BUILDING TECHNOLOGY REVIEWER

Steel - Henry bessemer invented modern

HISTORY OF BUILDING MATERIALS steel making process in 1855

Neolithic Revolution - the world first - Eiffel Tower - Alexandre Gustav

permanent building was constructed during 1889
neolithic revolution
PVC - 20th century
Bricks - world most famous construction
material Reinforced concrete - invented by joseph
monier in 1849
Wooden Hut - oldest recorded evidence of
a timber structure ( 8,500 BCE ) - Became the material choice of many
modern architects form 1950’s
Ancient Egyptians - first civilization to build onward
structures with stone (granite & limestone)
Float window - made by floating molten
Around 650 BCE ancient greeks also glass
began to build structures with stone
Plastic tensile structure - was used in frei
Dome Pantheon - constructed in concrete otto’s design for the west german
and worlds largest unreinforced concrete pavilion
dome
ETFE (Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene) -
Glass window - roman invention was used in Eden project and beijing
national aquatics center
Iron - first known use of iron was in late 7th
century china, when tang dynasty The History of Building Materials
constructed a cast iron pagodas Summarized:

Iron was rediscovered as a construction Stone Age

material in 1775 when it was used in the
iron bridge in england The earliest documented materials used for
a “house” was excavated in Europe which
Engineered Timber - first use was in dated around 12,000 BCE used wooden
church of st luke poles that are assumed to be frames for
animal skins used as walls for a tent.
- Museum of natural History - Otto
hetzer

Abestos - was used first in 1866 as

insulation material
Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures Renaissance Period

people were able to develop a building the use of timber trusses with king posts is a
material made from mud and formed using major Roman building technique revived in
straw with four sides, this materials is what this period. The use of clear glass was also
we call “bricks”, these bricks were made manifested in many Romanesque buildings
from sun-drying the mud found along the which is also called as the “crown glass
aforementioned bodies of water. “ceramic” method” which is a process handmaking
where also developed during this time. glass out of soda-lime composition.

Egyptian Civilization The First Industrial Age

Massive blocks of stones such as at around 18th century, the Industrial

limestone, sandstone, and granite that are Revolution emerged wherein mass
strong and durable were mined and cut by production of Iron was done to contribute to
early Egyptians to construct monumental the development of machinery which then
structures like Pyramids, mortuaries, and lead to the “puddling process” or the
mastabas. process of production wrought iron in 1769.

Greek and Hellenestic cultures The Second Industrial Age

Similar to Egyptian Civilization, Greek and This was the time when steel and electricity
Hellenestic people also used stones for their were first used for advancement. Concrete
buildings, they used more from local marble was then also reformulated adding
and limestones, since stones available in powdered brick and pebbles (which soon
their place are not as massive as those in evolved into the aggregates we use today)
Egypt to the original mixture of lime, sand and
water.
Roman Civilization
Modern Era
Romans contributed the use of concrete as
building material which was derived from The modern era implies more change in
the basic mortar mixture made by sand, building technology, most of them aims to
lime and water until 2nd century B.C.E. reduce the building construction’s cost.
when pozzolana was discovered and the More research nowadays are being done to
new material called “pulvis puteoli”, natural upgrade the building technology with the
cement was then formed with this material. common aim which is to make construction
faster and economical.
Romanesque and Gothic Era

During around the 5th century, the Iron Age

started wherein new building technology
was applied in construction.
CONSTRUCTION WASTE

- 30% of a building materials delivered

to a construction site can end up
waste.

- Annual construction waste is

expected to reach 2.2 billion tons
globally by 2025. (Transparency
Market Research)

- More than 75% of all construction

waste from wood, drywall, asphalt
shingles, bricks and clay tiles ends
up in landfills. (EPA)

- Concrete has one of the longest

useful lives among building
materials, but concrete structures
account for the most demolition
projects by far. (Tampere University
of Technology)

FUNDAMENTALS OF INDIGENOUS
BUILDING MATERIALS

Material properties can be defined in many

ways as long as science is concerned.
Oftentimes, building materials are
characterized according to its use or
application, initially, it is classified according
to its properties-in most cases, these
classifications will tell the materials'
strength, durability, toughness, efficiency
and ductility. Generally, building materials
are classified into two -that may be natural
or synthetic. Different classifications of
building materials are further discussed in
the following illustration:
 Cement - was first developed by the
Romans by mixing slaked lime with
pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened
under the water

Portland Cement - Portland Cement is

made from materials which must contain the
proper proportions of lime, silica, alumina
and iron components.

Blended Cement - not pure portland

cement because pure portland cement is
distributed in bulk.

Special Cements:

White Portland cement – same materials

as normal Portland except in color.

Masonry Cement – designed to produce

better mortar than that made with normal
Portland cement or with a lime-cement
combination.

Air-entraining Portland Cement – small

amounts of this is added to the clinker and
ground with it to produce air-entraining
cements, effective use for resistance to
CEMENTING MATERIALS severe frost.

Lime - one of the oldest manufactured Oil Well Cement – special Portland cement
building materials which is used both as a used for sealing oil wells.
mortar and plaster by early civilizations.
Waterproofed Portland Cement – normally
- Hydraulic Lime - A type of lime produced by adding a small amount of
which will set under water. stearate, usually calcium or aluminum to the
cement clinker during the final grinding.
- Stalking or Hydration - The process
of mixing quicklime with water during Alumina cement - Utilizes bauxite, the ore
which water is absorbed and heat is from which aluminium is made, as the major
energetically evolved, driving off raw material and is also known as a
much of the excess water in the form quick-setting cement.
of steam.
Masonry cements - these are prepared Reinforced Concrete - concrete
mixtures of Portland cement with hydrated strengthened by having steel embedded in
lime, granulated slag, silica, etc. it.

Natural cements - these are cements Plain or Mass Concrete - Concrete without
made of natural raw materials found mixed reinforcement.
in the correct proportions, needing only
grinding and burning in a kiln to produce a CONCRETE MIXES AND ADDITIVES:
cement.
Concrete Mixes:
Pozzolanic cement - is the type of cement
made of lime mortar and pozzolanic Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under
material. water, retaining walls

- Slag cement is a pozzolanic Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams,

cement. RC slabs

Warehouse set occurs from the tendency Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing
of cement at bottom layers to harden due to walls
the pressure above when cement is stored
in high piles for long periods. Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.

Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete: Control of Concrete Mixes:

Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed stone, Slump Test – when freshly mixed concrete
cinder, crushed furnace slag, burned clay, is checked to ensure that the specified
expanded vermaculite, and perlite. slump is being attained consistently. A
standard slump cone is 12 inches high
Sand – found in riverbends, free of salt and (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the
must be washed. bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is
open on both ends.
Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼” diameter
stones. Compressive Strength Test – common
quality-control test of concrete, based on 7
Coarse aggregate – bigger than ¼” and 28 day curing periods.
diameter stones.
Concrete Additives – materials often
Concrete: added to the concrete or applied to the
surface of freshly placed concrete to
Concrete – the resulting product when a produce some special result.
large aggregate of more than 6mm (1/4”) in
size is added to cement, water and fine
aggregate.
Accelerators – an admixture which is used concrete, and worked into the surface by
to speed up the initial set of concrete. Such floating.
a material maybe added to the mix to
increase the rate of early-strength Water Reducing Admixtures – material
development for several reasons. used to reduce the amount of water
necessary to produce a concrete of given
Retarders – to delay or extend the setting consistency or to increase the slump for a
time of the cement paste in concrete. given water content.

Air-entraining agents – air-entrained Damproofers – materials used to reduce or

concrete contains microscopic bubbles of stop the penetration of moisture through the
air formed with the aid of a group of concrete. Reduces permeability.
chemical called surface active agents,
materials that have the property ofreducing BONDING AGENT:
the surface tension of water intended for
use when better resistance to frost action is Paste Slurry – often applied to such an old
concerned. surface immediately prior to pouring new
concrete to increase the amount of paste.
Concrete Hardeners – applied on concrete
surface to increase hardiness and 2 TYPES OF BONDING AGENTS:
toughness.
Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are
Waterproofing (permeability-reducing) larger, but with same materials as the
compounds – these reduce the capillary permeability reducer.
attraction of the voids in the concrete or
mortar. Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of
highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin
Colored pigments - are mainly used to dispersed in water.
give color to concrete floors.
Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the
2 TYPES OF CONCRETE HARDENERS cement paste from bonding to the surface
AND ADMIXTURES: aggregate but will not interfere with the set
throughout the remainder of the pour.
Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing
silicofluorides or fluosilicates and a wetting Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials
agent which reduces the surface tension of sometimes used in structures where it s
the liquid and allows it to penetrate the desirable to avoid high temperature or in
pores of the concrete more easily. structures exposed to seawater or water
containing sulfates.
Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially
processed and graded iron particles which
are dry-mixed with Portland cement, spread
evenly over the surface of freshly floated
WATER - CEMENT - RATIO TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE

The water-cement ratio - the amount of Aerocrete - This is a light–weight,

water used per bag of cement. expanded structural concrete produced by
adding a small amount of metallic aluminum
Traditional materials used for form powder to the mixture of Portland cement
construction are Lumber, Plywood, and and sand of cinders.
Steel.
Gunite - This is the mixture of sand and
METAL REINFORCEMENTS: cement deposited under high pneumatic
pressure with a machine manufactured
Steel Bars or Rods - Reinforcement for under the trade name CEMENT GUN.
concrete construction is mostly in the form GUNITE is used for encasing structural
of steel bars and rods of round or square steel, when reinforced, for floor and roof
cross section.They are called billet-steel slabs and curtain walls. Ideal for swimming
bars or rail-steel bars pool construction.

Wire Fabric - Wire fabric made of Porete - A Portland cement concrete to

cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the which a chemical foam is added to generate
reinforcement of concrete slabs and floors, gases in the process of deposition, resulting
as well as for stuccoed work. in light weight precast or shop-made unit in
both hollow and solid forms.
Welded Wire Fabric - Fabric consists of a
series wires welded together to form a grid Haydite - This is processed concrete added
pattern. with lightweight aggregate.

Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric - This is built CONCRETE PRODUCTS:

up of either single or stranded longitudinal
wires with cross wires or bond wires running These are made of lightweight and
diagonally across the fabric. heavyweight materials for use in exterior
and interior load-bearing walls, firewalls,
Expanded Mesh - This is manufactured curtain and panel walls, partitions etc.
from solid steel sheets, where the sheet is
first cut or pierced in staggered slots or Concrete Block:
patterns.
Hollow load-bearing concrete block – an
Laths - Permanent centering or 8” x 8” x 16” will approximately weigh 40 to
self-centering laths are produced in many 50 lb. Made with heavyweight aggregate
forms. and 25 to 35 lb. when made with lightweight
aggregate.

Solid load bearing block – defines as one

having a core area of not more than 25
percent of the gross cross-sectional area.
Concrete brick Two Classes of Clay:

Common Sizes: - Calcareous Clays – contains about

15 percent calcium carbonate and
4” x 8” x 16” – for non-load bearing burn to a yellowish color.
partitions
- Non-calcareous Clays – composed
6” x 8” x 16” – for load bearing walls of silicate of alumina, with feldspar
and iron oxide.
Quality:
Structural Clay Tiles:
Hand made – backyard industry
are hollow units as opposed to brick which
Machine made – commonly sold is sold.

Steam cured – manufactured by big and Types of Tiles:

nationally known factories for load bearing
walls. They are usually specified for Load bearing wall tile – used for bearing
government and multi-storey buildings. walls of light buildings, the height usually
restricted to four stories. Structural load
Cellular Concrete Blocks: bearing wall tile are made in 4, 6, 8, 10 and
12 inches thickness.
lightweight block which is outstanding in
thermal and sound insulation qualities. Partition tile – non-load bearing
Basic ingredients are cement-made from
silica-rich sand and lime-water, and Back-up tile – intended for use in both
aluminum powder. bearing and non-bearing walls which will be
faced with brick or facing tile.
Brick:
Furring tile – used on the inside of exterior
basic ingredient is clay. walls to provide air spaces for insulation to
prevent the passage of moisture and to
Three Principal Forms: provide a suitable plastering surface.
Classified as non-load bearing.
- Surface Clay – found near the
surface of the earth Fireproofing tile – structural steel must be
insulated in fireproof construction. One
- Shales – clay which have been method of doing this is to cover it with
subjected to high pressure until they fire-proofing tile.
have become relatively hard.

- Fire Clay – found at deeper levels

and usually have more uniform
physical and chemical qualities.
Floor tile – manufactured in both Bed – The horizontal surfaces on which the
load-bearing and non-load bearing grades stones or bricks of walls lie in the courses.
in standard thickness raging from 3 to 12
inches in standard length and widths of 12 Course – A continuous layer of bricks,
inches. stones, or other masonry units

Structural Clay Facing tile – unglazed tile Wythe or Tier – A continuous, vertical
and may have either a smooth or a rough section of the wall, one masonry unit thick.
textured finish.
Bond – That connection between bricks,
Structural Glazed Facing tile – produced stones or other masonry units formed by
from high-grade light burning clay which is lapping them one upon another carrying up
suitable for the application of ceramic or salt the work
glaze.
Stretcher – A brick or block masonry laid
Terra Cotta: lengthwise of a wall

means “fired earth” is a clay product which Header – A brick or block masonry
has been used for architectural decorative extending over the thickness of the wall.
purposes, since ancient Greece and Rome.
Modern terracotta is machine-extruded and Heading course – A course in which the
molded or pressed. The machine-made bricks or other masonry units are all
product is usually referred to as ceramic headers.
veneer, and is a unit with flat face and flat or
ribbed back. Soldier – A unit laid on its end with its face
perpendicular to the face of the wall.
Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:
Quoins – The corner stones at the angles
Adhesion Type – held to the wall by the of buildings, usually rusticated so as to
bond of the mortar to the ceramic veneer project from the normal surface of the wall.
back and to the backing wall.
Bond Stones – Stones running through the
Anchor type – are held y mortar and by thickness of the wall at right angles to its
wire tiles between the terracotta and the face, in order to bind it together.
wall behind.
Blocking or Blocking Course – A course
MASONRY: of stones placed on top of cornice crowning
the walls.
Is a common building material which is a
built-up construction or combination of
building materials as clay, concrete, or
stone set in mortar; or plain concrete.
MASONRY WALLS Classified according to form:

Walls that consist of modular building blocks Rubble – includes rough fieldstone which
or units bonded with mortar to form walls may merely have been broken into suitable
that are fire-resistant, durable and sizes, or it may include irregular pieces of
structurally efficient in compressive action. stone that have been roughly cut to size,
They can be constructed as solid walls, usually used for and filling material.
cavity walls or veneered walls. (escombro and lastillas)

Masonry walls are classified according Dimension (Cut stone) – consists of

to the following: pieces that have been cut or finished
according to a set or drawing. (for facing
Unreinforced masonry walls (also known walls)
as plain masonry walls) – incorporate
horizontal joint reinforcement and metal wall Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin
ties to bond the wythes of a solid or cavity pieces (1/2 in. and up which may or may not
walls. have had their face dimensions cut to some
particular size. (for walks and floors)
Reinforced Masonry Walls – are walls that
utilize steel reinforcing bars embedded in Crushed rock – consisting of pieces
grout filled joints and cavities to aid the varying I size from 3/8 to 6 in. and is used to
masonry in resisting stresses. a large extent in concreting.

BUILDING STONES Types according to origin:

Three general categories: Argilite – one formed d\from clay,

commonly dark-blue with faint shades of
Igneous – formed as a result of the cooling green, used for floor tile, stair treads, coping
of molten matter. stones, interior wall base, interior window
stools of exterior window sills.
Sedimentary – formed by the action of
water either by depositing materials at the Granite – igneous origin and composed of
bottom of a water body or depositing them quartz, feldspar, hornblende and mica. Its
on the earth’s surface. generally very hard, strong durable and
capable of taking a high polish.
Metamorphic – rocks changed from their
original structure by the action of extreme Limestone – a sedimentary rock which is
pressure, heat, or various combinations of either oolitic, or calcite cemented
these factors. calcareous stone formed of shells
fragments, particularly non-crystalline in
nature, it has no cleavage lines and uniform
in structure and composition.
Travertine – a sedimentary rock, composed Rubblework – used as random when no
mainly of calcium carbonate. It has been attempt is made to produce either horizontal
formed at the earth’s surface through the or vertical course lines.
evaporation of water from hot springs.
Trim – involves use of stones cut for a
Marble – metamorphic rock, one that has specific purpose and include Quoin – stones
been changed from its original structure in laid at the intersection of two walls.
this case, limestone and dolomite have
been recrystallized to form marble. As jambs – stones which form the sides of
window and door openings.
Serpentine – igneous rock with the mineral
serpentine. The mineral is olive green to As sills – stones which form the bottom of
greenish black, but impurities may give the window and door openings
rock other colors.
As belts – special stone courses which are
Sandstone – a class of rock composed of built into a wall for a particular purpose.
cemented silica grains. Colors include gray,
buff, light brown and red. As cornices – specially cut stones which
are built into and project from a masonry
Slate rock – formed by metamorphosis of wall near the top to provide the appearance
clays and shales deposited in layers. A of a cave.
unique characteristic of the rock is the
relative ease with which it may be separated As lintels – stones which bridge the top of
into thin tough sheets door and window openings.

Gypsum – a soft mineral consisting of a As stone steps – made to fit over an

hydrated calcium sulfate from which inclined concrete slab or to cap steps cast in
gypsum plaster is made (by heating); concrete.
colorless when pure used as a retarder in
Portland cement. As an arch stone – cut to form some
particular type of arch over a door or
Stone Construction: window opening.

Paneling – consists of using slabs of stone As stone flooring – walks and patios,
cut to dimension and thickness to cover made by covering a base of stone concrete
backup walls and provide a finished exterior. brick or tile with flagstones, trimmed
flagstone, trimmed rectangular and square.
Ashlar – work requires the use of cut stone
and includes broken ashlar, irregular
coursed ashlar, regular coursed ashlar.
TYPES OF METALS Manganese Steel – offers great resistance
to abrasion and finds important use in the
Ferrous – metal in which iron is the cutting edges of heavy digging tools.
principal element
Weathering Steel – It forms its protection
Nonferrous – containing no, or very little against atmospheric corrosion and thus
iron. requires no painting.

Ferrous Metal: Nonferrous Metal:

Steel – a malleable alloy of iron and carbon Aluminum – a lustrous, silver-white

produced by melting and refining pig iron nonmagnetic, lightweight metal which is
and/or scrap steel, graded according to the very malleable; has good thermal and
carbon content. electrical conductivity; a good reflector of
both heat and light.
Pig Iron – used to make cast iron which is
high in compressive strength but low in Aluminum Foil – used as a vapor barrier
tensile strength, and has little use for on walls and ceilings and as reflective
construction. insulation.

Wrought Iron – produced when pig iron is Copper – a lustrous reddish metal, highly
melted in such a way as to remove nearly ductile and malleable; has high tensile
all of the carbon and other impurities. strength;

Alloy Steels – made by containing other Lead – a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has
elements with the molten steel. Nickel, low melting point and a high coefficient of
chromium copper and manganese are used. thermal expansion.

Nickel Steel – stronger than carbon steel Tin – a lustrous white, soft and malleable
and is used to make structural members for metal having a low melting point;
building chromium steel is very hard and
corrosion-resistant. STEEL

Stainless Steels – made with chromium or Steel refers usually to plain carbon steels,
a combination of nickel and chromium used which is defined as alloys of iron and carbon
in buildings for exterior wall panels, frames which do not contain more than 2% carbon
for doors, expansion joints, flashings, and which are made in malleable or ingot
copings, fascia and gravel stops. form.

Copper – bearing steel has high resistance

to corrosion and is used for making sheet
steel and metal lath.
Wrought Carbon Steels: Alloy Steels:

- Structural steel - This is a medium These are steels to which various elements
carbon steel with its carbon content such as manganese, silicon, aluminum,
controlled to give both the strength titanium, and molybdenum have been
and ductility necessary for its use. added in sufficient quantity to produce
properties unobtainable in carbon steels in
- Reinforcing Bars - These are cast, rolled or heat-treated form.
usually used for reinforcing concrete
and are available in commercial - High-strength low-alloy steels -
sizes. are a group of trade name steels
with improved mechanical properties
- Sheet and Strip - Steel sheet is and resistance to atmospheric
made from low carbon steels corrosion, They are being
generally containing about 0.15% increasingly used as reinforcing for
carbon and not exceeding 0.25% pre-stressed concrete, high strength
carbon. bolts, special structural steels and
cables for elevators, etc.

- Corrugated steel - This is rigidized - Stainless steels - generally used in

sheet fabricated from low-carbon architecture are highly alloyed steels
cold or hot-rolled steel sheets which that contain more than 10%
are either galvanized or covered with chromium. They are characterized
some type of bituminous coating. by their resistance to heat, oxidation
and corrosion.

- Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth - They METHOD OF JOINING METALS

are used for concrete reinforcement,
lath for plaster, stucco, and cement, Soldering - is a method to join metals, to
fence, insect screens. make electrical connections, to seal joints
hermetically with another lower melting
- Steel Windows and Doors - They metal or alloy called the solder.
are used for windows and doors for
residential, commercial, industrial, - Metal Bath Dip - defined as a
institutional and other types such as metal-joining process where the
for fire-rated materials. workpieces to be joined are
immersed in a pot of molten solder
- Hardware - They are used for finish and because of the relatively low
hardware and other miscellaneous melting temperature of the solder
accessories such as nails, screws, (between 350 and 600 degrees F),
rivets, etc. only adhesion between the solder
and the workpieces results.
 - Soldering Iron - In this method the Welding - is the process by which two
iron piece is preheated and applied metals are so joined that there is an actual
to the joint along with the solder and union of the interatomic bonds.
the flux.
Aluminum Finishes
- Torch - The parts to be soldered are
heated by the torch flame and then Aluminum products can and are often given
the solder and flux are applied. a wide range of finishes for both decorative
and/or protective purposes. Aluminum can
Sweat Method - The heating of the metals be surface finished in four types:
to be joined causes the solder to run into
the joint. This is the method used for joining - Mechanical Finishes
copper tubing and fittings.
- Chemical Finishes
- Corrosive fluxes are known as acid
type and salt type fluxes and include - Electrolytic Oxide FinisheS
chlorides of zinc, ammonium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum and - Organic Finishes
other metal.
NAILS
- Neutral fluxes are mild in type and
are used for easily soldered metals Nails are slender and straight pieces of
such as copper, brass, lead, and tin metal fasteners with one end pointed and
plate. Stearic acid is a typical neutral the other end flared, enlarged or flattened
flux. for hammering into wood or other materials.

- Non-corrosive fluxes leaves NAIL CONSTRUCTION METHODS

residues which are noncorrosive and
nonconductive and therefore need Toe-Nailing – also known as tusk or skew
not be removed. Noncorrosive fluxes nailing where one hammers the nail
are weak with their fluxing action obliquely to the surfaces being joined.
and their use are limited to the easily
soldered base metals. Face-Nailing – the nails are driven or
hammered perpendicular to the face of the
Brazing - is a type of soldering in which the material.
operating temperatures are higher (but
lower than in welding) and in which stronger Blind-Nailing – also known as secret or
and higher-melting alloys are used to fill the concealed nailing where the nail heads are
joints, which consequently are stronger than not seen on the face of the work.
ordinary soldered joints.
SCREWS Softwoods – ‘conifers’ trees that have
needles rather than leaves and that bear
Metal fasteners that have tapered, their seeds in cones.
externally helically-threaded shanks with
slotted heads, use for driving into wood and Moisture Content of Wood – expressed as
other materials by turning with the use of a a percentage of the oven-dry weight and
screwdriver. can be determined by the oven-dry method
or by an electric-moisture meter method.
BOLTS
Three categories of Lumber:
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods with
one end having the head and with the Yard Lumber – used for ordinary light
external thread on the other end that construction and finishing work and consists
accepts a mating nut and is used for holding of 1 and 2 inches material manufactured
together or securing different members or
materials after being inserted through holes. Shop Lumber – usually left in 1 and 2
inches rough thickness often containing
RIVETS knots or defects not ordinarily permissible in
other categories.
Rivets are are short pins made of malleable
metal such as steel, copper or iron, having a Structural Lumber – in intended for use in
head at one end. They are metal pins that heavy construction for load-bearing
are used for permanently joining two or purposes and is cut into timbers of large
more structural steel members by passing a size than yard lumber, 3 inches or more
headed shank through a hole in each piece thick and 4 inches or more wide. It is made
and hammering down the plain end to form from the heartwood of the log.
a second head.
Finishes of Wood:
HINGES
S1S – surfacing or planning of one side
Hinges are those finish hardware elements
on which doors and windows, cabinets, etc. S2S – two sides planed
turn, swing or slide, and open or close.
S4S – four sides planed
WOOD
Rough – as sawn and not planed
It is a traditional building material, it is easily
worked, has durability and beauty

Classification of Trees:

Hardwoods – ‘deciduous’ trees that have

broad leaves which are normally shed in the
winter time.
Wood Grain: - Hardboard – made from processed
wood chips.
Edge Grain – annual rings run
approximately at right angle to the face. - Insulating Fiberboard – made from
three types of fiber – wood, sugar
Flat Grain – when the annual rings run cane, and asbestos, and binder,
more or less parallel to the surface. formed into a board.

Angle Grain – when the annual rings are at - Corkboard – from the outer bark of
about 45 degrees to the face. the cork oak tree, cork granules is
mixed with synthetic resin,
Seasoning of Lumber: compressed and formed into sheet
from 1 to 6 inches thick and baked
Air-Drying – lumber is strip-piled at a slope under pressure into rigid boards.
on a solid foundation. This allows air to
circulate around every piece while the BUILDING PAPERS
sloping allows water to run off quickly.
In building construction, paper is used for
Kiln-Drying – more expensive lumber sheathing, roofing and insulation, in making
which is required for more refined uses so asphalt shingles, laminated and corrugated
as wood will not move, such as furniture. building products, and concrete form
Flooring and general interior use. materials, as a moisture and vapor barrier.

Pressure treated lumber is when lumber - Sheathing Paper – used to provide

is subjected to pressure and injected with an airtight barrier over walls, floors,
chemicals or salts to insure it from rots. etc. Roofing Paper

Glue laminated timber – term used to - Roofing felts - used in making a

describe a wooden member built up of built-up roof and are usually
several layers of wood whose grain produced in 36 in. wide rolls, in
directions are all substantially parallel various weights from 3 to 20
lb/square.
KINDS OF BUILDING BAORDS:
- Rolledroofing – a heavy, mineral
Plywood – made by bonding together thin surfaced paper used as a final roof
layers of wood in a way that the grain of covering, made 18 and 36 in. wide,
each layer is at right angles to the grain of in various weights from 45 to 120
each adjacent layer. lb/square.

- Veneer - each layer of plywood - Insulating Paper – used to secure

bulk and entrapped air with as much
- Rotary Cutting – a method of strength as possible.
cutting wood veneer
GLASS AND GLAZING Float Glass – is produced by pouring
molten glass into a surface of molten tin and
Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance, allowing it to cool slowly and the resulting
ordinarily transparent or translucent; flat and parallel surface minimize distortion
produced by melting a mixture of silica, a and eliminate the use of grinding and
flux and a stabilizer. polishing.

Glazing - in architectural specifications is Reflective Glass – used to control glare

the term used for the installation of glass. It and reduce solar heat.
is the setting of glass in an opening.
Tempered Plate Glass – three to five times
Glazing Materials - The materials used for as strong as regular plate of the same
making a weathertight joint between the thickness – and area in resisting
glass and the frame into which the glass compressive forces and fracture due to
sets. strain or thermal shock.

Types of glass: Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet Proofing)

– widely used in the automotive industry
Window and Sheet Glass – a soda-lime and transportation, but now finding some
type of glass used for general glazing, uses in the building industry, like glass that
mirrors, insulating and laminated glass. can withstand firearm attack and
explosions.
Classification of Sheet Glass:
Insulating Glass – consists of two sheets
- Window Glass – used for glazing of plate or sheet glass, separated by an air
windows doors and storm sash in space, and joined around the edges to
residential buildings where good produce a hermitically sealed unit.
light and vision are required at
moderate cost. Annealed Glass – type of glass that is
cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
- Heavy Sheet Glass – used for
glazing windows and doors where Patterned Glass – is semi-transparent
greater strength is required but glass with distinctive geometric or linear
where slight distortion is not designs that was formed during the rolling
objectionable. process that diffuse light and obscure
vision.
Picture Glass – used for covering pictures,
photographs, maps, charts projector slides Tempered Glass – annealed glass that has
and instrument dials. been reheated to just below the softening
point and then suddenly cooled by
Plate Glass – the distinguishing feature of subjecting both surfaces to jets of air.
this glass is its surface rather than the
composition and thickness. It
Obscure Glass – has one or both sides Sound Insulation
acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure
vision. Both process, however weaken the Types of Sound Insulation Applications &
glass and makes it difficult to clean. Materials:
- SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)
GLAZING TYPES - Plaster Type
- Fiberglass Type
Face Glazing – refers to the setting of small
glass panels or panes in a rabetted frame, Water proofing coating
held in place with glazier’s points and
sealed with beveled head of putty glazing Asphalt emulsions - Minute asphalt
compound. particles dispersed in water and maintained
in suspension (until applied) by a mineral
Wet Glazing – is the setting of glass in a colloid emulsifying agent
window frame with glazing tape or a liquid
sealant. Cutback Asphalts - These are composed
of a wide variety of products from thin
Dry Glazing – is the setting of glass pane in liquids to heavy paste
a window frame with a compression gasket
instead of glazing tape or liquid sealant. Types of Waterproofing according to
application:
Structural Gasket Glazing – are
pre-formed synthetic rubber or other Integral Waterproofing Compounds -
elstomeric materials to secure a glass pane These are waterproofing compounds that
or unit in a window frame or opening. are manufactured and sold under various
trade names and are available in either
Types of Waterproofing: powder or liquid form, e.g.,

- Torch Applied, Integral and “SAHARA”

Membrane “POZOLITH”
- Cementitious Truscon “ZILICON”
- Sprayed Polyurethane Foam “AQUELLA”
- Elastomeric “ANTI-HYDRO”

Types of Damp-proofing: Membrane Waterproofing - The layers of

waterproofing materials used in this method
- Damp-roof Membrane range from the ordinary tar paper laid with
- Asphalt & Bitumens coal-tar pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt
- Plastic sheets laid in asphalt.
PAINT FINISHES oxidation of the oil or by the
evaporation of the alcohol.
Transparent Finishing Materials
Lacquer – is made synthetically and
Wood stains - are composed of pigments is closely related to rayon or nylon
(coloring ingredients) and liquid solvents of fabrics. It requires a special thinner
water, oil or alcohol. When applied, the sold by each manufacturer for his
coloring matter penetrates the surface, own brand.
remaining transparent to display the
beautiful grain effect to advantage. Paint Behavior and Defects -
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over
Three types of wood stains: a properly prepared surface wears by
gradual “chalking” and maintains a smooth,
Oil Stains – the pigments are obtained from tough and durable film that constitutes a
various earth clays. After they are dissolved satisfactory surface for repainting
in linseed oil, the coloring particles remain
suspended between the oil molecules. chalking – this is evidenced by surface
dusting and rapid thinning of the film,
Wood Fillers sometimes to bare wood.

- Paste Fillers – composed of silex

(stone dust), japan-drier, linseed oil,
turpentine and sometimes colors
ground in oil by adding color to a
filler (both wood filling and staining is
done simultaneously).

- Crack Fillers – plastic wood putty, Sagging and Running – is marked by

stick shellac, etc. They are used for irregular wavy lines that texture an
filling nail holes, cracks and dents. otherwise smooth finish film.

- Shellac – made by refining seed lac

and its natural color is orange; white
shellac is obtained by bleaching. Lac
is a resin exuded by certain insects
in India in the twigs of trees.

- Varnish – is a resolution of resin in

drying oil (oil varnish) or in a volatile
solvent such as alcohol or turpentine
(spirit varnish). It contains no
pigment and hardens into a smooth,
hard and glossy coat by the
Storm Spotting - usually occurs after Cracking and Scaling – are characterized
continuous rains and electric storms are by irregular cracks that subsequently curl at
characterized by unsightly and irregular the edge, flake and finally scale off.
color changes.

Blistering and Peeling – is characterized

Washing – is characterized by streaking on by swelling of the entire film which is usually
the surface, fading color, the final exposure followed by a break in the film and
of the original surface and accumulation of subsequent peeling.
pigment particles below the painted area.

Stains - are surface discolorations which

often disappear gradually as the paint film
wears.

Checking – is characterized by minute

cracks on the surface of elastic paint films. Spot Fading – is characterized by color
changes and flatting of gloss in irregular
patches on the film.

Alligatoring - is an advance state of

checking, varying in degree to a coarse
texturing of the finish film. Wrinkling – should not be confused with
alligatoring, for wrinkling is marked by a
tough, leather-like texturing.
CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHES

Cement Plaster Finish or Stucco

Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement,
sand and water.

Rubbed Finish
The surface of the concrete is grinded a day
or two after it has set using a brick of
carborundum, soft natural stone or emery.

Brushed Finish
A type of finish obtained by scrubbing or
brushing the concrete surface while still
green with fiber or wire brushes and water
to remove the surface film or mortar leaving
the coarse aggregate exposed.

Tooled Finish
Concrete surfaces may be finished by
tooling employing any methods for the
dressing or finishing of natural stone.

Sand-Blast Finish
A sand-blast finish is much the same
appearance as that of a brushed finish. It is
done through the use of washing done top
cement cover with water with a specified
nozzle gun.

Exposed Aggregate Finish

The color of this finish is obtained from the
exposed aggregate and not through the
addition of coloring material to the mixture.