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Canal Lining
Canal Lining is an impermeable layer provided for the bed and sides of canal to improve
the life and discharge capacity of canal. Canal Linings are provided in canals to resist
the flow of water through its bed and sides. 25 to 50% of water lost through seepage in
an unlined canal can be saved by construction canal lining. These can be constructed
using different materials such as compacted earth, cement, concrete, plastics, boulders,
bricks etc. The main advantage of canal lining is to protect the water from seepage loss.
Advantages of Lining:

1. Seepage control: The main purpose behind the lining of canal is to reduce the seepage
losses. In some soils, the seepage loss of water in unlined canals is about 25 to 50% of
total water supplied. The cost of canal lining is high, but it is justifiable for its efforts
in saving of most of the water from seepage losses. Canal lining is not necessary if
seepage losses are very small.
2. Prevention of water logging: Water logging is caused due to phenomenal rise in water
table due to uncontrolled seepage in an unlined canal. This seepage affects the
surrounding ground water table and makes the land unsuitable for irrigation. So, this
problem of water logging can be surely prevented by providing proper lining to the
canal sides.
3. Increase in Channel Capacity: Canal lining can also increase the channel capacity.
The lined canal surface is generally smooth and allows water to flow with high velocity
compared to unlined channel. Higher the velocity of flow greater is the capacity of
channel and hence channel capacity will increase by providing lining. On the other side,
with this increase in capacity, channel dimensions can also be reduced to maintain the
previous capacity of unlined canal which saves the cost of the project.
4. Increase in Commanded Area: Commanded area is the area which is suitable for
irrigation purpose. The water carrying capacity of lined canal is much higher than the
unlined canal and hence more area can be irrigated using lined canals.
5. Reduction in Maintenance Costs: Maintenance of lined canal is easier than unlined
canals. Generally there is a problem of silting in unlined canal which removal requires
huge expenditure but in case of lined canals, because of high velocity of flow, the silt
is easily carried away by the water. In case of unlined canals, there is a chance of
growth of vegetation on the canal surface but not in case of lined canals. The
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vegetation affects the velocity of flow and water carrying capacity of channel. Lined
canal also prevents damage of canal surface due to rats or insects.
6. Elimination of flood dangers: A line canal always withstand against floods while
unlined canal may not resist and also there is chance of occurring of breach which
damages the whole canal as well as surrounding areas or fields. But among all, concrete
canal linings are good against floods or high velocity flows.
Financial justification and economics of canal lining: In certain cases, the lining of
canal may be required from purely technical consideration. For example, a canal
constructed on a high hill or a canal founded partly on rock and partly on permeable
strata, may be unsafe, unless it is lined. Sometimes a hard lined surface may be required
to withstand the high flow velocities as in power channel. Apart from these special
circumstances, the engineer is required to produce a good economic justification for the
capital outlay that is likely to be invested on lining. Benefit cost ratio can therefore be
worked out so as to justify the necessity of lining.
Mathematically speaking expenditure on a project is justified if the resulting annual
benefit exceed the annual costs i.e. benefit cost ratio is more than one. The justification
for lining the existing canals is different from that of constructing new lined canal in a
new project. It is because of the fact that a large number of additional advantages such
as lesser earth handling, lesser land acquisition, lesser impounding reservoir capacities
etc are obtained in a new project by adopting lining for new canals.
Types of linings, their construction and uses
Various types of canal linings, which are commonly adopted are enumerated below
(1) Concrete (in-situ construction)
(2) Precast concrete (tiles)
(3) Lime concrete
(4) shotcrete or plastic
(5) Brick tiles
(6) Asphalt-
(a) Buried asphalt membrane
(b) Asphaltic concrete
(7) Stone blocks, concrete blocks, undressed stones.
(8) Earth materials -
(a) Compacted earth
(b) Soil cement
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(9) Prefabricated light-weight membranes

(10) Bentonite - soil and clay membranes
(11) PVC films
1. Concrete Lining: Concrete lining for canals is recommended only where the cost is
justified over other types of lining. Salient points regarding concrete lining are discussed as
under
a) Materials : Concrete linings are made of cement, aggregates and water. The lining
can be placed by machines or laid manually.
(b) Subgrade preparation : For a plain concrete lining to be free from cracks due to
settlement of the subgrade, the foundation should be firm. Natural earth in cutting is
generally acceptable. When laying the lining on the bank, thorough compaction of the
earth should be ensured. To avoid the development of back pressure on the lining
when the banks get saturated by rains, it may be necessary to provide drainage of
banks formed of soils having low permeability. It is, however, not necessary in
average or sandy soils.
(c) Thickness of concrete lining : The thickness varies from 5 to 15 cm. Smaller
channels require 5 cm thickness while large canals need 8 cm on an average. The
banks are dressed to a self supporting slope of 1.5 (H) : 1 (V) to 1.25 (H) : 1 (V).
Where the slopes are steeper than this, the thickness of the concrete lining increases
steeply rendering it uneconomical. The thickness of lining depends on the
requirements of impermeability and structural strength necessary to avoid cracking
with minor movement of the subgrade.
Thickness of concrete Lining

(d) Reinforcement in concrete linings : The purpose of providing steel reinforcement

in lining is to reduce the width of temperature or shrinkage cracks, thus reducing
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seepage; and to protect the cracked slabs from faulting in case of unstable subgrade
soils. Steel being costly is generally omitted except where the structural safety of
lining particularly requires it. However, steel reinforcement interferes with the
working of mechanical equipment used for laying the lining. The amount of
reinforcement varies from 0.1 to 0.4 % of the concrete area in the longitudinal
direction, and 0.1 to 0.2 % of the concrete area in the transverse direction.
(f) Laying of concrete lining: Concrete is laid without formwork on slopes flatter
than 1 :1. The concrete mix should be of a consistency such as to be well compacted,
and yet stay on the slopes without formwork on such slopes. Concrete with low
workability will result in honeycombing, while a high workability will cause the
concrete to flow down the slope and result in a wavy surface.
The subgrade should be saturated to a depth of 30 cm in sandy soils and 15 cm in other
types of soils before laying the concrete lining, so that moisture from the mix is not
lost due to any absorption by the subgrade. Painting the subgrade by a film of crude
oil or covering the subgrade with a sheet of oil paper prevents the possibility of
mudding and uneven subgrade that may occur on saturation.
This lining is quite impermeable, strong and durable. Its coefficient of rugosity is low,
permitting high velocity of flow; thus, silting and evaporation losses get reduced.
Mechanical equipment allows quick construction; and its maintenance cost is low. It
discourages weed growth. However. its initial cost is quite high, and also it may
develop cracks due to temperature fluctuations. Its repair process is difficult and
costly. Due to its relatively small thickness its resistance to hydrostatic pressure (after
rapid drawdown in the canal) is limited; it is also susceptible to adverse subgrade
conditions. Very high velocities may erode its fine ingredients, thus increasing its
roughness.
Joints in cement concrete lining. Cracks in C.C. lining usually occur due to
I. Warping stresses caused due to the difference in temperature between the
atmosphere and the concrete lining, or due to moisture potential between the two faces
of the C.C. slab ; and
II. Tensile stresses caused by the differential temperature variation between the
upper and lower faces of the c.c. slab.
Cracking caused due to above causes is controlled either by providing reinforcement
or by providing joints in concrete lining, as discussed below:
The various types of joints which may be provided in C.C. lining are :
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(i) Expansion joints

(ii) Construction joints
(iii) Contraction joints
Advantages of cast in situ cement concrete linings.
A. Longer life than that of any other type.
B. Least permeable of all types.
C. Most resistant to erosion
D. Permits fast construction by mechanical means.
E. Low recurring maintenance charges.
Disadvantages of cast-in-situ cement concrete linings.
a. Higher initial cost.
b. Greater possibility of temperature cracking.
c. Less flexible and easily affected by adverse- subgrade conditions.
d. Skilled supervision and construction necessary.
2. Precast Concrete Lining
Such types of linings are very popular in India, because of certain inherent
advantages in their use.
These advantages are
a. Bricks or concrete tiles can be laid by ordinary masons, and specially skilled
labour, as required for cast in situ cement concrete lining, is not required.
b. Rigid quality control is not required.
c. No expansion joints are required.
d. Rounded sections can be easily laid without using any formwork.
e. Larger number of labours are required, thus providing greater employment
potential.
f. Isolated damaged portions can be repaired easily.
g. Bricks can be plastered to increase the carrying capacity of canal with the same
section, and also to help increase the life span of lining.
The specifications may provide either a single or a double layer of c.c. tiles or
bricks laid in mortar. Sometimes, a layer of tiles is laid over a layer of brick
masonry. The top layer of tiles is generally laid in 1: 3 cement mortar over 15 mm
thick layer of plaster in 1: 3 cement plaster. The size of tiles is generally restricted
to 30×150×53 mm.
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This type of lining gives a very satisfactory service. Even if there is a settlement
of subgrade, the mortar joints between thy bricks or tiles provide for numerous
cracks so fine that seepage would be insignificant. In case of abnormal settlement,
the local area can be repaired without any problem.
Disadvantages of pre-cast cement concrete tile linings
(i) Slow progress.
(ii) Not suitable for curves.
(iii) Too light for hydel channels
3. Lime Concrete Lining
Such lining is limited to canals having flow up to 200 cumec and in which the velocity
is less than 2 m/s. The materials required for this type of lining are lime, sand, coarse
aggregate and water. The mix proportions are 1: 1.5 : 3 of lime : sand : stone (or brick
ballast as aggregate). The thickness may vary from 10 - 15 cm for discharges up to
200 cumec. Lime concrete lining is not as impervious as cement concrete lining. It is
not commonly used in practice. It may be stressed that hydraulic lime should not be
used in combination with cement as it cause a decrease in the compressive strength of
concrete.
4. Shotcrete Lining:
Shotcrete is a technical term used to designate cement mortar applied under pressure
through a nozzle on the surface of the channel. It consists of a mixture of cement and
sand (generally in the ratio of 1 :4). Sand is having a maximum size of 0.5 cm. Larger
proportions of cement are required in shotcrete as compared to what is required in
cement concrete. Wire mesh reinforcement is generally, although not necessarily, used
in shotcrete canal linings.
Shotcrete is of immense use for smaller jobs, because of the lighter equipment and
small crew required to carry out the work. It is also useful for repair works and in
rehabilitation of old canals. Shotcrete linings can be placed in an irregular canal
section, thus eliminating the necessity of trimming the section, as is required for
concrete canal linings when placed with a slip-form. Shotcrete lining is generally laid
in a thickness of about 3.5 cm.
5.Brick Tile Lining
Brick tile lining consists of one or two layers of brick masonry or tiles laid in mortar.
Alternatively, a layer of brickwork is followed by a layer of tiles. The top layer of tiles
is usually laid in 1: 3 cement: sand mortar over 12 mm thick layer of plaster of the
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same 1 : 3 cement : sand mortar. It may be mentioned that size of tiles is generally
kept 30 cm × 15 cm × 5 cm for ease of handling. The double tile lining is provided on
the banks while a single tile lining is laid on the bed.
Brick tile lining gives good hydraulic: properties. Being flexible, any settlement of the
subgrade will cause numerous fine cracks, but seepage loss would be insignificant.
It is more pervious than cement concrete lining: and its maintenance cost is higher. Its
resistance lo abrasion is relatively lower, laying bricks is a slow process.
For lining work best, quality bricks only should be used. The bricks should be well
soaked in water before laying. The first layer of brick tiles should be laid on well
moistened subgrade. The second layer should be placed at least two days after the
plaster has been applied on the first layer.
Brick tile lining for canals has the following advantage:
(a) Brick lining can be laid by ordinary masons not requiring special skills.
(b) The thickness remains constant in case the subgrade is not perfectly plane.
(c) Rigid control on works is not essential, because bricklaying does not require too
much skill.
(d) It eliminates the need for expansion joints as shrinkage is practically avoided and
the coefficient of expansion is low.
(e) It involves less transport because brick kilns can be established along the canal at
frequent intervals.
(f) It is easily repaired in case of damage.
(g) It is easily laid on rounded comers without the need for any formwork.
6. Asphaltic Concrete Lining
Asphalt has been used as a lining material at a very few places. It is still under the
stage of evolution. Asphaltic concrete is a carefully controlled mixture of asphalt and
graded stone aggregate, mixed and placed under elevated temperature. It provides a
fairly cheap lining, especially where the asphalt is available within the country. It is
flexible and readily confirms to the subgrade. The disadvantages or the limitations of
this type of lining are :
i) It does not decrease the rugosity coefficient of the channel.
(ii) It permits certain type of weed growth.
7. Stone Blocks, Undressed Stones (i.e., Boulder Lining) or Concrete Blocks in
Lining
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Boulder lining, also called dry stone lining or stone pitching, consists of lining the side
slopes' of on earthen canal by proper placement & packing of stones, either after laying
a filter layer over the soil surface, or without any such filter, depending upon the site
requirement. Such a lining does not prevent seepage of canal water, though helps in
retaining the shape of canal section, thereby reducing maintenance cost. The stones to
be used for 1ining are rounded or sub-angular river cobbles, or blasted rock pieces with
sufficient base area, so as to remain stable in their position.
Stones are generally placed on the levelled subgrade, and hand packed after dividing
side slope length into compartments by the construction of Dhamalis (ribs) of stone
masonry constructed at suitable intervals. The dhamalis do rest on a c.c. or R.R.
masonry toe wall constructed on the drain bed along the Junction of drain bed· and side
slope. Usually, dhamalis in R.R. masonry @15 m centre to centre, and 0.6 min width,
having depth equal to the depth of pitching (22.5 cm or so) are usually provided.
The biggest advantage of such a lining however, is that it is a pervious lining allowing
free flow of water from the submerged or saturated subgrade into the canal. Such a
lining, therefore, does not need any drainage arrangements, in the form of pressure relief
valves, etc. as may be required in concrete or brick linings. Such a lining may therefore
be preferred when water table is very high in the area, higher than DBL or even FSL of
the canal.
8. Earth Materials in Lining
Earth materials can also be used for lining canals. These include compacted earth and
soil cement mixture. These types are described below.
a. Compacted earth lining:
This is possible in canal reaches where suitable soils are available in the vicinity of
the canal alignment. Soil is screened to get the desired characteristics: and it is laid on
the subgrade and compacted optimum moisture content to provide an impermeable
protective lining to resist erosive forces.
b. Loosely Placed Earth Lining
Suitable clayey soil spread, over the bed and sides of the canal, in layers up to a
thickness of 30 cm. Seepage losses get reduced. but the treatment may not resist erosion
and scour.

c. Stabilised soil lining

Soil stabilised and made impervious by the admixture of specially processed resins and
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chemicals (such as, sodium silicate, sodium chloride, commercial resins, cement, line,
asphalt and petrochemical) provides a good lining. However, because of use of
chemicals the lining becomes quite costly; and, may be used under special
circumstances.
d. Soil Cement lining
Certain soils mixed with 2-5% Portland cement have been found to stabilize the earth
making it adaptable for lining of canals. For this. soil containing a high percentage of
fine particles (less than 200 microns)is thoroughly mixed with cement and water at
site and laid on the prepared surface and well compacted to form an impervious lining.
Requirements of Good Lining
The canal linings should generally possess the following essential requirements
(1) Economy (2) Structural stability (3) Durability and ( 4) Repairability
1) Economy. The lining selected for a particular canal should be economical. The
economy of canal lining project generally depends upon many factors such as the
type of material used for construction, availability of materials, labour availability,
construction equipment, the period of construction etc. A canal lining is said to be
economical when the repair and maintenance costs are inexpensive along with the
initial construction cost.
2) Structural stability. There are various pressures that act on a canal lining. Soil
behind the lining may get saturated due to rainwater or seepage and exerts severe
pressure on the lining. Sometimes cavities can form behind the lining and create
problems. The canal lining should survive against these types of pressures. So, the
lining provided should be heavy, strong and stable.
3) Durability. The canal lining should be durable in such a way that it should
survive in peak flow conditions, canal empty condition, all weather conditions,
against temperature changes, chemical actions etc. The lining should be inspected
periodically to prevent the growth of rodents, weed, etc. which affects the
durability of the structure.
4) Repairability. Since the lining will get damaged with its use over a period of time,
it should be such that it can be repaired easily and economically. Brick tile or
concrete tile or stone boulder linings, or precast slab lining can be easily repaired,
as compared to cast in situ concrete lining.
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Factors Responsible for Selection of a Particular Type of Lining

(1) Size and Importance of the canal: For smaller canals, which may be used only
intermittently, one may choose a lining, the construction of which may require
little equipment and machinery. Larger canals on the other hand, may permit the
use of cast in situ operations, with more elaborate T & P articles brought to site.
Moreover, larger & important canals may require continuous operations, and,
hence may need stronger linings, such as concrete lining.
2) Canal Slopes and Alignments: These factors also need consideration since
frequent changes in alignment and steeper slopes may- encounter higher flow
velocities, leading to selection of stronger linings. The limiting safe velocities, in
generally used types of linings, are given in table

3. Availability of Materials: Every type of lining will require certain materials and
ingredients. Some of these materials may be easily available at a certain place, and
others may not be easily available. The type of lining should be such that the required
materials are most easily available locally or in the vicinity of the area from where they
can be carted to site with least cost.
4. Climate of the Area: Higher quality linings should be used in areas which are
susceptible to severe frosts and temperature changes such as in western countries.
5. Initial Expenditure. Mathematically speaking, the most economical type of lining is
the one which shows maximum annual benefit-cost ratio. This lining may have higher
initial cost but longer life, than some other kind of lining having lesser value of annual
benefit cost ratio. From long term planning point of view; the first type of lining should
be chosen. But sometimes, the initial cost may be too high to be borne by the State, and
hence, the lining with lesser initial cost may have to be adopted, even though its benefit-
cost ratio may be less.