Agma Iso 22849-A12 - 2012

PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
BSI Standards Publication
Design recommendations for

bevel gears
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PD ISO/TR 22849:2011 PUBLISHED DOCUMENT
National foreword
This Published Document is the UK implementation of ISO/TR
22849:2011.
The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical
Committee MCE/5/-/13, Bevel gears.
A list of organizations represented on this committee can be
obtained on request to its secretary.
This publication does not purport to include all the necessary
provisions of a contract. Users are responsible for its correct
application.
© BSI 2011
ISBN 978 0 580 65217 2
ICS 21.200
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from
legal obligations.
This Published Document was published under the authority of the
Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 31 May 2011.
Amendments issued since publication
Date Text affected
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PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
TECHNICAL ISO/TR
REPORT 22849
First edition
2011-04-15
Design recommendations for bevel gears

Recommandations pour le dimensionnement d'engrenages coniques
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Reference number
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Copyright British Standards Institution © ISO 2011

PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
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© ISO 2011
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Published in Switzerland
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ii Standards Institution
Copyright British © ISO 2011 – All rights reserved
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Contents Page
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................iv
1 Scope ......................................................................................................................................................1
2 Symbols, descriptions and units .........................................................................................................1
3 Application .............................................................................................................................................3
3.1 Geometry................................................................................................................................................3
3.2 Rating......................................................................................................................................................3
3.3 Materials .................................................................................................................................................4
3.4 Gear tolerances .....................................................................................................................................4
3.5 Gear noise ..............................................................................................................................................4
4 Manufacturing consideration ...............................................................................................................8
4.1 Outline of production methods and their features — Face milling and face hobbing...................8
4.2 Blank design and tolerances................................................................................................................9
4.3 Assembly..............................................................................................................................................18
4.4 Tooth contact pattern..........................................................................................................................23
5 Strength considerations .....................................................................................................................25
5.1 Effect of hypoid offset.........................................................................................................................25
5.2 Effect of cutter radius .........................................................................................................................25
5.3 Bevel gear mountings .........................................................................................................................27
5.4 Direction of forces...............................................................................................................................29
6 Efficiency considerations ...................................................................................................................29
6.1 Hypoid and bevel gear mesh efficiency ............................................................................................29
6.2 Lubrication ...........................................................................................................................................33
Bibliography......................................................................................................................................................37
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Copyright British Standards©Institution

ISO 2011 – All rights reserved iii
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
(ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through
ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has
been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental
and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards
adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an
International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
In exceptional circumstances, when a technical committee has collected data of a different kind from that
which is normally published as an International Standard (“state of the art”, for example), it may decide by a
simple majority vote of its participating members to publish a Technical Report. A Technical Report is entirely
informative in nature and does not have to be reviewed until the data it provides are considered to be no
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longer valid or useful.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
ISO/TR 22849 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 60, Gears, Subcommittee SC 2, Gear capacity
calculation.
iv
Copyright British Standards Institution © ISO 2011 – All rights reserved
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
TECHNICAL REPORT ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Design recommendations for bevel gears
1 Scope
This Technical Report provides information for the application of bevel and hypoid gears using the geometry in
ISO 23509, the capacity as determined by ISO 10300 (all parts) and the tolerances in ISO 17485.
This Technical Report provides additional information on the application, manufacturing, strength and
efficiency of bevel gears for consideration in the design stage of a new bevel gear set.
The term “bevel gear” is used to mean straight, spiral, zerol bevel and hypoid gear designs. Where this
Technical Report pertains to one or more, but not all, the specific forms are identified.
The manufacturing process of forming the desired tooth form is not intended to imply any specific process, but
rather to be general in nature and applicable to all methods of manufacture.
This Technical Report is intended for use by an experienced gear designer capable of selecting reasonable
values for the required data based on his/her knowledge and background. It is not intended for use by the
engineering public at large.
2 Symbols, descriptions and units

The symbols and descriptions used in this Technical Report are, wherever possible, consistent with other
International Standards on bevel gears. As a result of certain limitations, some symbols and descriptions are
different than in similar literature pertaining to spur and helical gearing.
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ISO 2011 – All rights reserved 1
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Symbol Description Unit

Ag Arrangement constant —
av Centre distance of virtual cylindrical gears mm
αn Generated pressure angle according to ISO 23509 °
αvat1, αvat2 Pressure angle at tip of virtual cylindrical gear °
αvt Pressure angle in transverse plane of virtual cylindrical gear °
beff Face width in contact with mating element mm
βe Outer spiral angle according to ISO 23509 —
βm1, βm2 Mean spiral angle °
βv Spiral angle of virtual cylindrical gear °
C1 A constant —
D Outside diameter of the considered rotating element mm
dae1, dae2 Outside diameter mm
dv1, dv2 Reference diameter of virtual cylindrical gear mm
dva1, dva2 Tip diameter of virtual cylindrical gear mm
Δαt1, Δαt2 Change in pressure angle from pitch point to outside °
δa1, δa2 Face angle °
δ1, δ2 Pitch angle °
ΣPGW Sum of power losses regarding churning kW
fg Gear dip factor —
ϕ Friction angle °
ham1, ham2 Mean addendum mm
η ffc Sum of element churning efficiency (see 6.1.6) —
η ffl Lengthwise sliding efficiency (see 6.1.5) —
η ffp Profile sliding efficiency (see 6.1.4) —
jet Outer transverse backlash mm
jen Outer normal backlash mm
K Load intensity for calculating the coefficient of friction N/mm2
L Length of the element of the considered rotating element mm
mt Transverse tooth module of the gear considered mm
μm Coefficient of friction (see 6.1.6) —
n Rotational shaft speed r/min
υ, υκ Kinematic oil viscosity at operating temperature, kinematic viscosity at 40 °C mm2/s (cSt)
vet Pitch line velocity at outside diameter m/s
P Design power kW
PGWi Power loss for each individual element kW
Rm1, Rm2 Mean cone distance mm
Rf Roughness factor —
To2 Output torque, wheel, per unit force mm
Ti1, Ti2 Input torque per unit force, pinion and wheel mm
tB1, tB2 Pinion back angle distance mm
tE1, tE2 Pinion crown to back mm
tF1, tF2 Pinion face angle distance mm
T1 Pinion torque Nm
z1, z2 Number of pinion, wheel teeth —
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3 Application
3.1 Geometry
For the purposes of this Technical Report, the geometry of bevel and hypoid gear pairs is assumed to be
calculated according to ISO 23509. These calculations need at least a set of initial data. If these data are not
completely given or known from similar applications, a rough estimate of the gear dimensions can be
determined by means of the power to be transmitted (see Annex B of ISO 23509:2006).
In any case, a complete geometry calculation has to be successfully executed before any other of the
following considerations makes sense.
3.2 Rating
3.2.1 General
To make a rating of a pair of bevel gears one should have a mathematically correct set of geometry (see 3.1).
This enables the designer to proceed to more detailed calculations which complete the design insofar as the
transmitted torque is concerned. Additional rating criteria for bending strength and pitting resistance should
also be considered. The method for calculating the bending strength and pitting resistance of bevel gears
except hypoid gears is stated in ISO 10300 (all parts).
3.2.2 Bending strength
Bending strength as a criterion of bevel and hypoid gear capacity can be defined as the ability of the gear set
to withstand repeated or continued operation under nominal load without fracture of the teeth in their roots by
fatigue in bending. It is a function of the bending (tensile) stresses in a cantilever beam and is proportional to
the applied load. It also involves the fatigue strength of the gear materials and the shape of the teeth.
Therefore, either the pinion or the wheel can be the limiting member of the pair.
3.2.3 Pitting resistance
Pitting resistance as a criterion of bevel and hypoid gear capacity can be defined as the ability of the gear set
to withstand repeated or continued operation under nominal load without suffering destructive pitting of the
tooth surfaces. The experienced gear designer recognizes that moderate, non-destructive pitting of the tooth
surfaces can occur during the early stages of operation, especially on non-hardened or through-hardened
gears. In these cases, the pitting ceases to progress after the asperities have been removed by the initial
operation. This process, called initial pitting, should not affect the gear life.
Destructive pitting, although attributable in principle to the same phenomena, progresses widely enough to
destroy the geometry of the flank surfaces and ultimately leads to failure. The distinction between initial and
destructive pitting is defined more thoroughly in ISO 10825.
Pitting is a function of several factors; the most significant is Hertzian contact (compressive) stresses between
the two mating tooth surfaces and is proportional to the square root of the applied tooth load. The ability of
bevel and hypoid gear teeth to withstand repeated surface contact under load without destructive pitting
involves the resistance of the gear material to fatigue under contact stresses. The smaller gear is usually the
limiting member of the pair because the teeth receive more stress cycles per unit time. In some cases, the
smaller gear is made harder than its mate, to increase its surface durability so that the limiting capacity can
exist in either member.
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3.2.4 Other forms of bevel gear tooth deterioration
The rating standards are not applicable to other types of gear tooth deterioration such as micropitting, case
crushing, wear, plastic yielding and welding.
Information on scuffing can be found in ISO/TR 13989-1.
3.3 Materials
The quality of materials and methods of heat treatment required are governed by the application. Care should
be taken to choose the proper material for each application to transmit the load and obtain the life desired.
Heat treatment is usually needed to develop the necessary hardness, strength and wear resistance.
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For information about materials and heat treatment, see ISO 6336-5.
3.4 Gear tolerances
Bevel gears are manufactured to suit many engineering applications. In order to satisfy these needs properly,
it is necessary to analyse the conditions under which these gears should operate. Reasonable tolerances
should then be established to ensure that the gears perform satisfactorily in the application.
Tolerance values for unassembled bevel gears, hypoid gears and gear pairs are provided in ISO 17485.
Additionally, information about bevel gear measurement methods is given in ISO/TR 10064-6.
3.5 Gear noise
3.5.1 General
The gear noise can be produced by the vibration of the gear unit caused by the transmission error of the gear
pair. The flank form deviations of the teeth, a misalignment between the gears, and the elastic deformation of
the teeth under load affect the transmission error. Table 1 shows typical values of transmission errors for
different gear applications.
Table 1 — Typical values of transmission error
Recommendation value
Application
μrad
Passenger car <30
Truck 20 to 50
Industrial 40 to 100
Aircraft 40 to 200 (80 average)
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3.5.2 Tooth flank form corrections
The tooth flank form of bevel gears is corrected in order to prevent edge contact of tooth bearing during
operation. Figure 1 a) shows the tooth flank form deviation of a spiral bevel gear after lapping. The amount of
deviation between adjoining contour lines is 2 μm. It turns out that a crowning of remarkable size occurs in
face width direction. On the other hand, the amount of deviation in the profile direction is small. Figure 1 b)
shows the pertaining tooth bearing and Figure 1 c) the waveform of the transmission error. The peak-to-peak
value of the transmission error is 24 μrad.
a) Tooth flank deviation b) Tooth bearing
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c) Transmission error
Figure 1 — Example of a gear pair finished by lapping process
Figure 2 shows the effect of profile crowning and flank twist where the amount of lengthwise crowning is fixed
at 20 μm. In the case of 5 μm profile crowning in Figure 2 a), the width of tooth bearing is wide, and the
transmission error is 27 μm. On the other hand, in the case of 20 μm profile crowning in Figure 2 b), the width
of tooth bearing is narrow, and the transmission error increases to 43 μm. This means that excessive profile
crowning should be avoided. However, in the case of Figure 2 c) with a flank twist correction of 80 μm, the
transmission error decreases to 24 μrad. This shows the effectiveness of flank twist modifications if the profile
crowning is enlarged.

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NOTE The transmission error is 27 μrad. NOTE The transmission error is 43 μrad.
a) Profile crowning of 5 μm b) Profile crowning of 20 μm
NOTE The transmission error is 24 μrad.
c) Profile crowning at 20 μm and flank twist of 80 μm
Figure 2 — Effect of profile crowning and flank twist on transmission error —

Lengthwise crowning of 20 µm
Since tooth flanks are subject to elastic deformations under load, this needs to be considered for flank form
corrections. However, as the noise of a gear set in many cases becomes a problem under light load, the
measure indicated above is rather effective.
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3.5.3 Design contact ratio
NOTE The transmission error is 24 μrad. NOTE The transmission error is 52 μrad.
a) Number of teeth of 10/43 and b) Number of teeth of 7/30 and

contact ratio of 3:02 contact ratio of 2:23
Figure 3 — The effect of design contact ratio on transmission error
The design contact ratio is the angle of transmission of one pair of teeth divided by the angular pitch. It is
favourable, therefore, to enlarge the design contact ratio of a gear set in order to reduce gear noise. To get a
higher design contact ratio, it is effective to increase the number of teeth, to enlarge the working tooth depth
and to increase the spiral angle. However, if the number of teeth is increased, the mean normal module
becomes smaller and reduces the load carrying capacity. Moreover, there is a risk that undercut can occur in
the pinion root or the topland can become too small if the tooth depth is enlarged too much. Caution is
required in those points.
Figure 3 shows the effect of design contact ratio on the transmission error. In the case of smaller tooth
numbers of 7/30, the contact ratio which is less than that of 10/43, the size of the tooth bearing increases, but
the transmission error also increases from 24 µrad to 52 µrad, although the tooth flank deviations are the
same.
The actual contact ratio can change under load by deformation of the flanks and deflections of teeth and
shafts.
3.5.4 Other noise consideration
Where a large misalignment is in the mountings of a gear pair or the misalignment produced by deflection
under load is considerable, the tooth flanks can have edge contact and the transmission error can increase.
Therefore, caution is advised to make the mountings of the gears accurate and the rigidity of the gearbox
high.
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4 Manufacturing consideration
4.1 Outline of production methods and their features — Face milling and face hobbing
In principle, there are two different methods used for manufacturing spiral bevel gears and hypoid gears:
single indexing, which is also called face milling (FM) and continuous indexing, which is also called face
hobbing (FH).
For the FH method, the rotation of the tool and of the workpiece are coupled in a fixed ratio so that one blade
group of the cutter head enters one tooth gap and the next blade group enters the next gap, etc. This method
is called continuous indexing, where all gaps are cut at the same time and which produces an epicycloid in the
lengthwise direction. Generally, the tooth depth is constant along the face width so that root angle and face
angle are equal. The tooth geometry results in a tapered topland and a tapered slot width. With a reasonably
sized cutter radius, the tooth gap at the toe is slightly smaller than at the heel. If the cutter radius is too small,
the inner tooth end becomes thicker than the outer. Therefore, too small cutter radii should be avoided.
In the FM method, the cutter blades are set in a circle on the cutter head. This method is used for cutting and
for grinding. The tooth gaps are manufactured by single indexing which means that one gap is finish cut (or
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ground), then the gear blank is rotated by one pitch and the next gap is cut. Consequently, this method
produces a circular arc in tooth lengthwise direction and in its standard geometry the tooth depth is tapered as
well as topland and slot width. However, if root angle and face angle are specifically changed by a tilted root
line depending on the cutter radius, the tapered tooth gets constant slot width and nearly constant topland,
while maintaining proper space width taper (see 5.3.2.1 of ISO 23509:2006). The advantage of this measure
is that FM bevel gears can also be completely cut in one single clamping.
Although there is an obvious difference between face hobbed gears and face milled gears, it does not lead to
a general rule that one or the other method gives better results. The only fact is that for hardened spiral bevel
gears no grinding process exists with continuous indexing, but instead precision hard cutting. Moreover, for
bevel gears with diameters of more than 1 000 mm, there is no other way than continuous hard cutting
because such big grinding machines are not available.
Regarding operating properties and load carrying capacity, no difference between FH and FM bevel gears can
be found, if all crucial parameters are kept the same. These findings are also promoted by modern tooth
contact analyses and FM calculation programs by which bevel gear designs can be checked and optimized.
These programs also allow the study of detailed tooth flank modifications prior to manufacturing.
Historically, the choice of the manufacturing method was determined by the cutting machine available from a
particular distributor. Nearly all new machines are 6-axes CNC machines, which can realize both face milling
as well as face hobbing, and most of the current submethods.
Any heat treatment distortions are independent of the FH or FM method. With small distortions, lapping is the
usually applied finishing process which also works equally with FH and FM bevel gears. However, in the case
of larger distortions, a grinding or cutting process is required. Then, it is obvious to use grinding for FM gears
and hard cutting for FH gears as their respective geometries are identical. Face hobbed gears can also be
ground, however by single indexing, and both flanks should be ground separately for a correct engagement.
Unfortunately, hardening distortions hinder a geometrically stable lapping process. If these distortions are
known exactly in advance, the flank form can be modified in the cutting process to compensate for the
distortion so that the lapping process can be used more effectively. Contrary to grinding and hard cutting,
lapping is a process without high geometric consistency but with the advantage of less noise emission by
reducing relative tooth profile error between pinion and wheel, if heat treatment distortion is limited. Lapping
does not eliminate any deviation in pitch and runout. Generally, the lapping process cannot be used to apply
any designed flank or profile modification. This is possible with grinding and precision hard cutting only.
The cutting method and finishing method that should be used depends on the intended use of the respective
gears, the equipment available and a lot of other aspects.
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4.2 Blank design and tolerances
4.2.1 General aspects
The quality of any finished gear is dependent on the design and accuracy of the gear blank. A number of
important factors which affect cost, as well as performance, should be considered.
Bores, hubs, and other locating surfaces should be in proper proportion to the gear diameter and module.
Small bores, thin webs, and any condition that results in excessive overhang and deflection, should be
avoided.
4.2.2 Clamping surface
Nearly all bore-type bevel gears are held by means of a clamp plate at the front face of the hub when the teeth
are being cut; therefore, the blank should incorporate a suitable surface for this purpose, as shown in
Figure 4.
Key
1 no surface provided for clamping, not recommended
2 clamping surface, as recommended
Figure 4 — Recommended clamping surface of the blank
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4.2.3 Tooth backing
Sufficient thickness of metal should be provided under the roots of gear teeth to give proper support for the
teeth. It is suggested that the minimum amount of material under the teeth not be less than the whole depth of
the tooth. Highly stressed gears can require additional backing. This material depth should be maintained
under the small ends of the teeth as well as under the middle (see Figure 5). In addition, on webless-type
wheels the minimum stock between the bottom of the tap drill hole and the gear root line should be one third
the tooth depth.
Key
1 tooth backing, as recommended
Figure 5 — Tooth backing

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4.2.4 Load direction
A gear blank should be designed to avoid excessive localized stresses and serious deflections within itself.
For heavily stressed gears, a preliminary analysis of the direction and magnitude of the forces is helpful in the
design of both the gear and the mounting. Where possible, the direction of the web should coincide with the
direction of the resultant tooth load in an axial section. Gear sections should be designed in such a way that a
component of the tooth load is directed through the section as shown in Figure 6. See ISO 23509:2006,
Annex D, for detailed discussions of tooth loads.
Key
1 tooth load component
Figure 6 — Webless mitre gear — Counterbored type
4.2.5 Locating surface
The back of the gears should be designed with a locating surface of generous size. This surface should be
machined or ground square with the bore and is used both for locating the gear axially in assembly and for
holding it when the teeth are cut. The front clamping surface should, of course, be flat and parallel to the back
surface. A flat and parallel surface also provides a convenient inspection surface after installation.
Gears with a comparatively large ratio of pitch diameter to hub diameter, greater than 2,5:1, should have an
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auxiliary locating surface behind the teeth as shown in Figure 7. A similar surface should also be used for thin-
webbed gears where there is danger of blank distortion or vibration from cutting forces.
Key
1 suggested locating surfaces
Figure 7 — Suggested locating surfaces
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4.2.6 Solid shanks
Where gears with solid shanks are made in large quantities, a collet chuck is usually used. For small
quantities, the gears should be provided with a tapped hole or external threads at the end of the shank to hold
the gear securely in the chuck while cutting the teeth (see Figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8 — Shank-type pinion with tapped hole

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Key
1 centres (as large as possible and relieved as shown)
Figure 9 — Shank-type pinion with external threads
4.2.7 Flanged hub
Whether the gear is mounted on a flanged hub or is made integral with the hub, the supporting flange should
be of sufficient section size to prevent deflections in the direction of the gear axis at the mesh point.
The web preferably should be made conical without ribbing to permit rough machining of the blanks for
obtaining better balance, to eliminate oil churning when dip lubrication is used, and lessen the danger of
stress concentration being set up within the castings.
4.2.8 Splined bores
In mounting gears with splined bores, a piloting diameter is suggested to reduce eccentricity. Hardened gears
with straight-sided splines in the bore should be piloted in assembly by the bore or minor diameter of the
splines, which should be ground concentric with the teeth after hardening. Unhardened gears with straight-
sided splines should be piloted in assembly by the major diameter of the splines. In either case, the finish
machining of the blank, cutting of teeth and the soft testing should be performed with the gear centred on the
arbor by the bore, which has been machined true with the splines.
Figure 10 shows a gear with a cylindrical fit at each end of the bore, the splines being used for driving only.
This type of fit is particularly applicable to aircraft gears, which often use involute splines with a full fillet radius
on the major diameter. This design is an excellent solution, particularly when the splines have to be hardened,
because fitting on the sides of the splines is extremely difficult when size changes and distortion takes place
during heat treatment.

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Involute splines generally fit on the side of the spline only. Where gears are hardened, it can be necessary to
resort to lapping or grinding of splines, or to selective assembly, or both. Even when the splines are shaped
after hardening, it is difficult to obtain the accuracy of fit and the concentricity desired for precision gears.
Precision finishing the teeth of the gear on involute splined arbors after the splines have been shaped, results
in considerable improvement, but even then, different degrees of eccentricity are obtained by shifting the gear
to different positions on a splined arbor or shaft.
Since heat treatment can introduce distortion and out-of-round conditions in the splines which cannot be
corrected, it is important that the splines be of no greater length than is actually required for load transmission.
Splines should be located as near the gear teeth as possible on blanks with long hubs.
Figure 10 — Spline mounting
4.2.9 Ring-type designs
The most common wheel designs are shown in Figure 11.
a) Webless-type wheel
b) Counterbored-type wheel
c) Web-type wheel
Figure 11 — Typical wheels mounted on hubs
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Of these, the bolted-on webless wheel design shown in Figure 11 a) is best for hardened gears larger than
180 mm in diameter. These relatively large hardened wheels are usually made in a ring shape and,
subsequently, mounted on a hub or centre, because the ring form can be more effectively hardened in
quenching dies.
The fit of the wheel on its centring hub should either be a size-to-size fit or a slight interference fit. These
gears should be mounted on the centring hub as shown in Figure 12 a) and b), or with through bolts as shown
in Figure 12 c). Several methods of locking screws and nuts in place are indicated in Figure 12. The method
shown in Figure 12 b) can be used for mounting gears that operate with an inward thrust only. Designs where
gear loads increase screw or bolt tension should be avoided.
a) Method of centring counterbored-type b) Method of mounting gear

gear on gear cutter when thrust is inward
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c) Use of bolt with castellated nut
Key
1 centre gear on one of these surfaces
2 thrust direction
3 load on inside face of web in this case; otherwise not recommended
4 centre gear on one of these surfaces
Figure 12 — Methods of mounting gear

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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
4.2.10 Dowel
On reversing or vibrating installations, separate dowel drives may be used. The use of dowels or body fitted
bolts has been found unnecessary in most automotive and industrial drives. If bolts or cap screws are drawn
tightly, the friction of the wheel mounting surface prevents bolt shear. Hardened gears smaller than 180 mm in
diameter may be of conventional design with integral hubs.
4.2.11 Hub projections
All hub projections (front or rear), which extend above the root line, as shown in Figure 13, should be
eliminated.
Key
1 blank turned off for cutter clearance
2 cutter
3 root line
Figure 13 — Example of required cutter clearance
4.2.12 Blank tolerances
4.2.12.1 General
In dimensioning bevel gear blanks, it is necessary to specify properly the items important to the functioning of
the teeth. There are two accepted methods for specifying blank tolerances, which are given in 4.2.12.2 and
4.2.12.3.
4.2.12.2 Method 1
This method can be used easily and accurately on either the gear blanks or the finished gears. Items that
should be checked include
a) face angle distance,
b) back angle distance, and
c) bore or shank diameter.

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The face angle distance and back angle distance are obtained in the following manner:
t F1 = 0,5 d ae1 cos δ a1 + t E1 sin δ a1 (1)
t F2 = 0,5 d ae2 cos δ a2 + t E2 sin δ a2 (2)
Back angle distances:
t E1
t F2 −
sin δ 1
t B1 = (3)
tan δ 1
t E2
t F2 −
sin δ 2
t B2 = (4)
tan δ 2
Figure 14 shows method 1 for dimensioning the gear blanks when this method of specifying tolerances should
be followed.
Key
1 crown to back (ref.)
2 back angle distance
3 outside diameter (ref.)
4 face angle distance
Figure 14 — Method 1 for specifying blank tolerances on bevel gears

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Tables 2 and 3 give suggested tolerances for face angle and back angle distances and bore or shank
diameter.

PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Table 2 — Face angle and back angle distance tolerances
Tolerance
Mean normal module, mmn
mm
mm
Face angle distance Back angle distance
+0,00 +0,03
0,3 and finer
−0,03 −0,03
+0,00 +0,05
0,3 to 0,5
−0,08 −0,05
+0,00 +0,08
0,5 to 1,25
−0,10 −0,08
+0,00 +0,10
1,25 to 10
−0,10 −0,10
+0,00 +0,13
10 and coarser
−0,13 −0,13
Table 3 — Suggested tolerances for bore or shank diameter
Suggested tolerance
mm
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Nominal locating bore or

shank diameter Accuracy grades 2 and 3 Accuracy grades 4 and 5 Accuracy grades 6 to 9
mm according to ISO 17485 according to ISO 17485 according to ISO 17485
Shank Bore Shank Bore Shank Bore
+0,000 +0,005 +0,000 +0,013 +0,000 +0,030
Up to 25
−0,005 −0,000 −0,013 −0,000 −0,030 −0,000
+0,000 +0,008 +0,000 +0,013 +0,000 +0,030
25 to 100
−0,008 −0,000 −0,013 −0,000 −0,030 −0,000
+0,000 +0,013 +0,000 +0,025 +0,000 +0,050
100 to 250
−0,013 −0,000 −0,025 −0,000 −0,050 −0,050
+0,000 +0,025 +0,000 +0,080
250 to 500
−0,025 −0,000 −0,080 −0,000
+0,000 +0,050 +0,000 +0,100
500 and larger
−0,050 −0,000 −0,100 −0,000
4.2.12.3 Method 2
This method can be used easily and accurately on bevel gear blanks only and is mostly used for large
components and for single piece manufacturing purpose. The gear blanks should be machined to the shapes
shown in Figure 15 (left: pinion type, right: wheel type), i.e. using flat, straight cylindrical forms, but no radii, in
order to get proper measuring results. Also, in this method the crown point is lost.
This checking procedure needs calculated reference dimensions L1, L3, L4, D2, D4, based on selected
dimensions D5 and L4 (wheel) as well as L1 and L3 based on selected dimensions D5 and L4 (pinion).
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Figure 15 — Method 2 for specifying blank tolerances on bevel gears
Dimension E determines the location of the pinion holding device, which is important for the blank cone
positioning. Items that should be checked include the following.
a) Wheel: L1, L3, L4, D2, D4 and D5.
These dimensions ensure the positioning of the wheel for tooth cutting.
b) Pinion: L1, L3, L4, D3, D5 and E.
These dimensions ensure the positioning of the pinion for tooth cutting.
Table 4 gives suggested tolerances for the dimensions L (1, 3, 4), D (1 to 5) and E.
Table 4 — Suggested tolerances for blank dimensions
Dimension Module 2 to 5 Module greater than 5 to 10 Module greater than 10
L1 js12 js12 js12

L3 js12 js12 js12
L4 h8 h8 h8
E (pinion) h12 h12 h12
D1a see Table 3 see Table 3 see Table 3
D2 js12 js12 js12
D3 (pinion) js12 js12 js12
D4 js12 js12 js12
D5 h8 h8 h8
Runout 0,03 0,05 0,07
a Or to suit available tooling.
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Copyright British Standards© ISO 2011 – All rights reserved

Institution 17
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
4.2.13 Drawing specifications for blanks
Values for blank parameters under inspection should be specified on the drawings. Some of these features
are the following:
⎯ face angle and, if method 1 is used, back angle;
⎯ outside diameter;
⎯ crown to back, or mounting surface;
⎯ bore or shank diameter.
These latter dimensions are used in place of the face angle distance and back angle distance.
4.3 Assembly
4.3.1 General
The quality that is designed and manufactured into a set of bevel gears can only be achieved by the correct
mounting of the gears at assembly. To be correctly mounted, each gear should be located axially at a position
that provides the tooth contact pattern and backlash specified.
4.3.2 Correct assembly
It is important that gears be assembled carefully to meet the mounting pattern specifications. Gears
assembled with an incorrect mounting can wear excessively, operate noisily, scuff and possibly break.
Generally, the only adjustments the assembler can control are those which axially position the pinion member
and wheel member at assembly. In certain designs, the assembler is not provided with means of shimming or
other methods for positively locating the axial positions of the members. The assemblies resulting from such
designs are affected by maximum tolerance accumulations and, in many cases, do not exhibit a good tooth
contact pattern.
When mounting distances are marked on the gears, and when provisions are made for shimming, the
assembler should shim to achieve these mounting distances. These adjustments eliminate the effects of axial
tolerance accumulations in both the gears and mountings. Shimming cannot correct for shaft angle deviations
or offset deviations.
4.3.3 Markings
4.3.3.1 General
Before installing a set of bevel gears, it is necessary to examine and understand all the markings on the parts
and on any tags which can be attached (see Figure 16). If no markings appear on the gears, the necessary
information should be obtained from design specifications.
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Figure 16 — Typical gear markings
4.3.3.2 Mounting distance
The mounting distance is usually shown as “MD” followed by the actual dimension.
4.3.3.3 Backlash
The minimum amount of total backlash of a pair of bevel gears is measured at the tightest point of mesh with
a dial indicator or bevel gear testing machine (see Figure 17). This value is usually marked on the wheel. The
amount of backlash is denoted by the markings. Unless otherwise specified, backlash is assumed to be
normal backlash and cannot be measured in the plane of rotation.
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Figure 17 — Measurement of normal backlash

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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
4.3.3.4 Matched teeth
Some bevel gears are lapped in sets to improve their operation. These gear sets, especially those having
tooth counts with a common factor, have marked teeth to assure proper assembly engagement. At assembly,
a tooth marked with an “X” on one member should be engaged between two teeth marked with an “X” on the
mating member. It is also important when checking backlash to rotate the set of gears to a position where the
marked teeth are engaged.
4.3.3.5 Set number
While the teeth of bevel gears are manufactured to close tolerances, slight characteristic tooth form changes
do occur from gear to gear, due to tool wear in manufacturing and distortion in heat treating. In most cases, a
wheel and pinion are operated under light load in a bevel gear test machine, and sets are selected for a
predetermined tooth contact pattern. Therefore, it is important to mark a serial number on each member of a
set of gears to assure matched identification; for example, set number 4. Gears which are identified by such a
number shall be assembled with the correct mate.
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4.3.3.6 Part number
Most gears are identified by a part number. It usually appears in an area away from the marking previously
mentioned.
4.3.3.7 Other markings
Other markings can appear which do not affect the assembly procedure. Among these are manufacturer's
trademark, material identification, gauge distance, head distance, date of manufacture, and inspector's or
operator's symbol. Manufacturer's instructions should be provided to explain the markings.
4.3.4 Positioning bevel gears
4.3.4.1 General
Provisions should be made to aid the assembler in positioning the gears.The desired contact pattern cannot
be obtained if the assembler cannot properly position both the pinion and the wheel. Two methods may be
used: position by measurement or by contact pattern.
For additional detailed guidance for both methods, see ANSI/AGMA 2008-B01.
4.3.4.2 Positioning by measurement
If the mounting distance has been marked on either or both members, measurement is the preferred method.
Direct measurement may involve measuring all the components between the gear's mounting surface and its
shimming location. Shims are used to make adjustments in position. This method includes locating the surface
for the shims on the housing. The housing dimension can easily be obtained during the machining process.
Either the actual dimension or the deviation from the mean can be marked on the housing for use at
assembly.
In order to minimize possible accumulation of errors, the least number of measurements necessary to
calculate the shims should be made. Gauges can often be designed to reduce the number of measurements
required.
Both the pinion and the wheel should be positioned by this method. However, if the wheel's mounting distance
is not marked, and the pinion has been positioned by measurement, the wheel's correct axial position may be
determined at the point where the proper backlash is measured at the tightest point of mesh between the
mating members.
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
4.3.4.3 Positioning by contact pattern
In the absence of proper mounting distance marking, the assembler should mark the teeth with gear marking
compound and rotate both members in mesh under light load. Adjustments to the axial position of both
members are made until the desired contact pattern and backlash are obtained. This method often requires
considerable time and experience to correctly interpret the contact patterns.
4.3.5 Backlash measurement
The outer normal backlash, jen, of a pair of bevel gears may be measured with a dial indicator. The stem of
the indicator should be mounted perpendicular to the wheel tooth surface at the extreme heel. Backlash is
then measured by rotating the wheel back and forth, making certain that the pinion is held motionless (see
Figure 18). The outer normal backlash measured at the tightest point of mesh or at the matched teeth should
be held within the values in Table 5, if not specified.
Table 5 — Suggested normal backlash tolerance at tightest point of mesh
Outer normal backlash, jen

Outer transverse module, met mm
mm Accuracy grades 2 to 5 Accuracy grades 6 to 11
according to ISO 17485 according to ISO 17485
1,00 to 1,25 0,03 to 0,05 0,05 to 0,08
1,25 to 1,50 0,03 to 0,05 0,05 to 0,10
1,50 to 2,00 0,05 to 0,10 0,08 to 0,13
2,00 to 2,50 0,05 to 0,10 0,08 to 0,13
2,50 to 3,00 0,08 to 0,13 0,10 to 0,20
3,00 to 4,00 0,10 to 0,15 0,13 to 0,25
4,00 to 5,00 0,13 to 0,18 0,15 to 0,33
5,00 to 6,00 0,15 to 0,20 0,20 to 0,41
6,00 to 7,00 0,20 to 0,28 0,25 to 0,46
8,00 to 10,00 0,25 to 0,33 0,33 to 0,56
10,00 to 12,00 0,30 to 0,41 0,41 to 0,66
12,00 to 16,00 0,38 to 0,51 0,51 to 0,81
16,00 to 20,00 0,51 to 0,66 0,69 to 1,07
20,00 to 25,00 0,61 to 0,76 0,81 to 1,17
To calculate outer backlash in the plane of rotation, use Equation (5):

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jen
jet = (5)
cos α n cos β e
If the backlash does not fall within the recommended limits, the individual components should be thoroughly
evaluated to determine the cause.

Institution 21
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Key
1 transverse backlash
2 outer pitch radius, wheel
3 normal backlash (normal to the tooth surface)
4 transverse backlash
5 outer pitch radius, pinion
Figure 18 — Bevel gear backlash — Normal and transverse
4.3.6 Amount of axial movement for a limited change in backlash
The amount of axial movement for either pinion or wheel necessary to obtain a change in backlash may be
determined by the applicable graph in Figure 19, or by the following formulas:
Desired amount of total change in backlash:

Δ j = Δ j1 + Δ j2 (6)
Calculated change in backlash for pinion:

Δ j tanδ 1
Δ j1 = (7)
tanδ 1 + tanδ 2
Calculated change in backlash for wheel:

Δ j tanδ 2
Δ j2 = (8)
tanδ 1 + tanδ 2
Required amount of axial movement of pinion:

Δj 1
Δα 1 = (9)
2 tanα n sinδ 1
Required amount of axial movement of wheel:

Δj 2
Δα 2 = (10)
2 tanα n sinδ 2
NOTE Equations (6) to (10) are exact for bevel gears, but can also be used for hypoid gears as a first approximation.
If there are different generated normal pressure angles on drive side and coast side αnD ≠ αnC (see ISO 23509), use
α n = 0,5 (α nD + α nC).
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Figure 19 — Influence of axial movement on backlash
For higher ratios, the effect of pinion axial movement on backlash is small. When adjusting backlash for lower
ratios, it can be necessary to move both pinion and wheel to maintain acceptable tooth contact. Calculate the
amount of axial movement for each member using Equations (6) to (10). If the shaft angle is 90°, the ratio of
pinion and wheel mounting distance change is equal to the gear ratio z2/z1.
4.3.7 Endplay
If either member of a pair of bevel gears is assembled with allowance for bearing end play and not held to a
fixed position, it can be necessary to check for minimum backlash when the floating member is moved axially
to its foremost position toward the crossing point.
4.4 Tooth contact pattern
4.4.1 General
The position and the size of the tooth contact pattern is an important contributor to bevel gear quality.
Depending on the amount of load applied to bevel gears, deflections occur, and changes appear in the tooth
contact pattern. It can be desirable to modify the unloaded contact pattern to allow for stresses which are
present under operating conditions.
The location of the contact pattern is directly affected by the relative position of the gear members in
assembly. The contact pattern is that portion of the tooth surface which actually makes contact with its mate. It
can readily be observed by painting the teeth with a marking compound and running the gears for some
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revolutions under a light load.
4.4.2 Typical contact patterns
For bevel gears in rigid mountings, typical non-loaded contact patterns are shown in Figure 20 a) and b). It is
common practice in industry to evaluate the contact pattern on the wheel flank. Therefore, the contact pattern
illustrated in Figure 20 a) and b) relate to those on the wheel flanks only. In hypoid gears, the pattern shape of
pinion and wheel can differ considerably.
The size and the location of the non-loaded pattern are influenced by tooth modifications such as lead and
profile crowning. For rigid mountings, the unloaded contact pattern is generally in the middle of the flank or

Institution 23
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
nearer the toe of the tooth than the heel. Consideration should be given to the deflection of shafts, mountings
and housing which can affect the location of the contact pattern.
a) Contact pattern — Concave wheel flank
b) Contact pattern — Convex wheel flank
Figure 20 — Typical non-loaded contact patterns
With operating load, the pattern extends. Operating load also leads to deformations of shafts, bearings and
housing of the gearbox as well as to displacements of the shafts caused by bearing clearance. This can affect
the location of the loaded pattern on the tooth flank. The effect can be different for drive side and coast side
flank. If displacements of the mating flanks are considerably large, this should be taken into account by the
design. In this case, the non-loaded pattern may not be located in the centre of the flank. The determination of
the effects of elastic deformations and displacements on the pattern requires detailed tooth contact analysis
software.
Figure 21 shows the calculated desired contact pattern under full load. The contact pattern should have a
slight relief at the ends, and along the flank and top of the tooth profile. Generally, the contact pattern should
utilize virtually the total length, without having concentration at the ends or tops of the teeth of either member.
Figure 21 — Calculated loaded contact pattern
4.4.3 Need for position control
Control of the localized contact pattern under load after assembly is essential. It contributes to smooth, quiet
running bevel gears while in operation. Lack of control can lead to undetected deviations at assembly and can
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cause the pattern to concentrate dangerously near the toe or heel as well as tip or root of the active flank.
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4.4.4 Deflection tests
The amount and the position of the localized contact pattern should be determined to suit the specific
requirements of the pinion and wheel application. If possible, deflection tests should be made on heavily
loaded gears, to determine the precise amount and position of the tooth bearing in the manufacturing stage.
4.4.5 Drawing specifications
Upon completion of the deflection test and the resultant final development of the proper tooth bearing, two
sketches of the desired contact pattern may be shown on the pinion and wheel drawing. One should show the
contact pattern required for manufacturing; the other should show the final pattern required under normal
running conditions at assembly.
5 Strength considerations
5.1 Effect of hypoid offset
A set of hypoid gears with a positive pinion offset has a larger pinion diameter and a larger pinion face width
compared to bevel gears with the same transmission ratio and the same wheel pitch diameter. This leads to a
higher contact ratio and thus to lower contact stresses if the same pinion load is applied. Furthermore, the
pinion offset affects the sliding conditions between the mating flanks. The greater the offset value, the higher
the sliding velocity in lengthwise direction of the flanks. This has a negative influence not only on the scuffing
capacity of the gears but also on their fatigue life.
Due to the higher contact ratio, the tooth root strength of hypoid gears increases with the amount of pinion
offset, resulting from the lower tensile stresses of pinion and wheel.
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5.2 Effect of cutter radius
For spiral bevel gears and hypoid gears, the cutter radius is one of the very important design items, because it
can influence greatly the characteristics of tooth bearing shift caused by misalignments. Cutter radii within the
range of Rm2 to Rm2·sin βm2 are used (Figure 22). Figure 23 shows the directions of tooth bearing shift caused
by the misalignment (ΔP) in the pinion mounting distance, and the misalignment (ΔE) in the offset direction.
For further information, see ISO/TR 10064-6. The direction of tooth bearing shift caused by the misalignment
(ΔE) is similar in Figure 23 a) and b). Tooth bearing moves toward toe-top on the wheel convex flank and
toward heel-top on the wheel concave flank. However the direction of tooth bearing shift caused by the
misalignment (ΔP) is different in Figure 23 a) and b). Namely, in Figure 23 a), tooth bearing moves toward
heel-top on the wheel convex flank and toward toe-top on the wheel concave flank. On the other hand, in
Figure 23 b) tooth bearing moves toward toe-top on the wheel convex side and toward heel-top on the wheel
concave side.

Institution 25
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Figure 22 — Size of cutter radius
In the spiral bevel and hypoid gearing, where load is applied on the wheel convex tooth flank, ΔP has a value
of plus and ΔE has a value of minus. Therefore, in the case of the gear of the large cutter radius, both of the
misalignment elements move the tooth bearing toward heel. On the other hand, in the case of the gear of a
small cutter radius, the effects of both misalignment elements are compensated and the amount of tooth
bearing shift is decreased. Table 6 shows tooth bearing shift according to the misalignments (ΔP = 0,25 mm,
ΔE = −0,25 mm) caused by the loading.
The tooth bearing of the gear of the large cutter radius reaches at the heel. However, that of the gear of small
cutter radius remains at the middle position between centre and heel which is advantageous for the strength
of the gear teeth.
Further, some caution is required for gears of small cutter radius, because it is difficult to shift the tooth
bearing from heel to toe during the lapping process.
a) Large cutter radius b) Small cutter radius
Figure 23 — Direction of tooth bearing shift caused by misalignment
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Table 6 — Effect of cutter radius in the tooth bearing shift caused by misalignment
Cutter radius Tooth bearing
Without misalignments
With misalignments rc0/Rm2 = 1,05
ΔE = −0,25 mm
ΔP = 0,25 mm rc0/Rm2 = 0,61

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Mean cone distance, Rm2 = 90,5 mm.
5.3 Bevel gear mountings
To ensure proper operation of bevel gears, the same care that goes into the design of the blanks and gear
elements should be exercised in the design of the mountings.
The pinion and wheel mountings should be designed to give adequate support to the gears for all load
conditions to which the gears can be subjected. Each member of spiral bevel and hypoid gear sets should be
held against axial movement in both directions. Bevel gears can accommodate reasonable displacements and
misalignment without detriment to tooth action. Excessive misalignment reduces the load capacity with
consequent danger of surface failure and tooth breakage. Therefore, recommended positional tolerances of
axes should be met (see Figure 24 and Table 7).
Key
1 typhoid offset
2 shaft angle with angle tolerance +0° 2′
−0° 0′
Figure 24 — Position of axes in bevel gearing

Institution 27
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ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Table 7 — Recommended positional tolerances of axes
Bevel gear axes should Hypoid offset dimension

Size range
intersect within: should be within:
Gears up to 300 mm diameter ±0,03 mm ±0,03 mm
Gears 300 mm to 600 mm diameter ±0,05 mm ±0,05 mm
Gears 600 mm to 900 mm diameter ±0,08 mm ±0,08 mm
The space suggested allowable deflection under highest sustained loads has been determined to be the
following:
⎯ the pinion and wheel axes should not separate more than 0,08 mm;
⎯ the pinion should not move axially more than 0,08 mm in either direction;
⎯ the wheel should not move axially more than 0,08 mm in either direction on mitres or near mitres, or more
than 0,25 mm away from the pinion for higher ratios.
The above-mentioned limits are for gears of from 150 mm to 380 mm outer diameter. Somewhat narrower
deflections are used for smaller diameter gears and somewhat higher deflections are used for larger diameter
gears. Somewhat greater deflection values are allowable in a static condition. Bearing end play is not
considered.
The preferred design of a bevel gearbox provides straddle mounting for both pinion and wheel, and this
arrangement is often used for industrial and other heavily loaded applications. Where it is not feasible to use
this arrangement, the member having the higher radial load should be straddle mounted. Overhung mountings
can be required due to gearbox space limitations.
Figure 25 shows typical mounting arrangements:
a) Straddle mounting for both members b) Overhung mounting
Figure 25 — Typical mounting arrangements

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Ideally, the bevel gear mountings should be of good design with adequate rigidity. For the situation where the
gear can move axially due to the internal clearance of the bearing, the gear should be located in its normal
running position when the load pattern is checked.
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5.4 Direction of forces
The direction of forces is determined by the hand of the spiral and the direction of rotation. The direction of
rotation clockwise or anticlockwise (counterclockwise) is determined by viewing from the pinion or wheel back
face towards its apex as shown in Figure 26.
Forces acting on the gear tooth in the axial plane are shown in Figure 26. While the examples shown are
typical, they are not all inclusive. Use the equations of ISO 23509:2006, Annex D, to determine the actual
force directions.
a) Load on the convex flank of the wheel b) Load on the concave flank of the pinion
c) Load on the concave flank of the wheel d) Load on the convex flank of the wheel
Key
1 tangential force, Fmt
2 axial force, Fax
3 radial force, Frad
Figure 26 — Typical gear tooth forces
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6 Efficiency considerations
6.1 Hypoid and bevel gear mesh efficiency
6.1.1 General
The purpose of this clause is to provide a method to estimate hypoid and bevel gear efficiency. These
procedures are offered in a Technical Report because there is insufficient experience available for
confirmation. Actual thermal losses can differ from those calculated using the following procedures. For further
information, see ISO/TR 14179-1.

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6.1.2 Gear efficiency
Friction losses are an important design consideration, particularly in highly loaded gears, in that this energy is
dissipated as heat. Design and dynamic effects cannot be fully evaluated except in actual trials. The designer
can theoretically evaluate friction losses based on profile sliding, lengthwise sliding and churning.
6.1.3 Efficiency of mesh
The mesh efficiency (taking into account tooth profile and lengthwise sliding and churning), ηff, expressed as a
percentage, is calculated using Equation (11):
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η ff = 100 [η ffp + η ffl + η ffc − 2,0] (11)
6.1.4 Profile sliding
The calculation of profile sliding is based on virtual cylindrical gears defined in the mean transverse plane
using the following formulas [Equations (12) to (28)] where a unit force is assumed:
d v1 = 2 R m1 tan δ 1 (12)
d v2 = 2 R m2 tan δ 2 (13)
d va1 = d v1 + 2 h am1 (14)
d va2 = d v2 + 2 h am2 (15)
β v = ( β m1 + β m2 ) / 2 (16)
α vt = arctan ( tan α n / cos β v ) (17)
cos α vat1 = d v1 ⋅ cos α vt / d va1 (18)
Δα t1 = α vat1 − α vt (19)
cos α vat2 = d v2 ⋅ cos α vt / d va2 (20)
Δα t2 = α vat2 − α vt (21)
Ti1 = ( d v1 / 2 ) cos α vt (22)
Ti2 = ( d v2 / 2 ) cos α vt (23)
a v = ( d v1 + d v2 ) / 2 (24)
1/ 2
R 2 = ⎡( d va1 / 2 ) + a v 2 − 2 ⋅ ( d va1 / 2 ) ⋅ a v ⋅ cos Δα t1 ⎤
2
(25)
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
sin θ 2 = ( d va1 / 2 ) sin Δα t1 / R 2 (26)
To2 = (d v2 / 2) ⋅ cos α vt − μ m ⋅ cos α vt ⋅ [ ham2 ⋅ ( d va2 / 2) ⋅ sin Δα t2 + h am1 ⋅ R 2 sin θ 2 ] / [2 ⋅ (h am1 + h am2)] (27)
η ffp = T o2 / T i1 = 1 − μ m ⋅ [h am2 ⋅ (d va2 / 2) ⋅ sin Δα t2 + h am1 ⋅ R2 ⋅ sin θ 2 ] / [d v2 ⋅ (h am2 + h am1)] (28)
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6.1.5 Hypoid lengthwise sliding
Calculation is made in the mean pitch plane with the following formulas [Equations (29) to (36)] again
assuming a unit normal force:
d v1 = 2 R m1 ⋅ tan δ 1 (29)
d v2 = 2 R m2 ⋅ tan δ 2 (30)
tan ϕ = μ m / cos α n (31)
T i1 = ( d v1 / 2) ⋅ cos ( β m1 − ϕ ) ( cos α n / cos ϕ ) (32)
T i2 = ( d v2 / 2) ⋅ cos β m2 ⋅ T i1 / [( d v1 / 2) ⋅ cos β m1 ] (33)
T i2 = ( d v2 / 2) ⋅ cos β m2 ⋅ cos ( β m1 − ϕ ) / cos β m1 ( cos α n / cos ϕ ) (34)
T o2 = ( d v2 / 2) ⋅ cos ( β m2 − ϕ ) ( cos α n / cos ϕ ) (35)
η ffl = T o2 / T i2 = (1 + μ m tan β m2 / cos α n ) / (1 + μ m tan β m1 / cos α n ) (36)
For bevel gears without hypoid offset, ηffl = 1,0.
6.1.6 Coefficient of friction
If the pitch line velocity, vet, is 2 < vet < 25 m/s and the K-factor is 1,4 N/mm2 < K < 14 N/mm2, then μm can be
estimated by Equation (37). Outside these limits, the values for μm should be determined from experience.
For bevel gearing, the pitch line velocity is calculated at the larger end of the tooth.
Load intensity, K, can be calculated from Equation (38) The exponents, j, g and h modify the viscosity, υ, the
load intensity, K, and the tangential pitch line velocity, vet, respectively. Values to be used for the exponents, j,
g and h, and the constant, C1, are the following:
j = −0,223
g = −0,40
h = 0,70
C1 = 3,239
υ j ×Kg
µm = (37)
C1 × v et h
1 000 T 1 × ( z1 + z 2)
K= (38)
2b2 × ( d v1 / 2) 2 z 2
6.1.7 Churning efficiency
The equations for gear windage and churning power loss that follow are derived from the equations that
appear in ISO/TR 14179-1:2001, 7.9. They have been modified to include the oil viscosity, υ, the gear dip
factor, fg, and an arrangement constant, Ag. In addition, the exponent for the diameter, D, was adjusted. The
use of the dimensions and tooth geometry based on the large end of the teeth results in conservative values.
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Institution 31
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Before calculating gear windage and friction losses, the gear dip factor, fg, should be determined. This factor
is based on the amount of dip that the element has in the oil. When the element does not dip in the oil, fg = 0;
when the element is fully submerged in the oil, fg = 1. When the element is partly submerged in the oil, linearly
interpolate between fg = 0 and fg = 1. For example, for a gear that has the oil level at the centre line of its
shaft, fg = 0,50. Use a value of 0,2 for the arrangement constant, Ag, in Equations (40), (41) and (42).
The power loss equation for the tooth surface calls for a roughness factor, Rf. ISO/TR 14179-1:2001, 7.9
provides some values based on tooth sizes. Equation (39) is a reasonable approximation of the values from
Dudley.
4,648
R f = 7,93 − (39)
mt
Gear windage and churning losses encompass three types of loss. For those losses associated with a smooth
outside diameter, such as the OD of a shaft, use Equation (40). For those losses associated with the smooth
sides of a disc, such as the faces of a gear, use Equation (41). Equation (41) includes both sides of the gear;
therefore, the value should not be doubled. For those losses associated with the tooth surfaces, such as the
OD of a gear or pinion, use Equation (42).
For smooth outside diameters:
7,37 f gυ n 3 D 4,7 L
PGWi = (40)
Ag10 26
For smooth sides:
1,474 f gυ n 3 D 5,7
PGWi = (41)
Ag10 26
For tooth surfaces:
⎛ Rf ⎞
7,37 f gυ n 3 D 4,7 b w ⎜ ⎟
⎜ tan β ⎟
PGWi = ⎝ m ⎠ (42)
26
Ag10
NOTE If βm is less than 10°, use 10°.
After calculating the individual elements for each shaft assembly, they should be added together for the total
loss. For example, an output shaft assembly would use Equation (40) for the OD of the shaft outside of the
gear between the bearings, Equation (41) for the smooth sides of the gear and Equation (42) for the tooth
surfaces. The sum of power losses is then expressed as efficiency of churning:
η ffc = 1 − ∑ P GWi / P (43)

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32
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
6.2 Lubrication
6.2.1 Principles for lubrication
The principles suggested for the lubrication of bevel gears are similar to those followed in the lubrication for
spur and helical gears. Lubrication provides a dual function:
⎯ to prevent metal to metal contact;
⎯ to carry away the heat generated by friction in tooth engagement.
To fulfill these functions, each tooth surface should carry a film of lubricant when it enters into engagement
with a mating tooth, and there should be sufficient volume of lubricant to absorb and dissipate the heat
generated by friction, without excessive temperature rise.
6.2.2 Selection criteria of lubricants
Lubricant selection should consider other factors in addition to gear design.
6.2.2.1 Environment
The operating environment should be carefully considered when selecting the lubricant system of a gearbox.
The ambient temperature is the most common consideration. Contamination is also a common factor, but is
frequently overlooked. Some applications, such as mining, paper mills, textile mills and printing presses
produce large amounts of abrasive dust. This material can seriously affect the operation of gears if it
contaminates the lubricant. Replacing a conventional air breather vent with an air filter, providing proper
gaskets and seals or the use of a circulating oil system with proper filtration are common solutions against
contamination.
6.2.2.2 Maintenance
The frequency and type of maintenance influence the number of lubrication options available to the gearbox
designer. In situations where lubricants can be easily checked and replaced, the selections can be numerous.
Mineral oils and greases are common selections. Frequently, the gears are placed in an application where
maintenance is difficult or impossible, such as sealed for life consumer appliances. In this case, the designer
may choose synthetic oils, greases or self-lubricating materials. Frequently, the designer has to increase the
amount of lubricant and component sizes to compensate for the wear they experience due to the less than
desirable lubrication conditions.
6.2.2.3 Application
The application of the gear system may dictate the type of lubricants available to the designer. Certain
industries have a predetermined selection of lubricant. A common example would be a food processing plant.
The lubricant selection may be limited to products that would not be harmful to the food processed, should
contamination occur. Medical processes have similar restrictions. Aircraft and military lubricants should be
selected from those that pass rigorous tests and qualifications. Spacecraft and satellite applications cannot
contain materials that produce gases in a vacuum.
6.2.2.4 Internal components
Bevel gears depend on bearings, seals, clutches and sometimes other components to perform their intended
functions. The selection of lubricants is frequently a compromise when considering all components. For
example, gears typically require high-viscosity oil, bearings prefer low-viscosity oil. Some components can
tolerate wider variation of lubricants than others. Changes to gear material, heat treatment, surface finish or
geometry can be necessary to find a lubricant that best fits all components. A typical example is the
automotive engine. The lubricant is tailored to the combustion part of the engine, yet should lubricate the
gears and bearings as well. It can be necessary for the gear designer to select the gear material, heat
treatment, surface finish or geometry specifically for the system-required lubricant.
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Institution 33
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
6.2.2.5 Cooling requirements
One of the primary functions of a lubricant is to carry away heat. Many drives require oil to properly remove
the heat generated during operation. Several methods can be used to remove heat. The simplest method is
allowing the gearbox housing to dissipate the heat. This requires that the housing be large enough to allow the
heat to dissipate at least as fast as it is produced. Frequently, external cooling is required. This may be
accomplished by the use of fans or a heat exchanger. The determination of the heat flow in a gearbox is
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beyond the scope of this Technical Report.
6.2.2.6 Efficiency and load-carrying capacity
Lubricants have a high influence on the efficiency and load-carrying capacity of gears. Therefore, the lubricant
should be chosen subject to the operating conditions.
Depending on the lubrication conditions different base oil types and additives can show very different friction
behaviour: At no-load, the power losses of a pair of gears are mainly influenced by the viscosity. Under load,
the base oil type (mineral oil, poly-alpha-olefin, ester, polyglycol, etc.) influences the losses at elasto-
hydrodynamic-lubrication, the additives in the mixed and boundary lubrication. Also, the gear failures affecting
the flank surfaces, e.g. scuffing, pitting, micropitting and wear, are influenced by the used type of lubricant as
well as the type and concentration of the additives, respectively.
Exact values for the influences on efficiency and load-carrying capacity can only be derived from experimental
investigations.
6.2.3 Types of lubricants
6.2.3.1 General
Numerous types of lubricants are available to the designer. Oil is the most versatile and popular. Grease is the
second most popular. Other materials can also be used.
6.2.3.2 Oil
6.2.3.2.1 General
Oil is by far the most frequently used lubricant for gears. It can be produced from natural hydrocarbons or by
synthetics. The properties of lubricants can be changed by changing its viscosity or by the addition of
chemical additives. The proper selection of oil varies drastically with application. There is no universal gear oil.
Oil selected for one application can be disastrous in another.
6.2.3.2.2 Viscosity
Viscosity is the most significant property requiring specification. Usually, viscosity is selected for the gear
mesh having the heaviest load and lowest speed among those served by the same lubricant.
The viscosity grade at 40 °C may be selected by the following:
35,56
υK = (44)
v et 0,5
NOTE If νet is less than 2,5 m/s, use 2,5 m/s.
Equation (44) provides a guide. While the nearest viscosity grade given in ISO/TR 18792 is usually selected,
satisfactory performance may be obtained with a viscosity level one grade higher or lower than indicated.
34
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
6.2.3.2.3 Criteria for oil selection
When selecting an oil for a given application the following items should be considered:
⎯ high and low temperature;
⎯ viscosity index improver;
⎯ pour depressants;
⎯ oxidation inhibitor;
⎯ corrosive inhibitors;
⎯ antifoam additives;
⎯ extreme pressure additives.
For additional information see ISO/TR 18792.
6.2.3.3 Grease
Grease is a mixture of base oil and a thickening agent. The thickening agent, usually a metallic soap, is used
to control consistency. The consistency can vary from a solid to a thin semi-fluid. Since the base oil provides
all lubrication, the discussion regarding oil also applies to grease.
Grease is frequently selected as a lubricant in an attempt to avoid leakage problems. Since grease does not
flow as readily as oil, seals are not as critical. The oil does tend to separate from the thickener with time, so
care should be taken if minor leaks cannot be tolerated.
Grease is also frequently used as an initial lube for self-lubricating gears.
At high speeds, gears cut a channel through a standing reservoir of grease and throw off any remaining
grease from the gear. The semi-fluid consistency prevents the grease from flowing back to fill the channel.
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Poor heat transfer characteristics combine with the flow limitations to reduce the load capacity of the gearbox.
For these reasons, the use of grease should be restricted to lower speed applications.
6.2.3.4 Dry lubricants
Dry lubricants refer to coatings applied to the gear tooth surface and are not intended to be replenished. They
can include molybdenum disulfide, graphite or organic materials, such as polytetrafluoro-ethylene. They
essentially provide an anti-wear coating between the teeth. They cannot provide cooling, which is often the
primary lubricant requirement. Because of this, dry lubricants are normally used for lightly loaded applications.
6.2.3.5 Self-lubrication
The use of polymer compounds (plastic gears) has become quite popular. They include some limited self-
lubrication and act in a similar way to dry lubricants. They also deflect more than metal gears. Even though
the material is self-lubricating, an initial coating of grease or oil greatly improves the break-in of self-lubricating
materials. Care should be exercised in the selection of lubricants applied to these gear materials to prevent
undesirable chemical reactions.

Institution 35
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
6.2.4 Application of lubricant
6.2.4.1 General
Regardless of the type of lubricant selected, proper operation requires that an adequate quantity be applied.
The methods used to ensure the application of that quantity vary with the type of lubricant. For more detailed
information about the lubrication of industrial gear drives, see ISO/TR 18792.
6.2.4.2 Quantity required
The amount of lubricant is dependent on several factors. When oil is the selected lubricant a minimum of
0,08 l/min per mm face width is suggested regardless of the power transmitted.
6.2.4.3 Method of application
Splash lubrication and pressure jets are the typical means of applying oil. Splash lubrication is the process of
allowing a rotating component, usually a gear, to dip into the oil. Centrifugal forces fling the oil around inside
the gearbox. Oil can also cling to the gear, carrying it into mesh. Increasing the oil level to bring more oil into
contact with the rotating component can be detrimental. The additional oil can lead to churning and hence
increased temperatures, foaming and a loss of efficiency. The use of splash lubrication is usually confined to
slow speed drives and can require some experimentation for proper operation.
In pressure feed systems, oil is forced through orifices, called jets, to the gear teeth near the meshing point.
The jets should be positioned with at least one jet per 25 mm of face width. High-speed gears can act as air
pumps and deflect the oil coming from the jets. The position of the jets and pressure should be adjusted to
assure that the mesh receives oil. Pressures at the jet can range from 0,17 N/mm2 to 0,34 N/mm2 depending
on the flow rate and the gear speed. Table 8 is frequently used for the location of oil jets in pressure feed
systems.
Table 8 — Typical oil jet location
Pitch line velocity

Jet location Comment
m/s
15 None Properly designed splash is adequate
Lubrication is primary; cooling is secondary;
15 to 25 Into mesh
splash with adequate baffles and channels can also work
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Out-of-mesh Cooling is the primary function;
25 to 60
or into mesh sufficient oil adheres to the teeth which lubricates the contact
36
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
Bibliography
[1] ISO 6336-5, Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears — Part 5: Strength and quality of
materials
[2] ISO 10300-1, Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears — Part 1: Introduction and general influence
factors
[3] ISO 10300-2, Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears — Part 2: Calculation of surface durability
(pitting)
[4] ISO 10300-3, Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears — Part 3: Calculation of tooth root strength
[5] ISO 10825, Gears — Wear and damage to gear teeth — Terminology
[6] ISO 17485, Bevel gears — ISO system of accuracy
[7] ISO/TR 10064-6, Code of inspection practice — Part 6: Bevel gear measurement methods
[8] ISO/TR 13989-1, Calculation of scuffing load capacity of cylindrical, bevel and hypoid gears — Part 1:
Flash temperature method
[9] ISO/TR 14179-1:2001, Gears — Thermal capacity — Part 1: Rating gear drives with thermal
equilibrium at 95 °C sump temperature
[10] ISO/TR 18792, Lubrication of industrial gear drives
[11] ISO 23509:2006, Bevel and hypoid gear geometry
[12] ANSI/AGMA 2008-B01, Assembling Bevel Gears
[13] TOWNSEND, D., Dudley's gear handbook: The design, manufacture, and application of gears.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2nd ed., 1992
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Institution 37
PD ISO/TR 22849:2011
ISO/TR 22849:2011(E)
ICS 21.200
Price based on 37 pages
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© ISO
Copyright British 2011Institution
Standards – All rights reserved
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PD ISO/TR 22849:2011

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Design recommendations for

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Copyright British Standards Institution

Design recommendations for bevel gears

Copyright British Standards Institution © ISO 2011

COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT

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longer valid or useful.

Design recommendations for bevel gears

2 Symbols, descriptions and units

Copyright British Standards©Institution

Symbol Description Unit

3.2.2 Bending strength

3.2.3 Pitting resistance

Copyright British Standards©Institution

3.2.4 Other forms of bevel gear tooth deterioration

Information on scuffing can be found in ISO/TR 13989-1.

3.4 Gear tolerances

3.5 Gear noise

Table 1 — Typical values of transmission error

3.5.2 Tooth flank form corrections

a) Tooth flank deviation b) Tooth bearing

Figure 1 — Example of a gear pair finished by lapping process

Copyright British Standards©Institution

a) Profile crowning of 5 μm b) Profile crowning of 20 μm

NOTE The transmission error is 24 μrad.

c) Profile crowning at 20 μm and flank twist of 80 μm

Figure 2 — Effect of profile crowning and flank twist on transmission error —

Copyright British Standards Institution © ISO 2011 – All rights reserved

3.5.3 Design contact ratio

a) Number of teeth of 10/43 and b) Number of teeth of 7/30 and

Figure 3 — The effect of design contact ratio on transmission error

3.5.4 Other noise consideration

Copyright British Standards©Institution

4.2 Blank design and tolerances

4.2.1 General aspects

4.2.2 Clamping surface

Figure 4 — Recommended clamping surface of the blank

Figure 5 — Tooth backing

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4.2.4 Load direction

Figure 6 — Webless mitre gear — Counterbored type

4.2.5 Locating surface

Figure 7 — Suggested locating surfaces

4.2.6 Solid shanks

Figure 8 — Shank-type pinion with tapped hole

Figure 9 — Shank-type pinion with external threads

4.2.7 Flanged hub

4.2.8 Splined bores

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Figure 10 — Spline mounting

4.2.9 Ring-type designs

The most common wheel designs are shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 — Typical wheels mounted on hubs

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a) Method of centring counterbored-type b) Method of mounting gear