-Germanic the barbarians under Odoacer the territory they
come to regret. Scirii tribe, Odoacer was born in 435. It was by this demanded. However, he unwisely chose to renege on
Nepos’ reign would prove to be as short-lived time Roman custom to provide foederati (barbarian this deal, unleashing an uprising that would prove the
as his new bishop’s, but before he was toppled by regions loyal to Rome) with various benefits in return death of the Western Roman Empire.
his own magister militum (senior commanding for military aid, evidence of how weak the empire During his reign as king of Italy Odoacer enjoyed
officer in the Roman military), Orestes, he first had become. As such, Odoacer journeyed to Italy in martial success, conquering the independent region
had to suffer the ignominy of acknowledging the around 470 CE to serve in the Roman military. of Dalmatia after a two-year campaign. He would rule
His career fighting for the failing empire, which until 493 CE, when he fatefully accepted an invitation
Gothic kingdom that had been established in Gaul.
began during the rule of Anthemius, lasted for to a banquet held by King Theodoric, who had been
The fact that he had no alternative but to do so is around six years, sufficient time to rise to a position nominated as king of Italy in 488 by the Eastern
testament to how feeble the empire was by 475 CE. of command. By 476 CE, Odoacer clearly felt he and Roman Emperor Zeno in a bid to depose Odoacer.
Having been ejected from office in August by his troops were due some reward for their efforts Ignoring all the rules of hospitality, Theodoric broke
Orestes, Nepos escaped to his native Dalmatia to on Rome’s behalf, and initially Orestes, who had bread with his rival before killing him with his own
‘rule’ at a distance. In truth he was emperor in recently installed his son Romulus, promised to grant hands by cleaving his enemy in two.

108
 THE LAST DAYS OF THE WEST

Odoacer triumphantly rides into

a humbled Ravenna (by then
capital of the Western Empire) as
Romulus bows to Italy’s conqueror

name alone, for, as was ever the case throughout Romulus Augustus as the new leader of a rapidly Recalled as the only able Western emperor
of the 5th century, Majorian sought to
Roman history, he who controlled the military disintegrating Western Roman Empire in October defend the rights of his provincial subjects
also held the empire. In this case it was Orestes, a 475 CE. Even so, his public reluctance to claim the
former servant of none other than Attila the Hun. throne for himself was merely an act; as father Crowned in February 474 CE by his seven-year-
Despite his sudden and public deposition at the to the emperor and head of the military, Orestes old son as co-emperor, Zeno ruled as emperor of
hands of an adviser he should have been able to reigned from the shadows. His lust for power forced the Eastern Roman Empire until he was betrayed
trust, Nepos would survive until 480 CE. Sources his son to bear a poisoned chalice during an ill- by a close advisor and Basiliscus (the same man
suggest that he was stabbed to death in his own fated reign set to end in disaster. who was so roundly beaten at the Battle of Cape
villa, either by friends of a vengeful Glycerius (to Mocked as ‘Romulus Augustulus’ (Little Bon). At the time of Romulus’ rise to power Zeno
whom Nepos owed his life) or on the direct orders Augustus), history has often judged Rome’s last – who, along with his bitter rival for the throne,
of Odoacer, the man who would finally end Rome’s emperor harshly, forgetting that he was a teenager refused to accept Romulus as emperor in the West –
rule of Italy. forced into office by a father hungry to rule a was plotting what would turn out to be a successful
Unusually for the age, Orestes decided not to rule shattered empire at a time when the formerly stable return to Constantinople and his throne.
himself, instead opting to crown his 15-year-old son East was tearing itself apart in a power struggle. The extent to which Romulus was aware of the
troubles in the Eastern Roman Empire is unclear,
but either way he had little time to consider its
ramifications – rebellion was well and truly afoot
in his empire. Emboldened by the knowledge that
the West was ailing, a confederation of Germanic
tribes led by a formidable warrior named Odoacer
decided to test the strength of Orestes’ resilience
by demanding that one-third of Italy should be
handed over to them. When Orestes promptly
rebuffed their ‘offer’, Odoacer ignited a vicious
uprising during which a rag-tag army led by Orestes
was slaughtered outside the city of Placentia
(Piacenza) before their leader was executed. With
the empire decapitated by Orestes’ death, Odoacer
was free to march on Ravenna in northern Italy,
where on 2 September 476 CE his mercenary
hordes once again set about annihilating a
© Alamy, Getty, Creative Commons: Marie-Lan Nguyen

weakened Roman army.

With nothing left standing between him and
Odoacer’s rampant army, young Romulus had
no choice but to bend the knee to Italy’s new
conqueror and surrender the throne. In a matter of
weeks, Odoacer had violently ended 1,200 years of
Anthemius was appointed as Roman mastery of Italy, and in doing so he struck
emperor by Leo I in a move that
removed him as a candidate for Prior to his death in 473, Leo I appointed his a final, fatal blow from which the Western Roman
the throne of the Eastern Empire seven-year-old grandson Leo II as his heir
Empire would never recover.

109
 ROMAN EMPERORS

THE BYZANTINE
EMPIRE
The dramas of the Eastern Empire were a match for anything that
the Western Roman Empire had been able to offer
Written by Jon Wright

I
n 968 CE, Liutprand, bishop of Cremona, golden bowls covered with purple cloth, and when
undertook a challenging diplomatic mission to being introduced, Liutprand was carried into the
Constantinople. He was far from impressed by emperor’s presence with great solemnity on the
the treatment he received and the people with shoulders of eunuchs. The empire, as always, had
whom he had to deal. Liutprand complained its ups and downs: a defining characteristic of
that the local wine was undrinkable and that his Byzantine history.
lodgings lacked both fresh water and a roof. As The phrase ‘Byzantine’ only began to be
for the Byzantine emperor, well, he was a brute. commonly applied to this mighty civilisation
Nicephorus II, according to Liutprand, was a during the 16th century, but it represents a very
“monstrosity of man”, full of ignorant opinions and different, but no less colourful, period in the history
as ugly as sin: “Fat-headed and like a mole as to the of the Roman Empire. And make no mistake, while
smallness of his eyes… one whom it would not be the empire in the East had its share of unique
pleasant to meet in the middle of the night.” The characteristics – the use of the Greek language, the
people, in contrast, seemed to adore their emperor, forms of religious devotion, for example – the
though they were really just a “plebian, barefooted Byzantine emperors were always adamant
multitude”. When Nicephorus paraded through the that they, and they alone, were the true
city, the crowds would shout out in adoration. What successors of earlier rulers in the West.
they really should have been saying, Liutprand Though Constantinople had been an
suggested, was “you burnt-out old coal, you fool… important city since the 4th century,
you goat foot”. Liutprand claims to have found none it entered its heyday following the fall
of the glamour that was supposed to define the of the Western Empire in 476 CE. The
Byzantine court. The food was lousy, the clothes territories over which it ruled came
were third-rate, and the hospitality extended to and went with alarming frequency –
visiting dignitaries was atrocious. This, it is fair to indeed the extent of those territories
say, was an unusual response. Visitors usually raved was something of a geopolitical
about how beautiful and civilised Constantinople see-saw – and there would be both
was, about the cultural riches and the elaborate gifted and atrocious rulers. But
ceremonies of the eastern city. Constantinople was mighty. It was
Perhaps Liutprand was simply in a bad mood. blessed by its location on vital trade routes
Or perhaps Constantinople was just going through and, however hard Byzantium’s enemies
a bad patch since, just a few decades earlier, tried, the city’s famously robust walls
Liutprand had been involved in another mission to rarely succumbed to their onslaughts.
the Byzantine court and appears to have had rather As one historian put it: “You can’t have
a jolly time. Constantine VII had been a much a century without a couple of sieges of
better host and Liutprand wrote of the “marvellous Constantinople.” But it was only with the
and unheard of manner of our reception”. The place advance of the Ottomans in the mid 15th A mosaic depicting
was filled with gorgeous thrones, bronze lions and century that the empire finally came to an the Virgin and Child
in the Hagia Sophia
mechanical animals. Dinner was served in huge end. By then, a thousand years of triumphs

110
 Perhaps the most famous
emperor of them all: Justinian,
depicted here in a mosaic found
in San Vitale Basilica in Ravenna
 The mighty walls of
Constantinople that repelled
many a would-be invader
through the centuries

and tribulations had passed – not a bad historical to Byzantine morale was perhaps a price worth Less happily, Justinian’s reign also witnessed an
innings. Along the way, the empire had fostered paying. Less satisfactory were the attempts to early example of just how febrile Byzantine politics
some of the most spectacular artistic and cultural battle Persia, Byzantium’s traditional enemy, and, could become. The Nika Insurrection of 532 CE
achievements the world had ever seen. distracted by adventures in the West, the empire was one of the bloodiest events in the empire’s
The story began well, under rulers such as failed to rebuff encroachments by the Slavic history. Chariot racing was a favourite pastime in
the hard-working Anastasius I (r.491-516 CE), an peoples. Justinian also found time to codify law Constantinople, with four leading teams and their
able administrator, but grander dreams had not to reduce the risks of arbitrary justice; his efforts supporters each sporting a particular colour: the
evaporated. Could the Western Empire, or at least would be reflected in the legal systems of dozens blues and the greens were top of the tree. More
some of it, be reclaimed? Enter Justinian, during of countries for centuries. He even found time was at stake than exciting recreation. The different
whose reign (527-565) the great military leader to transform the empire’s financial fortunes by groups would attempt to influence religious and
Belisarius and his colleagues managed to seize introducing the production of silk. Indian monks political affairs and had a bad habit of engaging in
parts of Italy, North Africa and southern Spain. smuggled in the eggs of silkworms and an irksome street violence. In 532, Justinian’s refusal to extend
The financial cost was exorbitant, but the boost dependency on Persian silk was cast off. a full pardon to two of the leaders of the blues and
greens led to a week-long orgy of riots, house-razing
and arson. Thousands were killed and as much as

PICTURING JESUS
half of the city lay in ruins and rubble.
Losing control in such a way almost got Justinian
Were religious images sublime or sinful? deposed, but he weathered the storm and set
about rebuilding the city. Unfortunately, almost
Opinion was divided in the Eastern Empire all the territorial gains he had made in the West
Concern about the portrayal of holy subjects was were lost under his successors and the Byzantines’
particularly keen in the Eastern Christian churches. The Lamentation; just central dilemma had come into sharp focus. It
the sort of image that
Matters came to a head in the 8th century when infuriated the iconoclasts was surrounded on all sides by enemies and, for
the Byzantine emperor Leo III ordered a wide-scale the next millennium, or thereabouts, a ludicrous
destruction of religious images. Riots ensued and many
number of conflicts would have to be fought. The
of the protestors were whipped, exiled or mutilated.
Art was burned and, as one contemporary lamented, Sassanid War in the early 7th century drained the
churches were “scraped down and smeared with imperial coffers, with the Persians keeping up the
ashes”. These events provoked uproar in the Western pressure and deploying the sneakiest of tactics. The
Church and many angry letters were passed between emperor Maurice (r.582-602) had been an ally of
popes and emperors. Images, as Pope Gregory II the Persian ruler and when Maurice was killed by
explained, were of great value because they could
the ambitious military leader Phocas, Persia swore
instruct the illiterate. The empress Irene approved
the use of images in 787 CE. The emperor Theophilus
to avenge the emperor’s death. But this was merely
reversed her decision early in the next century, an excuse for intervening in Byzantine politics.
ordering artists to destroy or spit (quite literally) upon A decades-long war ensued, with the Persians
their works, inflicting harsh punishments on those reaching the gates of Constantinople. The pretense
who would not comply. An artist named Lazarus was of good intentions soon evaporated and before long,
subjected to “such severe tortures that his flesh melted the Persian ruler was describing the Byzantine
away” and when he stubbornly began work again,
emperor as his “vile and insensate slave”.
following his recovery, red hot irons were pressed into
his hands. Happily, by the mid 9th century, the turmoil Matters improved greatly under Heraclius (r.610-
came to an end and religious art was once again 641 CE) who secured a famous victory over the
sanctioned in the Eastern Churches. Persians at the Battle of Nineveh in 627. Even his

112
 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

“Losing control
in such a way
almost got
Justinian deposed,
but he weathered
the storm”
enemies had to concede that he was a ferocious
warrior. As a Persian ruler once put it: “He fears
these arrows and spears no more than would an
anvil.” At this very moment, however, the rise of
Islamic power in the Near East was in full flow
and, due to their financial weakness, both the
Persian and Byzantine Empires were vulnerable.
During the 7th and 8th centuries, Byzantium
would lose Armenia, Syria, North Africa and, most
devastatingly, the economically crucial Egypt.
Affairs at home were hardly any rosier, with the
disruptive quarrel over religious icons creating
havoc from the reign of Leo III (r.717-41 CE) through
much of the 8th and 9th centuries.
The arrival of the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056
CE) represented another turning point, at least at
first. Its founder, Basil I (r.867-86 CE), managed
to regain substantial territories but, as so often,
his immediate successors squandered his legacy. Belisarius, Justinian’s bold
general, would remain
Lands were lost and, throughout the period, Egypt a favourite figure in art
was never reconquered. It also proved difficult to through the centuries
retake Jerusalem, which provoked a rather famous
series of events known as the Crusades – though (r.1081-1118 CE) and the unusually charitable and
all the troops that flooded in from the West over lenient John II (r.1118-43 CE), lay in the realm of
the next few centuries were chiefly concerned culture and the arts, but some progress was
with asserting their own interests and had no made on the territorial and military fronts.
great desire to see the city being placed back in But, of course, they were followed by a run
Byzantine hands. of spectacularly incompetent rulers.
The Macedonian period – particularly during By now, the West had lost much of
the 10th century under the rule of Constantine its respect for Byzantium: indeed,
VII (r.913-59 CE) – did, however, represent one ever since the Frankish ruler
of the high watermarks in Byzantine cultural Charlemagne had been declared
achievement: the Macedonian Renaissance. Perhaps as the Holy Roman emperor and
no artefact better encapsulates this era’s artistic the true successor to Rome in
achievements than the so-called Joshua Roll, which the 9th century, that respect
depicted the biblical tale in an exquisite 11-foot had been steadily fading away.
parchment roll that demonstrates a spare but Nor did the great schism
intoxicating use of colour. between the Eastern and
One military superstar also emerged in this Western Churches in 1054 –
period: Basil II (r.976-1025 CE), who managed to stemming from a confusing
claw back Greece, the Balkans, Syria and Georgia, blend of theological differences
but as sure as eggs is eggs, new foes emerged. – do much to improve relations.
The Normans assaulted the empire’s Sicilian The spectacle of a pope and
outposts and, during the reign of Romanos IV a patriarch of Constantinople
Diogenes (r.1068-71 CE), the Seljuk Turks inflicted mutually excommunicating one
a devastating defeat on the empire at the 1071 CE another would leave religious scars
Battle of Manzikert. The whole of Anatolia would that endured for centuries. A republic
be lost in the wake of this crushing blow. Yet such as Venice was simply waiting for an
again, however, Byzantine fortunes were rekindled opportunity to enter the Byzantine sphere John II Comnenos, known
with the arrival of a new dynasty: the Comnenid. of influence and it came, perhaps rather as John the Good, was an
unusually kindly emperor
Its greatest glories, under rulers such as Alexios I surprisingly, courtesy of the Crusades.

113
 ROMAN EMPERORS

“The death knell

sounded when
the Ottomans
under Mehmed II
captured the city
of Constantinople”
Faced with threats from the east, the Byzantines
were always hopeful of support from the West,
but things went horribly wrong in 1204. A fourth
Crusade was launched at the beginning of the 13th
century and the original plan was for the crusaders
to stop off at Constantinople en route, help restore
an emperor, and receive financial and military
support in return. Everything went swimmingly
for a while, but when the restored emperor Alexios
IV (r.1203-04) was killed, the empire was unable
to honour its commitments and the enraged
Crusaders launched an assault on the city.
Following a siege, the city was sacked and, as The preaching of the
Fourth Crusade, which
once contemporary put it, the “tumult and noise would unexpectedly bring
were so great that it seemed as if the very earth disaster to Constantinople
and sea were melting together”. Western control
of Constantinople was established, the empire’s horizon. The 14th century proved to be one of the Ultimately, in 1453, the death knell sounded
territories were divided up between the Western worst in Byzantine history, with an absurd number when the Ottomans under Mehmed II captured the
powers and, over the following decades, Byzantine of imperial depositions and civil wars. Into the city of Constantinople itself. The rich millennium-
emperors suffered the indignity of ruling in little bargain, the rise of the Ottoman Turks placed the long drama that was the fabled Byzantine Empire
more than name from exile. Three so-called empire in great jeopardy: for periods it was forced had all but come to an end. Only the Trebizond
successor states, all claiming to continue the to become a vassal state of the Ottomans. Truly Empire, based around northern Anatolia and the
authentic Byzantine tradition, fell into competition. embarrassing incidents came thick and fast – the Crimea, remained. It had always claimed to be
The tables turned under Michael VIII Palaiologos need to pawn the imperial crown jewels in 1343, the heart of the true Roman empire, denouncing
(r.1259-82), who retook Constantinople in 1261 but, or John V (r.1341-76) being detained for a spell as a Byzantium’s audacity, but it, too was snuffed out by
as ever, new threats and challenges were on the debtor on a trip to Venice. the Ottomans in 1461.

THE SLAYER OF THE BULGARS

The Byzantine Empire produced many military giants,
but few could match Emperor Basil II
Basil II was only five when he came to the Byzantine
throne in 976 CE, with his mother acting as regent.
He was soon asserting himself, however, and his
eventful reign witnessed its share of pretenders and
coup attempts. He survived them all. Basil was not
a particularly friendly man and was well known for
his gruffness and ascetical temperament. But while
he was not especially likeable, he garnered a good
deal of respect. His military successes were largely to
thank for this. His campaigning began badly when his
armies were thrashed by the Bulgars at Trajan’s Gate,
a mountain pass, but things soon looked up. From
997 CE he embarked on a series of epic conquests in
Greece, the Balkans and Syria and eventually served up
revenge to the Bulgars at Kleidion in 1014. Following
the battle, thousands of enemy captives were blinded
or mutilated and within four years Basil had secured
complete control of Bulgar territory. Further successes
followed in Armenia, and the inscription on Basil’s tomb Basil II in full
said it all: “No one saw my spear lie idle.” conquering mode

114
 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

It’s impossible to deny just how muddled

BOWING AND CURTSEYING

and horrific Byzantine history could sometimes
become: a tale of coups, pretenders and internecine
strife. The list of usurpations and vengeful Political life in the Eastern Empire may have sometimes
treatment of political rivals is almost absurd –
Constantine III being poisoned, Justin II going
been chaotic, but it was always regulated by intricate
mad, Constantine VI being blinded. Not to mention rules and rituals
Michael V’s castration, the lynching of Andronicus Byzantine emperors were obsessed with every detail
I, or the sons of Romanos I Lecapenos deposing of courtly life and protocol. Precedence and status
their father and shipping him off to a monastery. were everything, as reflected in the 10th-century De
Restraint was rarely shown. Following the death of Ceremoniis, or Book of Ceremonies, produced under
Heraclius, Constans I emerged victorious from the Constantine VII. Readers were instructed about
precisely what should happen at religious events,
power struggle in 641 CE and behaved as any self-
feasts, coronations, marriages and celebrations of
respecting Byzantine would when it came to his military victories. Rubrics concerning the reception of
rivals for the throne. Heraclius’ widow, Martina, had ambassadors and the appointment of officers were
her tongue cut out and his son, Heraclonas, had his also explained. Strict pecking orders were established:
nose chopped off. Both were then banished to the how the leaders of other nations should be addressed,
island of Rhodes. what clothes officials were entitled to wear, and what
The uncertainty of succession in the empire titles were to be used. At the core of all this was the
concept of order, taxis, which the Byzantines believed
created many difficulties. It was not a simple father-
set them apart from barbarian disorder, or ataxia.
to-son affair. An ambitious soldier could easily Overseeing all this were the emperors, who almost
seize power and even those of the humblest origins always erred on the side of autocracy, demanded
(Basil I was from peasant stock) had a shot at the total power in religion and politics, and expected
top job. This, in a way, was meritocratic, but if an complete deference. Stressing this image always made
emperor failed to live up to expectations, his days excellent sense for a subject who sought favour or
advancement. One text happily played by the rules: The coronation of
were always numbered.
“God has raised you, our reverend lord, to the throne Constantine VII – a typical
The wonder, though, is that through all this, the of kingship and made you by his grace as you are example of the Byzantine
Eastern Empire usually retained its prestige and love of ritual and ceremony
called, a terrestrial God, to do and act as you will.”
its economic power. The borders might shift, but
a Byzantine solidus was a coin accepted across
Constantinople’s stunning
Europe and beyond: the traveller’s cheque of its Hagia Sophia, built
day. And let’s not forget the astonishing cultural between 532 and 537 CE
and artistic legacy – from art and literature to
science and philosophy. Nothing sums this up
more elegantly than Hagia Sophia, the church that
Justinian built and then rebuilt. As the ancient
scholar Procopius explained, the emperor brought
in “workmen from every land” and the results were
“distinguished by indescribable beauty, excelling
both in size and in the harmony of its measures”.
“No one,” Procopius announced, “ever became
weary of the spectacle.”
Edward Gibbon, the great 18th-century historian,
famously denounced the Byzantine Empire as a
place of over-indulgence and petty infighting. It
was, he wrote, a Roman empire “contracted and
darkened”, akin to the mighty Rhine ending in a
trickle, losing itself in the sands before reaching the
ocean. But there was a good deal more to the story
than that.

“A Byzantine
solidus was
, Urselius

accepted across
Europe: the
© Argos’Dad, Arild Vågen,

traveller’s cheque Michael VIII Palaiologus managed

The Joshua Roll, one of the
most exquisite products of the

of its day” to retake Constantinople in 1261

following the sack of the city in 1204
cultural renaissance under
the Macedonian dynasty

115
 ROMAN EMPERORS

BLOODY HALL OF FAME

BYZANTINE EMPERORS
At the heart of the Byzantine Empire was a monarchy that survived on
intrigue, deception and bloodthirsty violence

PHOCAS
NON-DYNASTIC C.547-610
Phocas was a member of the army during the
reign of Emperor Maurice. A bloody military
revolt against Maurice led to his execution and
as a vocal opponent of the emperor, Phocas
was crowned as the new ruler. Civil war ensued
and aristocratic landowners were angered
as Phocas stripped them of their power and
Little is
known about influence. There were revolts all over the
Phocas’ life empire as factions sprung up determined to
before the
military revolt remove the usurper. Constantinople was seized
and Phocas was promptly beheaded. Justinian was
deposed twice

JUSTINIAN II
HERACLIAN DYNASTY C.668-711
Justinian’s reign was chaotic to say the least. After years
of heavy taxation and conflict with the Church, he was
deposed in 695. Justinian was mutilated in an attempt to
stop him from regaining the throne by having his nose cut
off. This led to his moniker ‘rhinotmetos’ (‘slit-nosed’), and
he supposedly wore a gold prosthetic. The former emperor
plotted his return while in exile, seeking the help of the
Khazars, and he was restored to the throne in 705. Cruel
and repressive, Justinian only ruled for six years before he
was deposed again and executed outside Constantinople.

IRENE BASIL I
ISAURIAN DYNASTY C.752-803 MACEDONIAN DYNASTY 811-86
Irene was thrust into a power when Though from humble origins, Basil earned the friendship and
she became regent for her son, patronage of Emperor
Constantine VI, after her husband’s Michael III, who eventually Basil I had
sudden death in 780. She developed the ultimate
crowned him co-emperor. rise with
a taste for power and refused to Basil was a great manipulator his rags-to-
relinquish control to her son for many and committed a series of riches story
years, who finally declared himself murders to clear his path to
Irene’s thirst for
emperor in 790. Popular support power led to Although she the throne. When he sensed
allowed Irene to become Constantine’s her betraying
co-ruler in 792 and by 797 she had her own son
reigned as a regent that Michael’s favour for
him was waning, he brutally
successfully deposed him. Irene even and co-emperor murdered the emperor and
had Constantine blinded to prevent him from beforehand, Irene was his relatives. As ruler, he
returning to power. However, Irene’s desire to oversaw a series of conquests
rule alone and refusal to remarry ultimately led
the first female to rule
that turned the Byzantine
to her downfall and deposition in 802. She died the Byzantine Empire Empire into the most
impoverished one year later. entirely by herself dominant power in Europe.

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 BLOODY BYZANTINE EMPERORS

THEODORA The reluctan d

p rov
t
id e

PORPHYROGENITA BstyzaabnilititynefoEmpeire
emp re ss
r th

MACEDONIAN DYNASTY C.980-1056

Empress Theodora was more suited to governing
than her sister Zoë, which was proven when she
had Michael V blinded to stop him reclaiming
power. She lived with her sister’s jealousy for
years and was confined to a monastery
during the Romanos’ reign. When
Zoë was restored to the throne,
Theodora was reluctantly
The name
crowned beside her. ‘Porphyrogenita’
After the deaths of Zoë means ‘born into the
A determined monarch and her husband, their
Basil II was popular
,
co-ruler Constantine IX,
purple’ – it refers to the
among his people
Theodora ruled alone fact that Zoë and
BASIL II
and the Macedonian Theodora were born
dynasty ended with her.
MACEDONIAN DYNASTY 958-1025 to a reigning
Basil the Bulgar-Slayer earned his name after conquering emperor
ZOË
Bulgaria. Merciless and brutal, he blinded the 15,000 Bulgarian
soldiers that he captured. In a macabre gesture, he left one eye
for every hundred men, so they could lead the others home.
Basil was popular with the army, which he joined on campaign
PORPHYROGENITA
instead of barking orders from the safety of his palace. Basil was
MACEDONIAN DYNASTY C.978-1050
As a daughter of Constantine VIII, Zoë was next
a shrewd ruler, limiting the power of wealthy landowners after Zoë was 50
years old in the Byzantine line of succession. She was
they dared to revolt against him. Despite numerous military
when she known for having numerous love affairs and
campaigns, the economy flourished throughout his reign, and married
Romanos was rumoured to have killed her first husband,
when he died the empire was left with a vast territory.
Romanos III, either by drowning or poisoning him.
She married her lover, Michael, on the very same
Andronicus day but was then removed from political power
until his death as he was afraid that she would turn
was a womaniser on him. An uprising against his heir and nephew,
and had numerous Michael V, led to Zoë being restored to the throne
affairs, including with alongside her sister Theodora, who promptly took
control. A vain woman, Zoë had little interest in
Manuel’s niece Theodora governing but resented Theodora for her authority
Komnene, the widow of and ability to rule.
King Baldwin III
of Jerusalem ALEXIOS III JOHN V PALAEOLOGUS
ANDRONICUS I ANGELOS DYNASTY PALAIOLOGOS DYNASTY 1332-91
COMNENUS C.1153-1211 Although not a murderous man, John’s reign was dominated
by violence and rebellion. Ascending to the throne as a young
Alexios overthrew his
KOMNENOI DYNASTY younger brother Isaac boy, the empire was John weathered
C.1118-85 II, who he blinded plunged into a civil repeated usurpation
mpts from his
Andronicus overthrew Empress Maria and imprisoned. A war over his regency. atteown family
because of her unpopular favouritism weak and extravagant John managed to
towards Latins – she was the wife man, Alexios spent overthrow his regent,
of his deceased cousin Manuel I Alexios’ reign was disastrous, money like water and his father’s old aide,
and regent for her son Alexios II. driving the empire into the ground a few years later
depleted the treasury.
Andronicus forced Alexios to sign his His ability to govern was poor and he relied following a second
mother’s death warrant and eventually heavily on his capable wife, Euphrosyne. It all civil war. He was
had the boy killed. His accession fell apart when Isaac’s son and Alexios’ nephew, deposed twice – first
© Mary Evans Picture Library, Getty Images

sparked a widespread massacre of the future Alexios IV, appealed to the Fourth by his son, and then
Latins within Constantinople, which Crusade for their help in restoring him to the by his grandson.
he did nothing stop. Initially popular, throne. The empire was easy pickings for the John managed to
Andronicus became tyrannical and Crusaders as Alexios’ poor governance had left regain the throne
the population revolted. He attempted it in a complete state. Alexios fled abroad in the both times but was
to escape but was ultimately captured, night and later died in a monastery. forced to appease his
tortured and killed. sons with titles.

117
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE'S
LAST STAND
For 600 years, Islamists dreamed of seizing Constantinople,
once the wealthiest city in the world. In 1453, both sides
prepared for a decisive showdown
Written by David Crookes

118
S
ultan Mehmed II took his position on a small dedicated his life was clear. War was inevitable and something with huge firepower; a weapon that was
mound in sight of the walls of the ancient his forces were outnumbered ten to one. to shake Constantinople like an earthquake.
city of Constantinople. Those tasked with Mehmed was conscious of the need for a Constantine XI understood the importance
defending the city – the stronghold of Orthodox swift war on Constantinople, given the logistics of his city. It was the gateway to Europe, an
Christianity – from the waves of invaders that involved with keeping such a large army well fed impregnable walled city that for 1,000 years had
threatened her could clearly see his location as they and healthy. He had made Constantine an offer: been besieged 23 times with just one success, at
peered across from the city walls over an incredible surrender the city, and he could keep his life and the hands of the Christian knights of the Fourth
number of tents situated barely 230 metres away. rule in the smaller town of Mystras. The emperor Crusade in 1203. Crucially, Constantinople – so
The tents were arranged in clusters. At the refused: “To surrender the city to you is beyond my important to the Eastern Roman Empire, or
centre of each was the makeshift home of an authority or anyone else’s who lives in it, for all of Byzantine Empire as it later became known – was
officer, on top of each a defiant flag fluttering in the us, after taking the mutual decision, shall die out of the centre for trade and previously the world’s
wind against the Sea of Marmara. The 21-year-old free will without sparing our lives.” largest and richest city. It had stood firm in the
sultan’s ceremonial red-and-gold tent lay further On 6 April 1453, the first attack came, light face of the Ottoman Empire that had expanded all
back, its grandeur befitting that of the Ottoman artillery firing at Constantinople. Soldiers pushed around it, leaving it isolated in the middle of
Empire’s leader. The sight of some 60,000 soldiers forwards, trying to break through the city’s walls, Europe and Asia.
together with thousands more helping to keep but the defenders proved strong. They repelled Constantinople had become the
them well tooled and fed was chilling for the city’s the invading army, causing many casualties. Even focus of much jealousy among
inhabitants. For the leader of Constantinople – the as cracks appeared in the walls and fortresses rival leaders who wanted to
Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos on Bosphorus were taken, Mehmed realised it conquer what had become
– the purpose of the incredible gathering within wasn’t going to be easy to break the city. For that, the last outpost of
spitting distance of the city to which he had even greater force was needed, so he called upon the once-mighty

119
 ROMAN EMPERORS

Constantinople in 1453 was a prestigious Roman Empire. Followers of Islam had laid siege was right. Constantine XI had none of the power
city, but not as powerful as it once was to Constantinople between 674 and 678, trying of those that had gone before him, and the city,
again in 717 and 718 in line with the belief that its with its population of 100,000, was bankrupt.
remaining strength would prevent Islam’s reach Constantinople had been paying vast sums to the
into Europe. Christian Europe feared the fall of Ottoman Empire as a way of avoiding invasion
Constantinople, believing it would open the way but this only served to financially cripple it. Now
for Islamic dominance. But even though the city the enemy was camped on its doorstep, ready to
saw off the attempted conquest, the death of unleash hell. The 49-year-old Constantine knew the
Islamic martyrs had helped make it a holy place chances of his small army holding out were slim
and the determination to try again in the future but he vowed to fight to his last breath.
burned deep. Constantine had made representations to the
Yet for hundreds of years the main threat to pope, knowing that an attack by the Ottoman
Constantinople as the centre for the Orthodox forces could only be held off for so long. They
Church had come from Rome, the centre of needed reinforcements from the West to help tackle
the Catholic Church. The Fourth Crusade had the threat. A union between the two Churches
devastated Constantinople’s power and riches, and was celebrated at the end of 1452, but despite the
so by 1453 it was a pale shadow of its former self. promise of warships, none arrived in the following
By this point, the Byzantine Empire – which at its months and with no help coming, Constantine
height had included most of the Mediterranean stepped up the work of repairing and reinforcing
coast – consisted of Constantinople and a few the city’s walls.
square miles outside. It might have lost its true The last outpost of the Roman Empire was
power, but its location and history meant it was still ringed by 19 kilometres of perimeter walling, most
desirable. Mehmed wanted it badly. of it facing the edge of the sea. On the northern
The sultan was determined to succeed where side was a chain that had been placed across
his predecessors had failed. He had come to power the mouth of the Golden Horn, the primary inlet
thanks to his father, Murat, who had negotiated a leading to a large harbour-like body of water. It
ten-year truce with Christian crusaders intent on prevented enemy ships from sailing past the
invasion. Mehmed had come to hold a desire to northern part of Constantinople and was an
be the heir to the Roman Empire and extend his important part of the city’s defences. Constantine’s
influence. He wanted one faith, one empire and strategy was to put a greater emphasis on the 6.5
one sovereignty in the world and by 1453, the time kilometres of land-locked perimeter wall, but he

N 1. Rumeli Hisari (Fortress of Europe)

5
Winter 1451: Nicknamed Bozaz Kesen (meaning throat-
cutter), Mehmed II ordered the building of a magnificent
castle with 7.6-metre-thick walls. Situated at the narrowest

1
point of the Bosphorus strait, its inhabitants used it to cut

3
supplies to Constantinople.
S
2. The chain
6 2 April 1453: Although the chain had been constructed
centuries earlier, Constantine XI ensured it was strung
across the mouth of the Golden Horn in Constantinople as
the Ottoman army camped on his doorstep. It prevented
enemy ships from entering the inlet.

2 3. Enemy camp
2 April 1453: The enemy Ottoman Turks, together with
a European army, camped outside the city walls. Rhe
Europeans were to the north of the river, the Janissaries
in the middle protecting Mehmed, and the Anatolian army
further down.

4 4. Theodosian Wall
6 April to 29 May 1453: This 6.5-kilometre stretch of
land-locked wall was the primary target for the advancing
enemy. They struck it with cannon fire and tried to breach
it several times before finally succeeding on 29 May 1453,
seizing the city.

5. The moat
The moat had been added in the 5th century and it was an
extra barrier between any invading army and the city walls.
It was around 20 metres wide and seven metres deep. The
Ottoman Turks tried desperately to fill it to allow for a safe
and easy passage.

HOW THE CITY'S 6. Bypassing the chain

22 April 1453: With the chain blocking access to the

DEFENCES WERE BREACHED

Golden Horn, Mehmed II ordered the ships to be carried
over land instead. In the dead of night, they were pulled
over difficult ground using log rollers and relaunched into
the water, much to Constantine’s surprise.

120
 THE EVOLUTION
OF SIEGE
WEAPONS

BATTERING RAM
First used: Unknown
Strengths: A part of warfare since ancient
history, battering rams have been
highly effective in smashing down
fortifications. They started as simple
heavy logs but swinging mechanisms
later came into play.
Weaknesses: Although great at
impacting stone and brick, they were
next to useless against thicker walls.
Soldiers would also have to get up close to
cause damage. Gunpowder and cannons
replaced this clumsy method.

SIEGE TOWER
First used: 11th century BCE
Strengths: Moveable siege towers
allowed soldiers to scale curtain walls
since they were of the same size or
higher. In later years, the bottom part
would be covered to allow for covert
work such as filling in moats.
Weaknesses: Since they were
made from wood, they were vulnerable
to collapse. In Constantinople, the siege
towers were set alight by the defenders using
Greek fire – a weapon frequently used by the
Byzantines in naval battles.

CANNON
First used: 12th century CE
Strengths: Cannons were effective
against even the strongest fortifications
as the super-cannons utilised in
Constantinople showed. Artillery fire
was used heavily in World War I and
lives on in a modern form today.
Weaknesses: The need to
reload them and ensure they are aimed
correctly makes them cumbersome. In
Constantinople, it would take some three hours
to reload the super-cannon and it was a tiring,
manual process.

CATAPULT
First used: 4th century BCE
Strengths: Catapults were able to propel
missiles over the fortified walls of cities
and castles, striking death and fear into
the heart of a population. They could
also be used to smash the walls with
large stones.
Weaknesses: When defences
are strong, the effects of catapults can
be neutralised. And no matter what type
of catapult was used – some were tension
The sultan promised his men they drive, others were spoon-like – they were
could loot the city after they took it
cumbersome to move and position.

121
 ROMAN EMPERORS

didn’t know about the latest weapon about to be

unveiled by his enemy.
Mehmed enjoyed the discovery of new things
and so was rather taken by a proposal to create a
THE RISE AND FALL OF
cannon larger than any other that had been built.
This, he surmised, would be perfect to smash the
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
famous walls of Constantinople.
Gunpowder had been available since around the TERRITORY HELD
11th century – it appears on the Song dynasty text 220 BCE
Wujing Zongyao – so its power was not unknown. 230 CE
The Ottomans’ new weapon was different, though. 1453 CE
It was devised by an engineer called Orban, who
had visited Constantinople from the Kingdom
of Hungary and was taken on by Constantine to
develop new weaponry. The infrequent payments
forced him to seek employment with Mehmed and
he promised the sultan he could make a weapon
large enough to fire a huge stone that would
demolish the city’s walls.
Orban was given an abundance of money and
the materials to build his super cannon. It took
him three months to make the giant weapon, the
end result being a monster that was 8.2 metres
long and capable of hurling a 272-kilogram stone
ball over an incredible 1.6 kilometres. When it hit
the walls of Constantinople, the shock waves were
immense. Constantine’s men struggled in the
face of the onslaught as it smashed into the stone
surroundings, causing parts to crumble to the
ground, leaving gaping holes in the city’s defences.
“He promised he could make a weapon
Their respite came in the three hours it took to
reload the cannon – they could use the time to
large enough to fire a huge stone that
repair the wall with mud and other materials to
hand. The defenders draped animal skins over the
would demolish the city’s walls”
walls, which, together with the mud, helped to the island of Chiois. Giustiniani was instrumental been enough damage and headway for a second
cushion subsequent blows to that area. in keeping the walls repaired and Constantinople stab at taking over Constantinople on 18 April, but
The noise and incredible shaking of the walls somehow continued to hold strong. By now, the this was repelled.
and ground as each ball smashed into the city’s battle had raged for 12 days. One of the most effective pre-war plans enacted
walls caused as much psychological damage as One of the major aims for Mehmed’s army was by the Ottomans was the building of a large castle
it did physical. The pounding went on for days. to fill the moat surrounding the city walls so that on the European side of Constantinople, close
Constantine was helped by Giovanni Giustiniani access could be quickly gained but Constantine’s to the city. Finished well in time for the siege,
and his army of 700 professional soldiers from men emptied them at night. Even so, there had the Ottomans nicknamed it Bogaz Kesen, which

Sultan Mehmed had been planning the

sacking of Constantinople for years

122
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE'S LAST STAND

WHO WAS “Constantine vowed Constantine prepared his city, encouraged his
soldiers to fight to the last man and vowed to
THE CITY to defend his city to defend his city to the death. There were just 4,000

NAMED AFTER?
men left to hold Constantinople – half that at the

The city was named after Constantine the Great, the

the death” start of the siege. On 29 May, after a 47-day siege,
the invaders surged forward, scaling the walls. They
Roman emperor from 306 to 337. He had battled rollers greased with animal fat. Scores of ships were pushed back by the defenders who knocked
against Emperor Maxentius for control of the West in were hauled over in a mammoth overnight task. away ladders and used hot oil to scald them. Two
312 and won. It was a victory that allowed him, as the
Surprised and aghast, the defenders were unsure waves of attack were repelled.
first emperor to convert to Christianity, to lead the
way for religious tolerance. what to do. The ships were now able to fire at the But Mehmed’s Janissaries – Christians picked
Under Constantine, the empire flourished, scantly guarded wall to the side of the Golden up by the Ottomans as children and trained
eventually being unified in 324. Constantine Horn. Within hours, great damage was being as fighters – broke through, their elite training
continued to look east and established New Rome in caused and the victorious Mehmed showed his enabling them to breech the walls after numerous
Byzantium. The Romans renamed this Constantinople ruthless side. When a group of defenders managed hours of fighting. There were hand-to-hand battles
in his honour and it came to be the capital of what
to escape from one sunken ship, his punishment in the narrow streets of the city. The defenders
became known as the Byzantine Empire.
was to have them impaled. knew the city were soon overpowered. Screams
The high-stakes game of cat and mouse filled the night air. As Ottoman soldiers poured into
translates as the ‘throat cutter’. Taking just four continued, and Mehmed ordered the Ottomans to Constantinople, the city was overwhelmed.
months to complete, it could be used to control sea mine under the city. On 16 May, Christian soldiers The Ottomans flung open the great bronze doors
traffic on the Bosphorus strait. The Ottoman Turks heard underground activity and went to investigate. of Saint Sophia and massacred large numbers of
could cut supplies to Constantinople by blasting Their discovery of miners put them on high alert worshippers. With priests dying by the altar and
away at defiant ships trying to sail past, using large and, having sorted the initial problem, they tried with a vast number of prisoners being rounded
cannons situated on the water’s edge. The city was to think up effective ways to spot further attempts. up, the end was upon the city. Their emperor tore
dangerously isolated. John Grant, a Scotsman who had found himself in off his imperial ornaments so he looked like any
But just as the Ottoman Turks had made Constantinople, recommended placing buckets of normal soldier, saying, “The city is fallen and I am
preparations, so too had Constantinople. The water around the walls of the city. A ripple on the still alive”, and charging to his death. The invaders
defenders had strung a chain across the mouth surface of the water would alert them to possible tied up any enemy they didn’t slaughter, grabbed
of the Golden Horn. By blocking access to the mining. It worked. women and fought over the most attractive of
waterway, the defenders were able to prevent an The attacks may have been repelled but the them. Children were led into slavery and the city
onslaught from that direction. The defenders had defenders were getting tired and their walls were was ransacked of what little it had left. After more
proved adept at seeing off the Ottomans’ naval a mess. On 27 May, Mehmed made the decision than 1,000 years of a glorious Constantinople, the
advances and there had been close ship-to-ship to throw everything at the city. Ottoman forces last outpost of the Roman Empire was no more.
combat during which the Byzantines emerged bombarded the walls relentlessly, causing heavy
victorious. Yet cutting off the Golden Horn meant damage. They were fast and furious, giving the
they could concentrate their efforts on defending defenders little time to make repairs. Mehmed
WHAT
HAPPENED NEXT?
the land-lying areas of the wall instead. then prepared his men to march forward. They
The sultan’s solution was ingenious. Mehmed were, he said, not to touch the structure of the
looked at the chain and surveyed the land close city – he wanted Constantinople to remain as intact Although Christians aimed to reclaim Constantinople
by. He decided the answer would be to haul the as possible so that it could form his capital. They after its fall, such ambitions fizzled out in the 16th
ships over land from the sea to the water cut off could loot and enslave, though. With this promise, century. Many of the Byzantine Empire’s learned
by the chain. And so it began. Soldiers and oxen the army spent 28 May getting ready, praying, men had left and sought out new inspiration,
pulled at the ships, sending them over pre-laid resting and running through their tactics. flooding Europe with teachings and culture, and
Constantinople was transformed into an Islamic city.
Constantinople – renamed Istanbul – became
attractive to Muslims, Jews and Christians, and they
lived in harmony in a city that Mehmed II had rebuilt
both structurally and culturally. With the Ottoman
Empire in decline, the 20th century brought changes.
World War I meant Istanbul came to be occupied by
Britain, France and Italy, leading to the establishment
of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. © Rex; Alamy; Thinkstock
 ROMAN EMPERORS

WHAT IF...

ROME
NEVER FELL?
EUROPE, 117-PRESENT
Illustration by Ian Hinley

Can we pinpoint a time when the Roman Empire fell? would have needed to grow its silver and gold reserves. Mines
JERRY GLOVER We’re speaking of the Western Empire, which after a long in Italy were not large or reliable enough, so instead Rome
After completing decline symbolically fell in Ravenna in 476. But an enhanced could stem the amount of silver it exported to India in return
his degree at
Manchester Senate continued to exist for more than a century afterward. for spices, curtailing its taste for luxuries. Difficult! Preferably,
University, Jerry The Roman concept of state was continued for almost a they could discover new sources that exist in Central Europe
Glover became
millennia, as the Holy Roman Empire and the Western or sub-Saharan Africa, or by voyaging to Mesoamerica where
a scriptwriter
and television producer Roman Empire continued to exist ‘on paper’, but only as a silver and gold is plentiful and fairly easy to reach.
before turning to independent legal formality. Let’s also not forget that the Eastern Empire Excellent cartography and astronomy borrowed from Persia
historical research with a
particular interest in ancient continued until the 15th century. Given all that, it’d be a is key to making this possible. In the Mesoamerican scenario,
societies in Europe, the Near phenomenal situation if Rome never fell. ‘Never’ is the key the Romans come up against the Maya, sparking conflicts the
East and India. He has written idea here. For a Western Roman Empire still in existence Romans would be hard-pressed to win in harsh jungles, and
dozens of articles for numerous
publications, and in June today would have to be so different from the reality of what greatly outnumbered. Instead, they muster their advantage in
to August 2013 he curated made it the Roman Empire that we could hardly call it that technology and international connections to cajole the Mayans
an exhibition in St Albans
at all! A surviving Western Empire might well hold vastly into a trade alliance to develop their civilisation – exchange
dedicated to Medieval graffiti,
based on his own photographs disproportionate influence over human affairs everywhere. It steel, machinery and urban planning for Mayan gold and
and research, the first such would encompass, and indeed define, most if not the whole of hardwood. With diplomatic outposts established in Mayan
exhibition held anywhere.
Europe, as well as other parts of the world. cities, Roman legions, consisting of Mayan warriors as well,
march to the gold regions of Peru and California, returning
How possible is it for Rome not to have fallen; what to Rome with spoils that make the treasure of the Temple of
would have to be different? Jerusalem look like a prize at a village fête lucky dip.
From the end of the 2nd century, levels of trade and prosperity
fell, never again achieving the levels of the early Principate. How would Rome’s government be different?
By the mid-3rd century, when the empire split into three To keep the empire stable, a balance would have to be struck
competing entities and widespread civil unrest massively between tight, autocratic rule by an elite oligarchy, intelligent
disrupted the trade network, the degeneration of imperial decision-making, and the machinations of prestigious,
finances escalated. The state’s inability to pay its troops well-connected individuals. The expensive civil wars that
increased, too. contributed to the collapse could be averted if Rome had
Essential items such as weapons, clothing and food became reformed the system by which the emperor was selected after
part of soldiers’ pay, and much trade took place without the 3rd century, when the senatorial class was marginalised
currency. One response was to debase the currency. In the and any connection with the imperial family was sufficient to
second half of the 3rd century the silver content of the make a claim. Almost all emperors after that time were army
antonianus collapsed, causing hyperinflation, which had to officers or imperial officials, and that stratocracy led to rivals
be dealt with by Aurelian in 271 and 274 by raising taxes and and bloody conflicts. From the mid-3rd century, emperors also
eradicating the bad coinage in Rome and Italy, but not the wasted time with matters that previously were dealt with by
provinces. To prevent continual currency devaluing, Rome an imperial legate. If he was unwilling to trust anyone else

124
A surviving Roman Empire might
have resulted in an accelerated
development of technology

125
 ROMAN EMPERORS

to deal with a distant problem it would be neglected, and the pope is chosen from a group of cardinals. But the periods of
trend toward smaller provinces made it even harder to get service are fixed, like the president of the United States, so no
things done than before. office gets too much influence over the rest. Only soldiers are
Diocletian’s Tetrarchic system from 293 quartered the allowed to keep their jobs as long as they are performing well,
empire, each part ruled by a sovereign emperor. But each but no general can become emperor. That’s very important, as
group selfishly favoured its own aims over the whole, so the is keeping the army properly paid. It’s a system where anyone
system crumbled from near-constant civil wars. With much can become an official, or even emperor. Yet still oligarchal
more radical reform it might have worked if the Tetrarchy and Roman enough to preserve the ideals that work so well in
reformed into a Supreme Imperial Office comprising more the empire’s favour – conquest, assimilation, expansion. That’s
regional co-emperors, who were chosen only from the Senate. the basic theory, anyway.
And if reform included the chance to become a senator – or
any official – on personal merits, not just for being one of the How might Rome have progressed beyond the 5th
landed classes. century and onward?
Intelligence and capability also have to carry real political In the 7th century the new religion of Islam galloped out
influence, basically an oligarchy of technocrats. Each office of Arabia, and Muslim armies began a war against both
is decided by a small closed election, a bit like the way the the Romans and the Sassanians, already fighting since
the 3rd century. Many factors would have to go into Rome
winning the war against this fresh expansion. For one,
An empire divided Eastern Roman Empire Rome would need the resources to defend the Middle East,
Through the 3rd century, Rome The eastern half of the empire
was plagued with civil war. In 330, thrived and continued to exist which supposing they still have western Europe and north
Emperor Constantine divided the as the Byzantine Empire for Africa, and are investing deeply into gaining a foothold in
Roman Empire into two parts to hundreds of years after the
make it easier to govern. western half fell. Mesoamerica as I envisage, it is still questionable unless
they can make up with the Sassanians. It’s a logical step for
them to build strong diplomatic relations with other empires;
the Hunnic, Sasanian, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, and
subsequent empires.
Despite all the negative connotations of being an empire, a
surviving, generally non-belligerent Western Roman Empire
would in some sense be the model of a well-governed,
prosperous, cosmopolitan society, having evolved beyond the
strife and economic problems that dogged its early history,
exacerbating its actual demise. On the other hand, the cost of
this may well be an even more hierarchical and brutal society,
with slavery still rooted, and a very harsh law code.
Western Roman Empire
Wave after wave of Germanic
barbarian tribes swept through the Would the world as a whole be more or less
western half. In 476, the emperor
was overthrown and the Roman technologically advanced?
Empire fell. In certain areas I suggest it would be a lot more advanced,
provided there’s no stagnation of scientific enquiry that

HOW WOULD IT BE DIFFERENT?

O Accelerating the decline
The deaths of four strong military
leaders, Theodosius in 395, Stilicho in
408, Constantius III in 421 and Aetius
in 451, are crucial in greatly accelerating
O Diarchy and Tetrarchy O Waves of invasion the collapse of the Western Empire.
Diocletian appoints officer Maximian as a The Tervingi, a tribe of Goths under pressure 395-451
second emperor with equal power. In 293 from Hun tribes, are allowed into Roman
two more army officers are appointed territory. After their leader is killed, they

REAL
junior Caesars with supreme authority, rebel, invade Italy and sack Rome before
creating the Tetrarchy. Diocletian reforms securing lands in Aquitaine and Gaul.

TIMELINE
taxation and coinage systems, but cannot
enforce prices. 286-313
They found a kingdom in former Roman
Iberia (Portugal and Spain). 376
REAL TIMELINE

O Rome’s greatest glory O Crisis of the O Foundation of the O Battle of Adrianople

With victorious campaigns Third Century Eastern Empire Emperor Valens heeds
in Mesopotamia and Upon Emperor Severus’ The city of Byzantium the advice of the cautious
Dacia, Trajan achieves the murder by his own troops, becomes the new imperial Western general Richomer

ALTERNATIVE
greatest extent of the a string of short-term seat of the Eastern Empire, not to attack, instead of the
Roman Empire’s territory. ‘barracks emperors’ fight, with Constantine naming it hawkish Eastern general

TIMELINE
The empire’s population is allowing frequent raids Constantinople. The empire Sebastian who urges the
around 70 million. 117 from foreign tribes. By 258 maintains control of the order. Valens negotiates,
the empire splits into three eastern provinces, regaining stalling while reinforcements
states: Roman, Gallic and territory in Italy, Sicily, arrive, and wins the battle.
Palmyreme. 235-284 southern Spain and North 9 August 378
Africa in the 6th century. 330

126
 WHAT IF... ROME NEVER FELL?

The sack of Rome A depiction of

by the Vandals Pilate’s Forum

happened in Europe across Late Antiquity. Instead of the encouraged emperors to expand the empire’s boundaries,
intelligentsia putting so much effort into Christian religious bigger wars and extra pressure on state finances and
doctrine and hoarding ancient knowledge in closed reductions in the overall standard of living. But if the empire
monasteries, there is a freer circulation of information that is not to fall, ambitions of conquest must be held in check,
allows engineering to innovate much faster. Steel was known maintaining the delicate balance of international relations.
to the Romans, and sooner or later they must have realised
that making tools from it instead of just weapons would Are there any key events that could have stemmed
increase agricultural productivity, and architecture would Rome’s fall if they went differently?
develop faster for its use in tools, cranes and girders. One that stands out is the Battle of Adrianople in 378 when
The principle of steam power was already known to the Roman forces of the Eastern Empire lost some 10,000 lives
Ancient Greeks. If the Romans had cottoned onto the to the Visigoths under Fritigern. This gave the Goths free rein
possibilities of that, combined with iron and steel, it’s in Thrace and Dacia, a major instigator of the process that led
feasible they could have invented the steam engine, hence to the fall of the Western Empire. The blame for this calamity
locomotives, revolutionising long-distance transport, a rail rests with Emperor Valens. During negotiations, premature
network spanning the empire. The Industrial Revolution could attack broke out from the Roman side, and Valens allowed
have started 1,000 years earlier, marking the beginning of the this to force his hand, ordering an attack that spiralled into a
end for the slave system. disaster, including his own death. If Valens had kept his head,
This isn’t necessarily for everyone’s benefit. More who knows? Instead of being the ‘Last True Roman’ as he’s
powerful engines of war, including firearms, might well have been called, he might have been the greatest of them all.

O Loss of Britain O First sack of Rome O A crucial blow O Fall of the Western Empire
Following the removal of troops In their third attempt, Visigoths The Vandals move on from Spain King Odoacer deposes
in northern and western Britain, under Alaric ransack the city, into North Africa, securing Carthage, Emperor Romulus Augustus
Constantine’s officials are finally killing and torturing citizens to then Sicily. This further weakens the and sends the imperial
expelled by British chieftains. reveal their hidden valuables. state’s revenue and ability to field regalia to the emperor
In 410 they appeal to Emperor The Goths continue to ravage an army, encouraging further Goth of the Eastern Empire at
Honorius, who urges them to southern Italy. Roman refugees attacks that regain most areas of Constantinople.
“fend for themselves”. 407-408 flee to North Africa. August 410 the Western Empire. 439-441 4 September 476

O Vandals repelled O Black Death averted O Invention and expansion O Return of the Black Death
Majoran uses an enhanced fleet of Grain ships carrying bubonic The first outing of Minerva’s From one trade caravan on the
65 ships (not 40) to win against the plague from Egypt sink in Arrow, a steam engine that runs on Silk Road, plague reaches Europe
Vandals at the Battle of Cartagena. a storm before reaching rails, is a centrepiece of a year-long and then a ship bound for
He retakes Sicily, gradually Constantinople. The averted festival of art and technology in Mesoamerica. Half the empire’s
reversing the Vandal usurpation of Plague of Justinian allows the Rome. The rail network gradually population and those of its
North Africa. Rome expands into Eastern Empire to populate faster expands to all frontiers. neighbours, around 290 million,
sub-Saharan Africa. 461-475 by a factor of two. 541-542 681-962 perish. 1346-73

O No more war? O The Second Pax Romana O Holy Land Wars O New World alliances O The HyperRenaissance
The Goths are assimilated, preventing After three years of deliberation A Roman-Axumite alliance After exploration and conflict in With 1,000 years of super-
their plunder in Thrace. With British by the new Supreme Consilium, prevents Islamic expansion Mesoamerica, Rome establishes accelerated progress in all fields
territory stabilised, Rome trains on reforms are announced to forever into North Africa, but relations with the Mayans, helping of human knowledge at his
Scandinavia and the Ukraine, forming eradicate corruption. With the loses Mesopotamia to the prevent the civilisation’s collapse. In disposal, Leonardo da Vinci is
a frontier across the Baltic states. The finances rebalanced, imperial caliphate powers. Rome Peru they extract tribute from the born in a suburb of the Florentia-
ensuing massive cost entails harsh taxes, wealth starts to surge once again. loses control of Jerusalem. Chavín culture. In California they Roma mega-city, the largest on
provoking empire-wide rioting. 378-415 475-635 635-700s enslave Native Americans. 650-1251 Earth… 15 April 1452

127
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Get up close to Rome’s deadliest Uncover the dynasties that kept Explore the murderous rulers of
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