Petroleum Experts

User Manual

IPM
PVTP
Version 14.5
November 2020
 PVTP
IPM - Fluid Characterisation OVERVIEW
by Petroleum Experts Limited

An understanding of PVT properties is fundamental to all aspects of reservoir, petroleum

and production engineering.

PVTP allows tuning of Equations of State (EOS) to match laboratory data. The tuned EOS
can then be used to simulate a range of reservoir and production processes, which impact
equipment sizing and reservoir recovery.

Multiple Samples Reservoir information is handled in a unique project structure to allow the
user to create a consistant picture of the reservoir system.

PVTP has been designed to lead the engineer logically through the fluid characterising
process, which includes tuning EOS models to match measured laboratory data at both
reservoir and process conditions.

PVTP can be used to generate tables of fluid properties, reduced compositions or matched
parameters (Tc, Pc, and Binary Interaction Coefficients) for applications such as reservoir
simulation and nodal analysis. PVTP maximises the value of your laboratory PVT studies
by minimising the amount of experiments required.

PVTP has been extended to include the modelling of solids VIZ. hydrates and waxes and
includes calculations for hydrate formation pressure, hydrate inhibition, wax appearance
temperature and wax dropout.

PVTP features OPENSERVER.

APPLICATIONS
• Characterisation of fluids
• Recombination of separator samples
• Determination of gas / oil contacts
• Separator train optimisation
• Phase behaviour prediction
• Swelling test simulation
• Solids (hydrate and Wax Modelling)
• Generation of PVT tables for use in simulation
• Slim Tube Simulation
• Structured approach to sample decontamination, addressing an increasing problem of
contaminated samples
• Recombination and PVT validation
• Simulation of lab PVT experiments
• Online Step-by-Step Help Guide takes the user through fluid characterisation
• Unique auto characterisation of heavy end fraction
• Simultaneously matches to reservoir and separator tests
• Tunes EOS for direct use in PROSPER well modelling systems analysis program
• Generates match data for black oil condensate model used in MBAL material balance
program
 3

Copyright Notice
The copyright in this manual and the associated computer program are the property of Petroleum Experts
Ltd. All rights reserved. Both, this manual and the computer program have been provided pursuant to a
Licence Agreement containing restriction of use.

No part of this manual may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, or
translated into any language, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical or
otherwise, or disclose to third parties without prior written consent from Petroleum Experts Ltd., Petex House,
10 Logie Mill, Edinburgh, EH7 4HG, Scotland, UK.

© Petroleum Experts Ltd. All rights reserved.

IPM Suite, GAP, PROSPER, MBAL, PVTP, REVEAL, RESOLVE, IFM and OpenServer are trademarks of
Petroleum Experts Ltd.

Microsoft (Windows), Windows (2000) and Windows (XP) are registered trademarks of the Microsoft
Corporation

The software described in this manual is furnished under a licence agreement. The software may be used
or copied only in accordance with the terms of the agreement. It is against the law to copy the software on
any medium except as specifically allowed in the license agreement. No part of this documentation may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or information storage and retrieval systems for any purpose other than the purchaser's personal
use, unless express written consent has been given by Petroleum Experts Limited.

Address:

Petroleum Experts Limited

Petex House
10 Logie Mill
Edinburgh, Scotland
EH7 4HG

Tel : (44 131) 474 7030

Fax : (44 131) 474 7031

email: [email protected]
Internet: www.petex.com

1990-2020 Petroleum Experts Limited

 I PVTP

Table of Contents
0

Chapter 1 Technical Overview 2

1 Importance
...................................................................................................................................
of PVT 4
Path to Surface
.......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Integrated..........................................................................................................................................................
Modelling 6
Building
.........................................................................................................................................................
PVT models for fully Integrated Systems 9
2 Fluid Models:
...................................................................................................................................
Equation of State and Black Oil Models 10
Equation..........................................................................................................................................................
of State Modelling 10
Limitations
..........................................................................................................................................................
of EOS 11
3 PVTP Capabilities
................................................................................................................................... 13
Characterisation
.......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Decontamination
.......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Recombination
.......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Lumping/..........................................................................................................................................................
Delumping 15
Compositional
..........................................................................................................................................................
Gradient 15
Flow Assurance
.......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Automation
.......................................................................................................................................................... 16
4 Whats...................................................................................................................................
New in PVTp 17
5 Examples
...................................................................................................................................
Index 25
6 Help and
...................................................................................................................................
Technical Support 27
Online Help
.......................................................................................................................................................... 27
User Guide
..........................................................................................................................................................
Manuals 28
Support For
..........................................................................................................................................................
Maintained Clients 29
Software
.........................................................................................................................................................
Upgrades 30
Annual
.........................................................................................................................................................
User Group Meeting 31
Web.........................................................................................................................................................
User Area 31

Chapter 2 User Guide 34

1 What is
...................................................................................................................................
in this Guide 35
2 Using ...................................................................................................................................
PVTp 36
Data Object
..........................................................................................................................................................
Approach 36
Launch Screen
..........................................................................................................................................................
Layout 38
Main Screen
..........................................................................................................................................................
Layout 39
Main.........................................................................................................................................................
Menu Ribbon 40
File Menu Tab
......................................................................................................................................... 41
Home Menu.........................................................................................................................................
Tab 41
Calculation ...................................................................................................................................
Options 41
Units ................................................................................................................................... 44
Evaluate OS...................................................................................................................................
Statement 47
Component...................................................................................................................................
Databases 48
Lumping Rules
................................................................................................................................... 50
Register User
...................................................................................................................................
DLL 52
OS Compatibility
................................................................................................................................... 54
Help Index ................................................................................................................................... 55
About PVTp................................................................................................................................... 55
 Contents II

What's New................................................................................................................................... 56
Web User Area
................................................................................................................................... 56
Web Home ...................................................................................................................................
Page 56
Technical Support
................................................................................................................................... 56
Check License
................................................................................................................................... 56
Panel Actions
.........................................................................................................................................
Menu Tab 56
Connect ................................................................................................................................... 57
Select ................................................................................................................................... 58
Unselect All................................................................................................................................... 61
Move ................................................................................................................................... 61
Mask ................................................................................................................................... 62
Delete ................................................................................................................................... 63
Zoom ................................................................................................................................... 64
Undo and Redo
................................................................................................................................... 65
Mark as Official
................................................................................................................................... 65
Text ................................................................................................................................... 66
Rectangle ................................................................................................................................... 68
Arrow ................................................................................................................................... 70
Snap To Grid
................................................................................................................................... 72
Characterisation
.........................................................................................................................................
Menu Tab 72
Calculation Menu
.........................................................................................................................................
Tab 73
Navigation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Tree 75
Characterisation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Wizard Window 76
Choice of EOS
......................................................................................................................................... 78
Units ......................................................................................................................................... 79
Characterisation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Window 79
Calculation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Window 81
Workbench
......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Miscellaneous
.......................................................................................................................................................... 83
Window
.........................................................................................................................................................
Docking 84
Right.........................................................................................................................................................
Click Menus 85
Tooltip
.........................................................................................................................................................
Quick Status 87
Calculate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Objects (Ctrl+A) 88
3 General
...................................................................................................................................
Workflow 91
Traditional
..........................................................................................................................................................
Workflow Challenges 92
Characterisation
..........................................................................................................................................................
Wizard 93
Using.........................................................................................................................................................
the Wizard in a New File 94
Using
.........................................................................................................................................................
the Wizard in an Existing File 100
Characterisation
..........................................................................................................................................................
Data Objects 101
PVT.........................................................................................................................................................
Report 101
PVT.........................................................................................................................................................
Sample 104
Sample Information
......................................................................................................................................... 104
Select Components
......................................................................................................................................... 106
Enter Components
......................................................................................................................................... 108
Recombine...................................................................................................................................
from Separator Compositions 111
Enter Lab Data
......................................................................................................................................... 113
Import From
...................................................................................................................................
PVT Report 116
Mass Balance
.........................................................................................................................................
Calculator 117
Pseudo
.........................................................................................................................................................
Properties 119
Pseudo Properties
......................................................................................................................................... 119
Volume Shifts
......................................................................................................................................... 124
Split Pseudo
......................................................................................................................................... 126
Find Best ...................................................................................................................................
Alpha 132
BIC Input Data
......................................................................................................................................... 136

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II
III PVTP

Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 137
Regression
......................................................................................................................................................... 137
Lab Data Weightings
......................................................................................................................................... 140
Regression.........................................................................................................................................
Inputs 142
Regression.........................................................................................................................................
Variables 147
Regression.........................................................................................................................................
Error Details 150
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 151
Regression.........................................................................................................................................
Best Practices 151
Multi-Stream
.........................................................................................................................................
Regression 153
Regression.........................................................................................................................................
with Solids 156
PVT.........................................................................................................................................................
Fluid 158
Properties ......................................................................................................................................... 159
More Properties
......................................................................................................................................... 160
BICs ......................................................................................................................................... 161
Plot ......................................................................................................................................... 161
EOS Options
......................................................................................................................................... 162
Water Composition
......................................................................................................................................... 165
Hoffmann Quality
.........................................................................................................................................
Plot 166
Import Options
......................................................................................................................................... 168
Target
.........................................................................................................................................................
GOR 170
Target GOR
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 171
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 173
Target
.........................................................................................................................................................
PSAT 173
Target PSAT
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 174
PSAT Profile
......................................................................................................................................... 177
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 178
Blend
.........................................................................................................................................................
Streams 178
EOS Blend.........................................................................................................................................
Input 179
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 181
Blend
.........................................................................................................................................................
To GOR 182
Blend to GOR
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 183
GOR Profile
......................................................................................................................................... 186
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 187
Decontamination
......................................................................................................................................................... 188
Decontaminate
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 189
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 191
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 192
Saturate
.........................................................................................................................................................
with H2O 192
Sat. With Water
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 193
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 194
Add.........................................................................................................................................................
Water 194
Add Water.........................................................................................................................................
Input 195
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 196
Export
.........................................................................................................................................................
EOS 197
Export Input
......................................................................................................................................... 197
IPM EOS Composition
................................................................................................................................... 199
*.PRP File...................................................................................................................................
Example_2 199
*.PRP file ...................................................................................................................................
with Lumping/Delumping information_2 200
PROSPER...................................................................................................................................
Hydrate 206
Hydrate Example
................................................................................................................................... 206
Petex Black
...................................................................................................................................
Oil Table 207
MBAL PVT
...................................................................................................................................
with Depth 209
MBAL PVT
...................................................................................................................................
with Depth Example 210
MBAL Variable
...................................................................................................................................
Bubble Pt. (Oil) 213
 Contents IV

ECLIPSE (Black
...................................................................................................................................
Oil) Format 215
ECLIPSE (Compositional)
...................................................................................................................................
Format 218
CMG (Black
...................................................................................................................................
Oil) Format 219
CMG (Compositional)
...................................................................................................................................
Format 220
Shell MultiSim
...................................................................................................................................
(Black Oil) Format 221
Shell MultiSim
...................................................................................................................................
(Compositional) Format 222
VIP (Compositional)
...................................................................................................................................
Format 224
Chears (Compositional)
...................................................................................................................................
Format 224
KAPPA (Black
...................................................................................................................................
Oil) Format 225
OLGA - Leda
...................................................................................................................................
Flow Format 227
ROXAR Pvt
...................................................................................................................................
Format 229
Lumping
......................................................................................................................................................... 231
Lumping Input
......................................................................................................................................... 232
Manage Lumping
...................................................................................................................................
Rules 236
Output Fluid
......................................................................................................................................... 241
Calculation
..........................................................................................................................................................
Data Objects 241
Phase
.........................................................................................................................................................
Envelope 241
Phase Envelope
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 242
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 243
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 244
Critical
.........................................................................................................................................................
Point 245
Critical Point
.........................................................................................................................................
Results 245
Saturation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Pressure 246
Saturation .........................................................................................................................................
Pressure Input 246
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 247
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 248
Compositional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Gradient 249
Compositional
.........................................................................................................................................
Gradient Input 249
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 252
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 252
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 253
Constant
.........................................................................................................................................................
Composition Expansion 258
CCE Input ......................................................................................................................................... 259
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 261
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 262
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 263
Constant
.........................................................................................................................................................
Volume Depletion 266
CVD Input ......................................................................................................................................... 267
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 270
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 270
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 271
Differential
.........................................................................................................................................................
Liberation 274
Differential .........................................................................................................................................
Liberation Input 275
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 278
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 278
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 279
Oil Depletion
......................................................................................................................................................... 282
Oil Depletion
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 283
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 285
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 286
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 287
Separator
......................................................................................................................................................... 290
Separator Train
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 291
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 292

November, 2020 PVTP Help And Manual

IV
V PVTP

Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 296
K Values
......................................................................................................................................................... 298
K Values Input
......................................................................................................................................... 299
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 300
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 303
Split.........................................................................................................................................................
Factors 305
Split Factor.........................................................................................................................................
Input 307
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 311
Path
.........................................................................................................................................................
To Surface 313
Path to Surface
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 314
Path to Surf.
.........................................................................................................................................
Results 319
Swelling
.........................................................................................................................................................
Test 322
Swelling Test
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 322
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 325
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 325
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 326
Slim.........................................................................................................................................................
Tube 331
Slim Tube Input
......................................................................................................................................... 332
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 338
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 339
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 339
Isenthalpic
.........................................................................................................................................................
Flash 341
Isenthalpic .........................................................................................................................................
Flash Input 342
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 343
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 344
Hydrate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Formation 345
Hydrate Form.
.........................................................................................................................................
Temp. Input 345
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 347
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 348
Hydrate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Protection 349
Hydrate Min.
.........................................................................................................................................
Inhibitor 350
Water
.........................................................................................................................................................
Saturation 352
Water Sat..........................................................................................................................................
Input 352
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 354
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 356
Wax
.........................................................................................................................................................
Appearance Temperature 357
Wax Appear.
.........................................................................................................................................
Temp. Input 357
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 358
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 359
Wax
.........................................................................................................................................................
Amount 360
Wax Amount
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 361
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 362
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 363
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 365
Salt.........................................................................................................................................................
Map 366
Salt Map Input
......................................................................................................................................... 367
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 369
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 371
Salt.........................................................................................................................................................
Solubility 372
Salt Solubility
.........................................................................................................................................
Input 372
Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 374
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 375
CCE
.........................................................................................................................................................
with Salt 376
CCE Input ......................................................................................................................................... 377
 Contents VI

Results Plot
......................................................................................................................................... 379
Results Table
......................................................................................................................................... 380
Detailed Results
......................................................................................................................................... 381
4 Engineering
...................................................................................................................................
Theory and Calculations 385
The Equation
..........................................................................................................................................................
of State Model 385
The.........................................................................................................................................................
Acentric Factor 387
The.........................................................................................................................................................
Binary Interaction Coefficient 391
Volume
.........................................................................................................................................................
Shift 393
Characterisation
..........................................................................................................................................................
Process 395
Characterisation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Challenges 396
Definition
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Pseudo Component/s 397
Properties
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Pseudo Components 397
Impact
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Pseudo Component Properties 399
Molecular Weight
......................................................................................................................................... 399
Specific Gravity
......................................................................................................................................... 399
Boiling Point
.........................................................................................................................................
Temperature 399
Critical Temperature
.........................................................................................................................................
and Pressure 400
Acentric Factor
......................................................................................................................................... 401
Split Profile......................................................................................................................................... 401
Binary Interaction
.........................................................................................................................................
Coefficients 402
Volume Shift
......................................................................................................................................... 402
Splitting..........................................................................................................................................................
Pseudo Components 402
Density ..........................................................................................................................................................
Calculation 408
Standing
.........................................................................................................................................................
Katz Density 408
Costald
.........................................................................................................................................................
Density 409
Carbon
.........................................................................................................................................................
dioxide properties 410
Oil FVF ..........................................................................................................................................................
Calculation 411
Viscosity
..........................................................................................................................................................
and Thermal Conductivity Models 412
Lohrenz,Bray,ClarkViscosity
.........................................................................................................................................................
Model 413
Pedersen
.........................................................................................................................................................
et al Viscosity Model 415
Zhou
.........................................................................................................................................................
et al Viscosity Model 416
Little
.........................................................................................................................................................
and Kennedy Viscosity Model 418
Black
.........................................................................................................................................................
oil viscosity models 419
Thermal
.........................................................................................................................................................
Conductivity Model 420
Viscosity
.........................................................................................................................................................
and Thermal Conductivity References 422
Interfacial
..........................................................................................................................................................
Tension Calculation 423
Enthalpy
..........................................................................................................................................................
and Specific Heat Capacity 423
Compositional
..........................................................................................................................................................
Gradient 425
Compositional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Gradient References 428
Water Modeling
.......................................................................................................................................................... 428
Multiphase
.........................................................................................................................................................
flash options 428
Water
.........................................................................................................................................................
Modeling References 433
Wax Modelling
.......................................................................................................................................................... 434
Wax
.........................................................................................................................................................
Model Details 437
Wax
.........................................................................................................................................................
Model References 438
Salt Modeling
.......................................................................................................................................................... 439
Salt.........................................................................................................................................................
Modeling References 443
Hydrates
.......................................................................................................................................................... 444
Background
.........................................................................................................................................................
to Hydrates 444
Hydrate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Modeling 445
Hydrates
.........................................................................................................................................................
with no water phase 448
Hydrate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Inhibition 449
Hydrate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Model References 450
General..........................................................................................................................................................
Information 450

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VI
 VII PVTP

5 Appendix
................................................................................................................................... 453
CCE vs. ..........................................................................................................................................................
DiffLib? 453

Chapter 3 Worked Examples 458

1 Examples
...................................................................................................................................
Index 459
2 Example
...................................................................................................................................
0 - Importing Legacy Files 461
Context.......................................................................................................................................................... 461
Notes on
..........................................................................................................................................................
Files Pre-IPM12 461
Opening..........................................................................................................................................................
Pre-IPM12 files in IPM12 464
Recalculating
.........................................................................................................................................................
Stream Objects 465
Different
.........................................................................................................................................................
Stream Data 466
Recalculating
.........................................................................................................................................................
Calculation Objects 467
Object
.........................................................................................................................................................
Settings 468
Additional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Objects 471
Moving ..........................................................................................................................................................
Forward 472
Summary
.......................................................................................................................................................... 473
3 Example
...................................................................................................................................
1 - Oil 475
Scenario
.......................................................................................................................................................... 475
Workflow
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 476
Data Available
.......................................................................................................................................................... 477
Reservoir
.........................................................................................................................................................
Conditions 478
Recombined
.........................................................................................................................................................
Composition 478
CCE
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 478
DiffLib
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 479
SEP
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 479
Import the
..........................................................................................................................................................
Lab Report 480
Lab Report
..........................................................................................................................................................
Quality Check 482
Review
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Available Data 483
Compositional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Gradient Check 485
Saturation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Pressure 485
Choice of
..........................................................................................................................................................
EOS Model 486
Defining..........................................................................................................................................................
the Sample 487
Define Pseudo
..........................................................................................................................................................
Component 496
Pseudo
.........................................................................................................................................................
Splitting 507
Pseudo Split
.........................................................................................................................................
Quality Check 511
Binary
.........................................................................................................................................................
Interaction Coefficients 512
Pseudo
.........................................................................................................................................................
Output Fluid 515
Regression
.......................................................................................................................................................... 516
Strategy
......................................................................................................................................................... 517
Best Practice
......................................................................................................................................... 525
Primary
.........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 525
Primary Quality
.........................................................................................................................................
Check 534
Validation
.......................................................................................................................................................... 535
Second..........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 541
Second
.........................................................................................................................................................
Validation QC 542
Second..........................................................................................................................................................
Validation 542
Viscosity
..........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 547
Additional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Validation 551
Regression
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 551
EOS Export
.......................................................................................................................................................... 553
What to..........................................................................................................................................................
do next? 554
4 Example
...................................................................................................................................
2 - Retrograde Condensate 556
 Contents VIII

Scenario
.......................................................................................................................................................... 556
Workflow
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 557
Data Available
.......................................................................................................................................................... 558
Reservoir
.........................................................................................................................................................
Conditions 558
Composition
......................................................................................................................................................... 559
CCE
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 559
CVD
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 560
SEP
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 560
Import the
..........................................................................................................................................................
Lab Report 560
Lab Report
..........................................................................................................................................................
Quality Check 565
Review
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Available Data 566
Compositional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Gradient Check 568
Saturation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Pressure 568
Choice of
..........................................................................................................................................................
EOS Model 569
Defining..........................................................................................................................................................
the Sample 570
Define Pseudo
..........................................................................................................................................................
Component 577
Pseudo
.........................................................................................................................................................
Splitting 588
Pseudo Split
.........................................................................................................................................
Quality Check 592
Binary
.........................................................................................................................................................
Interaction Coefficients 593
Pseudo
.........................................................................................................................................................
Output Fluid 596
Regression
.......................................................................................................................................................... 597
Strategy
......................................................................................................................................................... 598
Best Practice
......................................................................................................................................... 607
Primary
.........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 607
Primary Quality
.........................................................................................................................................
Check 614
Validation
.......................................................................................................................................................... 616
Regression
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 622
What to..........................................................................................................................................................
do next? 623
5 Example
...................................................................................................................................
3 - Decontamination 625
Scenario
.......................................................................................................................................................... 625
Data Available
.......................................................................................................................................................... 625
Reservoir
.........................................................................................................................................................
Conditions 625
Recombined
.........................................................................................................................................................
Composition 626
DiffLib
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 626
Separator
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 627
Compositional
..........................................................................................................................................................
Profile Check 627
Workflow
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 628
Pseudo ..........................................................................................................................................................
Splitting 629
Decontamination
.......................................................................................................................................................... 631
Procedure
.........................................................................................................................................................
A 632
Procedure
.........................................................................................................................................................
B 637
Validation
.......................................................................................................................................................... 640
Decontamination
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 641
6 Example
...................................................................................................................................
4 - Additional EOS validation 643
Scenario
.......................................................................................................................................................... 643
Data Available
.......................................................................................................................................................... 643
Workflow
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 644
VLP/IPR..........................................................................................................................................................
matching 644
Additional
..........................................................................................................................................................
Validation Summary 648
7 Example
...................................................................................................................................
5 - Recombination 650
Example
..........................................................................................................................................................
5.1 Target Psat 650
Scenario
......................................................................................................................................................... 650
Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
Available 650

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VIII
IX PVTP

Reservoir Conditions
......................................................................................................................................... 650
Recombined
.........................................................................................................................................
Composition 651
CCE Experiment
......................................................................................................................................... 651
DiffLib Experiment
......................................................................................................................................... 652
SEP Experiment
......................................................................................................................................... 652
Saturation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Pressure Check 653
Workflow
.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 653
Recombination
......................................................................................................................................................... 654
Validation ......................................................................................................................................... 660
Recombination
.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 661
Example
..........................................................................................................................................................
5.2 Target GOR 662
Scenario
......................................................................................................................................................... 662
Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
Available 662
Recombination
......................................................................................................................................................... 662
Validation ......................................................................................................................................... 670
Recombination
.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 670
8 Example
...................................................................................................................................
6 - Lumping/ Delumping 672
Scenario
.......................................................................................................................................................... 672
Data Available
.......................................................................................................................................................... 672
Reservoir
.........................................................................................................................................................
Conditions 672
Recombined
.........................................................................................................................................................
Composition 673
CCE
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 673
CVD
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 674
SEP
.........................................................................................................................................................
Experiment 674
Workflow
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 675
Quality ..........................................................................................................................................................
Check EOS 675
Creation..........................................................................................................................................................
of Lumping Rule 678
Validation
.......................................................................................................................................................... 690
Lumping/Delumping
..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 697
9 Example
...................................................................................................................................
7 - Flow Assurance 698
Example
..........................................................................................................................................................
7.1 - Wax 698
Scenario
......................................................................................................................................................... 698
Objectives
......................................................................................................................................................... 698
Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
Available 698
Wax
.........................................................................................................................................................
Appearance Temperature Curve 699
Split Out Pseudo
.........................................................................................................................................
Components 701
Amount
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Wax Appearance 702
Wax
.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 705
Example
..........................................................................................................................................................
7.2 - Hydrates 705
Scenario
......................................................................................................................................................... 705
Objectives
......................................................................................................................................................... 705
Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
Available 705
Hydrate
.........................................................................................................................................................
Formation Pressure Curve 706
Sensitivity
.........................................................................................................................................................
on Water Composition 710
Impact of Salinity
.........................................................................................................................................
and Inhibitors 714
Minimum
.........................................................................................................................................................
inhibitor 716
Hydrates
.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 722
Example
..........................................................................................................................................................
7.3 - Salt 722
Scenario
......................................................................................................................................................... 723
Objectives
......................................................................................................................................................... 723
Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
Available 723
Salt.........................................................................................................................................................
Map 724
Salt.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 728
 Contents X

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X
Chapter

Technical Overview
 Technical Overview 2

1 Technical Overview
An understanding of PVT properties is fundamental to all aspects 4 of reservoir, petroleum
and production engineering.

PVTp is Petroleum Experts' advanced Pressure Volume and Temperature analysis

software.

PVTp is a thermodynamic fluid characterisation tool that can assist production, reservoir and
process engineers in modelling the fluid PVT behaviour and predicting the effect of process
conditions on the composition of hydrocarbon mixtures with accuracy and speed.

PVTp allows analysis and prediction of the compositional behaviour of complex mixtures
including gas mixtures, gas retrograde condensates, volatile oils, heavy oils and black oils with
confidence.

PVTp has all the features necessary to build and calibrate EOS models from PVT lab report
data and to quality check the model by simulating all common lab experiments. The tuned
EOS can then be used to simulate a range of reservoir and production processes, which
impact processes like equipment sizing and reservoir recovery estimation.

PVTp can be used as a stand-alone analytical tool; or can be used to generate Equation of
State 385 (EOS) models, tables of fluid properties, reduced compositions for applications such
as reservoir simulators or nodal analysis packages.

In the context of a fully integrated system from reservoir to process, PVTp has the unique
feature (Lumping/Delumping) which enables engineers to build two equivalent EOS models for
each sets of fluids; one with a reduced number of components ("lumped" composition), the
other with a large number of components ("full"composition). These can then be used within
the IPM toolkit to suit the requirements of each module of the integrated model.

PVTp provides facilities for performing studies concerning Flow Assurance: Wax and
Hydrates deposition; salt deposition in multiphase flash analysis; as well as calculation of
thermal properties.

Compositional Gradients can be determined to analyse the variation of composition with

depth due to gravity segregation, PVT properties from the gradient can be generated for
different depths along the reservoir.

PVTp is part of the Petroleum Experts' IPM (Integrated Production Modelling) Suite and as
such allows to export PVT data for GAP, PROSPER, MBAL, REVEAL, RESOLVE. In addition
OPENSERVER is fully compatible with PVTp which can be used to automate the most
common tasks by running them from a third party application, like a macro or a Visual Basic
application.

APPLICATIONS
• Characterisation of fluids

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• Recombination of separator samples

• Determination of gas / oil contacts
• Separator train optimisation
• Phase behaviour prediction
• Swelling test simulation
• Solids (salt, hydrate and Wax Modelling)
• In hibitor modelling through several different models
• Generation of PVT tables for use in simulation
• Slim Tube Simulation
• Structured approach to sample decontamination, addressing the increasing problem of
contaminated samples
• Recombination and PVT validation
• Simulation of lab PVT experiments
• Variable PVT with depth can be assessed using the Compositional Gradient feature
• Online Step-by-Step Help Guide takes the user through fluid characterisation
• Unique auto-characterisation of heavy end fraction
• Simultaneously matches to reservoir and separator tests
• Tunes EOS for direct use in PROSPER well modelling systems analysis program
• Generates match data for black oil condensate model used in MBAL material balance
program

See also:
PVT for Integrated Systems 6

PVTP Capabilities 13
Examples Index 25

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 Technical Overview 4

1.1 Importance of PVT

In the oil and gas sector, all production models, be it a reservoir, well, surface network or
processing model, have at least one common input between them - how the fluid properties
change with pressure and temperature as it travels from location A to B. As this is a basic
input, it is imperative we have a good understanding/description of how the fluid behaves,
hence the need for characterising the fluid model (e.g. EOS) against data collected from lab
experiments. Furthermore, since the different components of an integrated model all have
different requirements, we need to ensure that these are met whilst at the same time having a
consistent fluid description across all components.

If an inaccurate description of the fluid behaviour is used, the underlying models, e.g. a well
model, will be unable to reproduce what is being observed in reality through time. For
example, the model may happen to reproduce the test data initially, however over time the
model would begins to diverge from reality. If this is the case, even the best formulated
models do not provide value to petroleum engineers since they are non predictive and their
results can thus not be relied upon for field planning.

As such, since the fluid is fundamental to all models, without an in-depth understanding of the
fluid's behaviour throughout the production system, little to no confidence can be placed into
the predictions of any model.

PVTp aims to address this aspect by providing petroleum engineers with the necessary tools
to develop accurate and appropriate PVT model for different fluids and application in the form
of a characterised Equation of State (EOS).

1.1.1 Path to Surface

In the Petroleum industry, when performing any kind of model, it is common practice to report
the results in terms of the volumetric rate at standard conditions, however this carries the
underlying assumption that fluid follows a given path to surface from in-situ to standard
conditions. The path to surface essentially describes that temperatures and pressures the
fluid is exposed to on its path from in-situ to standard conditions. This is also commonly
referred to as the separator train.

In integrated production models, inaccuracies can arise when unknowingly different parts of
the integrated model (e.g. reservoir and well model) use different paths to surface to convert
between in-situ and standard conditions rates.

Path to Surface Inconsistency:

For example, a reservoir model uses Path A, see image below, as the reference path to
surface, whereas the coupled well model uses Path B, see image below. In Path A, the fluid is
taken straight from in-situ conditions to standard conditions (0psig and 60degF). In Path B on
the other hand, the fluid is first taken to a number of intermediary temperatures and
pressures, where the fluid is allowed to equilibrate and the all the gas evolved is removed.

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The resultant liquid is then passed to the next separator stage where the process is repeated
until the fluid reaches standard conditions.

Path A Path B

If the same amount of mass of a fluid were to be taken to standard conditions through either
Path A or Path B, the resultant gas and liquid rates at standard standard conditions are
expected to be quite different. For Path A, the fluid experiences a sharp change in pressure
and temperature, resulting in a large amount of gas being evolved and consequently, the
remaining liquid shrinking significantly in volume (high shrinkage). For Path B on the other
hand, the fluid is taken to standard conditions more gently such that less gas is evolved and
therefore the resulting in a lower shrinkage than Path A.

In summary, for Path A the standard conditions oil rate is lower than for Path B. As such,
when the reservoir model passes a standard conditions rate to the surface network model,
the in-situ rates and therefore the mass rates will be inconsistent as the shrinkage for Path A
and B is different. As such it is of great importance to ensure that the Path to Surface is
consistent across all modules of the integrated model, i.e. the reservoir, well, surface network
and surface processing model to prevent such inconsistencies in the prediction forecast.

Path to Surface Correction:

In the field, the separator conditions may change through time for a number of reasons, for
example do to operation changes or the change in temperature over the course of the
seasons or each day (day night cycle). However, in an Integrated Model, the Path to Surface
is typically fixed as changing it makes it difficult to compare results through time. The solution
to this inconsistency between the field and reference Path to Surface is Path to Surface
Correction, i.e. using an EOS to convert rates measured/calculated with a given Path to
Surface to another.

For example, Path to Surface Correction is particularly important for validating well models
against well test data, because the separation conditions during the test and thus the
measured standard condition rates are typically different to the main production separator. As
such the measured test rated will need to be corrected from the test separator conditions to
the Path to Surface assumed within the model (e.g. the production separator conditions) to
ensure that they correspond to the same mass rate.

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1.1.2 Integrated Modelling

Petroleum Experts has been very actively involved in developing tools that integrate reservoir
modelling applications with those found in the production and process disciplines.
Today the technology available (IPM RESOLVE) allows engineers to integrate and optimise
reservoir simulation models (REVEAL, Eclipse and other third party simulators, etc.) to
production and injection network models (GAP) up to process models (Hysys, Unisim).
When modeling these different parts of a system PVT modelling is extremely important. Each
application has its own requirements, which are dictated on one side by the objectives of the
application itself and on the other by the calculation speed.
The figure below summarises the main requirements for the three main classes of simulators:

Reservoir numerical simulators are generally focused more on volumetric properties and the
phase behaviour. PVT modelling can be carried out by means of black oil or compositional
(EOS). In case of EOS modelling, the number of components has to be limited to avoid
excessive calculation times (with exception of thermal simulators like REVEAL, where a
larger number of components is required to guarantee accurate thermal calculations)
Surface network simulators can work in black oil or compositional too and are focused
mainly on densities and viscosities, as these affect the pressure losses. As far as the EOS
is concerned, the number of components has to be decided on the basis of the model
objectives: if the objective is to determine the pressure drops, a small number of
components can be suitable and can reduce the run time. However, if the objective is to
perform detailed flow assurance studies (temperature estimations, hydrates, etc.), an
extended composition will be necessary.
Process simulators, on the other hand, focus more on thermal properties calculations,
therefore they require compositional modelling. In order to achieve this they also need to
have a large number of components. This is because the thermal properties can only be
accurately estimated by specifying a detailed composition. Density is by default determined
on the basis of a correlation (usually Costald) and pure components properties are not
allowed to be modified.

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In general, when connecting different models together, the common factor among them is the
fluid. This implies that it is necessary to be able to use a PVT characterisation that is
consistently valid throughout the system.

Based on the information above, whenever a composition is required - because a process

simulator is connected, or because detailed studies need to be performed - it is required to be
able to move from a small number of components to a large one (or vice versa) whenever
desired/necessary, and to make sure that the fluid characterisation is representative of the
actual fluid throughout.

The idea behind compositional Lumping/De-lumping is to have a methodology that is able to

pass from an extended composition (de-lumped or "full" in the following) to a reduced one
(lumped or grouped) and vice versa consistently, preserving the quality of the
characterisation.
This means that at any point in time the full and the lumped compositions will be equivalent
and representative of the real fluid. In general when creating two characterisations of the
same fluid, by definition they will not give the same answers. However, lumping/de-lumping
has to make sure that the important properties are consistent, so that calculation speed and
accuracy are both satisfactory.

In IPM this is achieved by means of a so-called "Lumping Rule", which is a piece of logic that
defines the mechanisms to pass from the full to the lumped composition. The Lumping Rule is
created at the stage of building the EOS model using Petroleum Experts' PVT package
PVTp.
PVTp has all the facilities to create and quality check the couple full/lumped compositions and
to create the Lumping Rule.
An example of a possible Lumping Rule is reported below:

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 Technical Overview 8

In GAP or RESOLVE it is possible to import a Lumping Rule, which is then used to generate
the lumped (or the full) composition when desired. It is then possible to decide whether to run
the calculations with the full or with the lumped composition.

The following example illustrates one of the possible applications:

An extended composition is required because thermal studies on the pipelines need to be
carried out
Reservoir simulator - PVT is defined with EOS with 5 components (lumped)
Surface network model (GAP) - full composition (30 components) is required because
detailed thermal properties are required
Process model - full composition is required

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1.1.2.1 Building PVT models for fully Integrated Systems

The role of PVTp is to offer all the facilities to build and QC the lumped/full compositions. This
implies defining and exporting a Lump Rule, which contains the logic followed to create the
lumped composition and can be used to pass from the full to the lumped composition or vice
versa when required.
In process simulators the density is based on a correlation (usually Costald). In PVTp the
same method can be followed to make sure that the EOS composition (used in PVTp and
IPM in general) gives a density that is consistent with the one used by the process simulator.
This check can be performed during the stage of EOS matching.
When creating an EOS model that will be used in a process simulation, the only properties
that can be modified are the critical properties of the pseudo-components.

Back to Overview 2

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1.2 Fluid Models: Equation of State and Black Oil Models

1.2.1 Equation of State Modelling

PVTp allows calibration of EOS models using either of the two industry-standard models:
- Peng-Robinson Equation of State with the option of Volume Shift
- Soave-Redlich-Kwong Equation of State with the option of Volume Shift

PVTp has versatile, easy to use composition input tools which allow the user fast access to
the PVT program’s modeling capabilities. Data input options include:

Project file structure with multiple, independent data stream

Full stream manipulation, deleting, copying, importing and blending
Multiple stream calculation and plotting
Input of up to 200 components or pseudo components in each stream
Calculations of Solids; including Salts, Hydrates and Waxes
Calculations including one of three types of volume shift
Composition derived from a Recombination calculation
The ability to create multiple pseudo-components and estimate their properties using
industry-standard methods
Advanced pseudo-component splitting including exponential and gamma distribution
methods.
Regression against laboratory data with each stream independent
Multi-Stream Regression with changing compositions and shared properties.
Input of Binary Interaction Coefficients using a variety of correlations.
Automatic or manual component grouping
Lumping/Delumping of EOS composition

PVTp has powerful capabilities to perform full Lab report Data Matching 137 including the
following options:

Match with all component Tcs, Pcs, Afs etc.

Match with only pseudo component Tcs, Pcs,Afs etc.
Match using a global Omega A and Omega B
Match using individual component Omega A and Omega B values
Limiting on match property movement
Matching on mixture critical temperature

In PVTp all the most common calculations simulating lab experiments are available:

Calculation and graphical display of Phase Envelopes 241 for a user-selectable range
of vapour fractions
Calculation of Saturation Pressure 568 for complex mixtures at a single reference
pressure or over a range of entered pressures

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Constant Composition Expansion 258

Constant Volume Depletion 266
Depletion Study 282
Differential Expansion 274
Composite Differential Expansion 274
Comprehensive Separator 290 Calculations including:
- Send part or all of the separator gas through up to 10 chillers
- Replacement of separator train by K values
- Replacement of separator/chiller train by Split factors
- Calculation of LNG/LPG recoveries and compositions
Swelling Tests 322 with a second stream
Slim-tube 331 simulation
Other features:
Prediction of Separator liquid and gas compositions over a wide range of process
conditions and feedstock compositions
Prediction of composition changes with depth (composition gradient 425 ). Export of
gradient results to multi-pvt MBAL
Multiple 3rd Party Format Export (Black Oil and Compositional)
Export and Import of Petroleum Experts standard *.prp format
Export Black Oil Tables for IPM
Convert between API and Density
Perform a Material Balance to Validate PVT Report Data
Perform a single and multiple point enthalpy balance calculation
Perform a Hoffman-type Quality Plot

1.2.2 Limitations of EOS

The use of an EOS description for a fluid's properties has many advantages over a BO
description, such as the ability to capture the behaviour of complex fluids such as volatile oils
or retrograde condensates, tracking the detailed composition of the produced fluid or
modelling phenomena such as wax, hydrate or salt formation.

However, the use of an EOS also comes with drawbacks, the main one being that an EOS is
inherently non-predictive. The EOS model was developed to model the behaviour of gases
rather than liquids and as such generally under predicts the density of the liquid phase.
Numerous improvements have been suggested over the years which have culminated in the
familiar Soave Redlich Kwong (SRK) or Peng Robinson (PR) equation of state
formulations and the use of the volume shifts to correct for this discrepancy. However despite
these improvements, this inherent weakness remains and thus to reliably capture the

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 Technical Overview 12

behaviour of the fluid and calculate accurate liquid phase densities, a characterisation of the
EOS against lab data is required.

Here PVTp allows the user to create a representative EOS for their fluid in question that is
capable of predicting the fluid behaviour over a range of conditions in the field. The
characterisation can be quality checked at every stage to prevent overfitting and to ensure the
EOSs predictions remain physical. For further information please refer to Characterisation 13 .

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1.3 PVTP Capabilities

Characterisation 13
Decontamination 14
Recombination 14
Lumping/DeLumping 15
Compositional Gradient 15
Flow Assurance 15
Automation 16

1.3.1 Characterisation
In order for an EOS to provided an accurate description of a fluid's behaviour over the full
range of conditions encountered in the field, a characterisation against lab data is required.
PVTp, provides the engineer with the toolkit to develop a characterised EOS description for
any fluid, be it oil, gas, volatile oils, heavy oils or retrograde condensate, from a PVT report
on the sampled fluid containing the fluid's detailed composition as well as the results from a
number of lab experiments such as a CCE, DiffLib, CVD, SEP, etc. just to name a few.

Due to the exponentially increasing number of isomers with carbon number, it is not possible
to know all components of the fluid. Instead pseudo components are used to represent a
number of components; for example all isomers of C8 (of which there are 18 structural
isomers). The characterisation process sees to determine the physical properties of these
pseudo components that allow the EOS to reproduce the fluid behaviour during the lab
experiments. In PVTp the following features aid the user in performing a fluid characterisation
and quality checking at every stage:

Automatch ensures that at any stage the EOS's prediction of standard condition liquid
density is consistent with proven methodologies such as Standing-Katz.
Pseudo-Splitting to break up pseudo components into smaller fractions for higher
granularity of heavy end components.
Regression analysis to fine tune the pseudo component properties (e.g. critical properties,
volume shifts, BICs) such that the EOS reproduces the fluid behaviour during the lab
experiments.
QuickCalc provides a set of easily accessible calculators (e.g. phase envelope, separator
flash, flash to standard conditions, etc.) to quality check progress and compare the EOS
against known data.

With the EOS fine tuned, its predictive capabilities can be tested by simulating various lab
experiments and comparing the outcomes of the different experiments.

Worked Examples of the characterisation process for different fluids, such as an Oil 475 or
Retrograde Condensate 556 as well as Sample Files are provided in this guide.

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Back to Overview 2

1.3.2 Decontamination
In cases, where the original fluid sample was found to have been contaminated with drilling
mud or otherwise, PVTp offers the engineer a methodology for creating an EOS description
for the uncontaminated fluid. Initially, the contaminated fluid is characterised against the
available lab data, whilst preserving the compositional profile of the contaminated fluid.

When the characterisation procedure of the contaminated fluid has been completed, the
Decontamination facility in PVTp can be used to remove the contaminant from the fluid
composition .

A Worked Example of a Decontamination 625 Procedure on a contaminated fluid is included in

this guide.

Back to Overview 2

1.3.3 Recombination
One common issue concerning fluid samples is their consistency.
For instance, a sample was taken at the beginning of field life by recombination of gas and
liquid coming from a test separator. After as while the field is set on production and it is
discovered that the GOR used for the recombination is incorrect (due to separator carry-over
for example), in other words, the fluid composition used in the lab was incorrect.
At this point, it is necessary to determine the actual fluid composition, as well as the actual
fluid properties in order to use them in reservoir and wells models.
Petroleum Experts has developed unique methodologies that allow recombination of the fluid
in order to reproduce field-measured properties, like GOR (just like in the example above) or
saturation pressure.
These methodologies are called:

Create Stream to a Target GOR 170

This technique allows recombination of an incorrect fluid composition to match the
actual field-measured GOR.
In the case of the example above, the fluid PVT analysis was conducted on the
incorrect composition. Starting from an EOS matched to the incorrect sample analysis,
it is then possible to recombine the sample to the actual field GOR in PVTp.
The Target GOR calculation is run in PVTp whenever the fluid composition changes,
for example, in PROSPER when running sensitivity on the GOR in compositional mode
Create Stream to a Target Saturation Pressure 173
This feature allows recombination of an incorrect fluid composition to match the actual
fluid saturation pressure

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Allocation of two streams to a target GOR 182

Given two fluids, for example, a liquid and a gas, this feature creates a combination in
proportions such that the fluid reproduces a certain GOR
Blend Two Stream 178
Given two fluids, for example, a liquid and a gas, this feature creates a new
composition based on defined proportion of each

Back to Overview 2

1.3.4 Lumping/ Delumping

The different components of an integrated production model have very different requirements
of the PVT description. For example, for a reservoir simulator, smaller number of components
are typically preferred as smaller compositions can dramatically reduce the computational
time required to perform the required calculations. For a process model on the other hand
larger compositions are required for the thermal processes and energy calculations. The
detailed description also ensures that the plant is able to meet its contractual obligations on
the quality of the produced fluids from the field. For further information, please refer to
Integrated Modelling 6 .

In these cases, rather than compromising and using a composition that meets the
requirements of the two model halfway, PVTp can be used to develop a lumping/delumping
rule. The Lumping/Delumping rule enables the engineer to perform the reservoir simulation
with an equivalent lumped composition, which when passed to the process model is then
delumped to an equivalent expanded composition.

1.3.5 Compositional Gradient

In PVTp, the engineer can use the Compositional Gradient calculation to calculate the
variation in fluid composition at different depths within the reservoir using a previously
characterised EOS. Using this methodology it is also possible to estimate the location of the
Gas Oil contact within the reservoir, which can be compared against other measurements.

1.3.6 Flow Assurance

PVTp, can also be used to investigate potential flow assurance issues related to the fluid
behaviour such as the formation of solids, i.e. Wax, Hydrate and Salt, within the system.

Wax:
PVTp can be used to not only determine the wax appearance temperature for a range of
pressure but also to determine the amount of wax that is likely to drop-out of the fluid at a
given set of pressures and temperatures, which can in turn be used to estimate the amount of
wax accumulated within the production system.

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Hydrates:
In PVTp, the hydrate formation pressure as a function of the in-situ temperature can be
calculated taking into account the composition of the water, i.e. the presence of inhibitors such
as methanol or dissolved salts. This pressure temperature curve can then be used in for
example PROPSER to generate PVT warnings as part of gradient calculations to speed up
the overall calculations.

Should Hydrate formation be an issue, the minimum inhibitor composition required to prevent
hydrate formation up to specified pressure at a given temperature can be determined, which
allows the engineer to gauge how much inhibitor at the current production rate is required to
eliminate hydrate formation in the system.

Salt:
In PVTp, the formation of salt can be investigated over a range of pressures and
temperatures. Similarly to wax formation, the amount of wax produced can also be estimated
at a given set of conditions, which allows the engineer to estimate the amount of salt
accumulated within the system as scale. The pressure temperature relationship for salt
formation, can also be used in PROSPER to generate salt and scale formation warnings as
part of gradient calculations.

Back to Overview 2

1.3.7 Automation
As part of IPM, PVTp is featured with a fully open-architecture that enables the user to
access the majority of variables and calculations through the OpenServer facility.
OpenServer can execute any calculation or combination of calculations using Excel macros or
other programs with VBA capabilities.

Back to Overview 2

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1.4 Whats New in PVTp

What is New in PVTP 14.5
Ability to import 3rd Party EOS formats
This allows formats other than the IPM *.prp files to be imported into the PVT Fluid Object.

What is New in PVTP 14.0

Completely New Interface
The new interface is object based interface makes PVT characterisations more transparent
and intuitive

Characterisation Auditing
PVTp now allows the process of the characterisation to be completed documented so that it
is easier for other users to understand and audit

Automatic Lab Data Importer

New data object allows lab data to be imported in a more automated fashion

New Characterisation Wizard

Guides new users through the characterisation process and shows existing users the new
workflow

User DDL Extensions

Users can import their own characterisation or calculation objects via DLLs

Multi-Stream Regression Enhancements

Ability to match multiple samples via the same regression has been improved

Pedersen Pseudo Property Correlation

Pedersen correction added for Tc, Ps and AF from MW and SG

Particle Swarm Regression

Regressions can now be performed using a particle swarm algorithm

What is New in PVTP 13.0

Path to Surface Data Object
The RESOLVE Path to Surface Object can now be used in PVTp to define the path to
surface used to derive standard condition properties

What is New in PVTP 11.0

Improvements to Hydrafact hydrate model

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PVTp code has been improved to provide a greater stability for hydrate calculations. The
number of hydrate forming species has been increased. Improved modeling of CO2 hydrates.

New enthalpy model

New enthalpy model was implemented to allow more accurate thermal fluid properties
calculation. The total enthalpy for each component is calculated as a sum of ideal and real
enthalpy.

Specific heat matching

In previous version specific heat capacity was calculated from a simple correlation. As a result
of that specific heat capacity values were overestimated, in particular for heavy oils. In the
new version Lee and Kesler model along with possibility of specific heat matching were
implemented to improve calculation of thermal properties.

Salt calculations have been added to flash calculations

It is now possible to run flash calculations with possibility of salt deposition and maximum
solubility.

OLGA - Leda Flow export format is available

It is now possible to export Black Oil tables to be used in Leda Flow software.

What is New in PVTP 10.0

Regression with Shift and Multiplier on Volume Shift as well as Tc, Pc and AF
The regression model consists of additional shift and multiplier options on the various critical
parameters that define the fluid properties. Separate multipliers are allowed on different
properties, the regression is then capable of being constrained to give more consistent trends
for the underlying properties.

Additional viscosity models

Additional viscosity modelling options have been allow the user to now model the viscosity of
the different phases through the traditional LBC & Zhou methods or via the black oil
correlations that typically give more consistent results. This addition has also made it possible
to define different correlations for the gas and oil phase.

Water composition
It is now possible to define a water composition for each stream, this composition can consist
of salts and hydrate inhibitors. The composition of the water can then be used to perform the
advanced hydrate calculations that have also been updated or the salt calculations that can be
used to determine the potential for salt dropout.

Salt calculations have been added

It is now possible to use a water composition to perform 3-phase flash calculations that can
determine the content of salt that is dropped out from the water phase when the saturation
criteria is reached.

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Temperature dependant volume shift

The option to use a temperature dependant volume shift has been added to allow the change
in the volume shift parameter to be tracked through different temperatures. This parameter
has been implemented to overcome the inherent weakness in volume shift use that can lead to
poor density matches if improperly used.
NOTE: The temperature dependant volume shift option has only been implemented in
PVTp and cannot be used externally, even in the other IPM tools, it should be used as
a matching tool only.

Carbon dioxide modelling

In The capability of PVTp to handle the properties of CO2 has been improved with the use of
a polynomial that corrects the CO2 volume shift parameter, the results of this show that CO2
properties are consistent with the NIST standard data up to 20 000 psi

Water modelling
IA number of different techniques for modelling water and the associated impurities have been
added, including the Hydrafact polynomial, Hydrafact CPA and the Huron-Vidal model.

What is New in PVTP 9.5

Regression with Shift and Multiplier for Tc, Pc, AF

This regression mode consists of applying a unique multiplier and/or a shift parameters to
each of the properties (Tc, Pc, AF). This mode will keep the original trends of the various
properties (Tc and AF increasing and Pc decreasing with carbon number).
As components' thermal properties are directly calculated from Tc and Pc using the principle
of corresponding states, keeping the trend of these properties will also hold the trend of the
thermal properties themselves. This is a benefit when the EoS is used in a process simulation
tool, where single components/cuts thermal properties are at the basis of any calculation.

Weighting for properties in Find Best Alpha within the Whitson Advanced Pseudo
Splitting method
In Find Best Alpha calculation area it is possible to set weighting to the various lab
experimental data to establish relative importance of each property

BI coefficient options in Find Best Alpha within the Whitson Advanced Pseudo
Splitting method
For the purpose of saturation pressure matching, BI coefficients are added at the end of the
Find Best Alpha calculation. This new option allows to select the method of application of the
BI coefficients: one BIC between C1 and the last pseudo, or one BIC between C1 and all the
pseudos, or recalculate the BIC using any of the BIC methods in PVTp

Validation range for the S shift values

The validation range for the S shift parameter can be modified

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What is New in PVTP 9.0

Compositional Lumping/Delumping
This unique feature allows creating pairs of Equations of State, one composed of a small
number of components (lumped), the other composed by a large number of components (full
or delumped). All the facilities are available to build sets of lumped/delumped, as well as to
QC them . Lump Rules can be defined and exported along with the compositions to IPM
software GAP, PROSPER, MBAL, RESOLVE and REVEAL.

Volume shift can be set separately in different streams of the same PVTp file
In previous versions a unique volume shift switch (Yes/No) was applied to all the streams in
one PVTp file. Now each stream can have its own set up, that is to say, can be volume
shifted or not, in the same PVTp file.

Export of PVT data to CMG simulators

Both black oil tables and EOS data can be exported to CMG simulators (IMEX, GEM)

Export of PVT data to Kappa software

Black oil tables can be exported to Kappa suite (Ecrin)

Decontamination done entering the contaminating mud composition

Along with the methodology already available in PVTp, It is now possible to perform
decontamination by entering the composition of the drilling mud. The program will then
eliminate from the contaminated fluid sample the presence of the contaminating mud

What is New in PVTP 8.0

Increased Number of Components

The number of components throughout the program has been raised to 200. This applies to all
types of components. This feature is particularly useful in combination with the component
import feature ( see Composition Editor below).

More Tabular Inputs and Spreadsheet Input Dialog

- Spreadsheet Input - Input Components as Table. A composition can be taken from
digital report and pasted directly into PVTp. Component types can be adjusted as required.
IPM composition input dialogs are available as an alternative. Components, pseudos and
groups can be extended up to the 200 limit.
- Table Entry. Vertical table entry has been added where practical to allow cut and paste
operations.
- Composition Editor. A new Composition Editor dialog has been created which is called
from the Pseudo Properties dialog or the main screen data menu.

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This provides the flexible manipulation of a matched composition.

Operations available are:
Editing of names and properties
Set component value
Delete component(s)
Move component(s)
Insert component(s)
Import component(s)
Lump components
Split pseudo
The import feature allows the user to build a composition which represents all the
pseudos from all the components in a fluid gathering network. This may be an advantage with
some surface simulator packages.

Improved pseudo manipulation and splitting

For the matching of straightforward fluids, the procedure has been left effectively the same
Options have been added to allow the user more freedom to exploit the 200 components that
have become available.
Splitting in particular has been modified to give more flexibility in producing a match which
might serve the demands of reservoir and surface engineering.
Whitson's Method and best Alpha calculator.
Whitson's Gamma distribution model has been added to the pseudo splitting options.
This gives the user a range of distribution curves which may be modified to help match the
fluid. An analysis dialog is provided which helps the user find the best combination of shape
factor alpha and number of splits. The other shape factors beta and eta can also be entered
by the user.

Splitting Preferences
This feature allows the user to control which of the five extended property databases are used
as part of the splitting procedure. In addition, the user can create and import | export a set of
properties. More control is also given on the SG and MWt normalization that occurs after a
splitting operation has been done.

Follow Profile
This option is now available for all split methods, giving more freedom in dealing withy
contaminated fluids.

Step by Step Guide (Route 2)

A route is now documented in the help and manual which allows the user to perform a match
without using pure component properties for regression. The methodology uses Whitson
Splitting and Volume Shift.

Costald Oil Density

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 Technical Overview 22

The Costald density model has been added as an option within PVTp. When selected this
calculation will replace Standing Katz as the oil density model within automatching and is
displayed within the majority of calculation tables. With this model has come the requirement
to add two parameters to the equation of state composition VIZ Costald Volume and Costald
Acentric Factor. These properties can be displayed and edited within the View Properties,
Composition Editor and Pseudo Properties dialogs.

Improved handling of CO2/H2S

The increased use of these gases has put strain on there modelling with Equation of State.
The phase behaviour calculations within PVTp and IPM have been improved. Further work is
planned in this area for the next version.

Steam Calculations
A facility has been added within PVTp to calculate the properties of steam. The calculator
makes visible the routines that are used for steam within IPM 6. A comprehensive table can
be generated which can be exported and interpolated.

Extensive changes to Eclipse Black Oil export

The Eclipse black oil export has been given more features allowing an extensive fluid map to
be produced.

Improved Target GOR in PVTp and IPM

Target GOR within PVTp and IPM has been modified to give the user a choice in the source
of the fluids that are mixed.
The choice is
Use fluids from separator or
Use fluids evolved near the saturation pressure

Black Oil Properties Button

A Black Oil Properties calculation facility has been added to the View Properties and
Component Editor dialogs of PVTp. This option has the same functionality as the extended
Properties calculation within Compositional IPM. The values calculated reflect the inputs to the
Black Oil Models within IPM

Changes to Pure Component Selection during regression

A facility has been added to the Preferences of PVTp to deselect the pure component
properties from lab data regression. The Tcs,Pcs and Accentric Factors can be treated
differently from the Volume Shift 393 Parameters. There is a facility to set the choice as a
default so that all new files have the same options set.

Exports|Imports
Export added to Chevron Chears compositional simulator
Import to be added for PVTi compositional export files

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What was New In PVTP 7.0

Phase Envelope

Solids calculation and display

The calculation of hydrate formation pressure and wax appearance temperature has been
added to the Phase Envelope Dialog. The results of these calculations can be viewed by
calling the Phase Results Dialog. In addition the calculated values are displayed on the phase
envelope plot.

Profile Points
A facility has been added to display a pressure | temperature profile on the phase envelope
plot. 100 temperature and pressure points can be entered or imported into the Test Points
Dialog.

Data to Clipboard
All results from phase envelope or solids calculations and profile points can be sent directly to
the clipboard via the Clipboard button on the Phase Envelope Dialog.

Separator /Chiller Combination

The gas evolved from a separator train can now be sent through a set of up to 10 chillers.
This applies to both the separator calculation and to other calculations where such a path to
surface is required e.g. the Constant Composition Expansion. The inclusion of chillers allows
the composition and recoveries of LPG and LNG to be calculated. In addition Split Factors
can be produced.

Separator K Values
Calculate with K values
Where applicable a separator area is provided on all dialogs to allow the path to
surface to be defined e.g. the Constant Composition Dialog. In addition to a straight flash to
stock tank and flash through a separator train, the user can now replace the separators with
Separator K Values.
Produce and Export K Values
The K values produced as part of the Separator Calculation can be exported from the
Separator Analysis display.
K Values within IPM Compositional
K values can be transferred to all other IPM programs using the K value export file
*.pks format or as part of the IPM EoS *.prp export. They can then be imported into the
various EoS options screens

Separator Split Factors

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Calculate with Split Factors

Split factors are an alternative method of replacing a separator train eg. the path to
surface in the Constant Composition Dialog.
The advantage of split factors is that they can also describe a set of chillers and
predict recoveries for oil, gas and LNG.
Produce and Export Split Factors
The Split Factors are calculated via the Split Factor Setup Dialog. They are imported
and exported via the Split Factor View/Export Dialog.

Centralized Options
All options have been moved to a central set of dialogs with access from various points within
the program.

Enhancements to Target GOR

The Streams|Target GOR Dialog has added features to allow more user flexibility. Streams
can be tested prior to storage. Any unwanted streams can be deleted.

Multiple Stream Delete

The stream delete dialog now allows multiple stream selections to allow groups of streams to
be deleted.

Black Oil Export

The table size for the black oil export has been increased to 100.

Lab Data Tables

The table size for the EoS lab match data has been increased to 100.

Gas Heating Values

The gas gross and net heating values are now calculated as columns within the CCE and CVD
calculation tables. The value given is derived from the composition of the accumulated gas
after sending the fluid through the indicated separator train. The separator analysis page has
previously given these values.

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1.5 Examples Index

The following table can be used as reference for the example included in this Guide.

Note that this is only one of the possible routes followed, as in PVTp several other paths
can be followed by more experienced users.

Application area Topic Examples Guide section

Opening Legacy Files Understanding the how the new Data
Object Approach as of IPM12 Example 0 - Importing
impacts on legacy files (i.e. files Legacy Files 461
created pre-IPM12)
Development of PVT Building an EOS model for an oil fluid
model for a fluid sample sample, quality checking the lab data,
defining pseudo component Example 1 - Oil
properties, pseudo splitting, Characterisation 475
regression, validation against lab
data
Development of PVT Building an EOS model for a
model for a fluid sample retrograde condensate fluid
sample, quality checking the lab data, Example 2 - Retrograde
defining pseudo component Condensate 556
properties, pseudo splitting,
regression, validation against lab
data
Development of PVT Building an EOS model for a
model for a contaminated contaminated oil fluid sample,
fluid sample quality checking the lab data, defining Example 3 -
pseudo component properties,
Decontamination 625
pseudo splitting, regression,
validation against lab data,
decontamination procedure
Real life validation of PVT Additional validation tests for example Example 4 - Additional
model using well test data EOS Validation 643
Recombination of Building an EOS model for an
characterised EOS incorrectly recombined fluid sample:
characterisation procedure, Example 5 -
recombination of characterised EOS Recombination 650
using Target PSAT and Target GOR
procedure
Development of PVT Creating an equivalent lumped Example 6- Lumping/
model for integrated composition
Delumping 672
production models

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Flow Assurance: Using a characterised EOS to

Investigating Risk of Wax calculate wax appearance Example 7.1 - Wax 698
appearance temperature curve, estimate amount
of wax produced
Flow Assurance: Using a characterised EOS to
Investigating Risk of calculate hydrate formation pressure
Hydrate Formation curve, investigate effect of water
composition (salinity, inhibitor), Example 7.2 - Hydrates 705
determine minimum inhibitor
composition required to prevent
hydrate formation below a target
pressure.
Flow Assurance: Using a characterised EOS to
Investigating Risk of Salt calculate salt map and thus salt Example 7.3 - Salt 722
Formation formation P T curve, estimate amount
of wax produced

Back to Overview 2

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1.6 Help and Technical Support

While using the IPM suite, there is a number of different ways in which the User can get help
and support.

First and foremost, every User of the software has access to the Online Help and User Guide
Manuals which are included with the installation of the software.

For those client's who have a maintenance contract with Petroleum Experts, access to our
Web User Area and Technical Support team is also available.

More information on how to access all these different elements of help and support are
provided below.

1.6.1 Online Help

The online Help of each of the IPM programs can be found via the Help | Contents menu on
the top tool bar. In PVTp, this is slightly different as the Help is found via the Home tab in the
Main Menu Ribbon:

To use this facility, the help file must be located in the same directory as the program. Please
note that due to security settings in Windows, if the help file is located on a shared drive, then
the help may have issues loading.

Additional ways of reaching the Help can also be seen below:

Help through the Almost every screen contains a Help button which, if selected, will take
interface the user directly to the appropriate help section for the given screen.
Help through the From the Home tab in the Main Menu Ribbon, choose Help Index and
menu select the desired subject from the list of help topics provided
Minimising Help If the Help window is to be hidden from view, but not exiting the help
facility, click the minimise button in the upper-right corner of the help
window. If use of the keyboard is preferred, press ALT + Spacebar +
N

The help facility uses function buttons and jump terms to move around the 'Help' system. The
function buttons are found at the top of the window and are useful in finding general
information about Windows help. If a feature is not available, the button associated with that
function is dimmed.
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'Jump' terms are words marked with a solid underline that appear in green if a colour VDU is
in use. Clicking on a jump term, takes the user directly to the topic associated with the
underlined word(s).

Finding information in 'Help'

There are several ways of getting the required information:

Using the Help This option is useful for viewing specific sections listed in the help menu.
Index Go to the topic of interest and select the necessary subject item
Using the Help This facility is useful for finding specific information about particular
Search feature topics.
For example, 'Production Constraints'. Type in the keyword 'constraints'
to search the system for the phrase, or select the corresponding topic
from the list displayed

1.6.2 User Guide Manuals

IPM is also installed with a User Guide Manual for each of the tools. This includes not only
information on each of the functionalities within the program but also a large array of step-by-
step Worked Examples to help Users understand how to use the vast range of value which the
tools can bring.

The User Guide Manuals are installed in the IPM installation directory (normally ...\Program
Files\Petroleum Experts\IPM XX.X\pdf\) or can be accessed via the Windows START menu:

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In addition to information on the different models, screens and inputs which are required for
each tool, the User Manuals contain numerous step-by-step worked examples for each of the
tools. Completed models for each of these examples (and initial files where required) can be
found in the same IPM installation folder structure as the User Guides (normally ...\Program
Files\Petroleum Experts\IPM XX.X\Samples\). Please note that due to the size of these files,
they are not installed as part of the main installation of the software and are installed via a
separate installer. If the sample files are not present on a machine, please contact the IT
department or the user who downloaded the IPM installation files to obtain access to the
worked example installer.

1.6.3 Support For Maintained Clients

In addition to the User Manuals and help files, users who have maintenance contracts with
Petroleum Experts have access to additional sources of information.

First and foremost, this includes access to our dedicated Technical Support teams based out
of Edinburgh, Scotland and Houston, USA. The role of the Technical Support team is to
ensure that the tools work as documented and also, where appropriate, demonstrate how

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options and setting within the software can be used to achieve certain engineering objectives.

To ensure fairness to all of our clients, support queries are answered on a first come, first
served basis with the target of 50% of queries being answered within 24 hours and 95% of
emails being answered within 48 hours. In order to facilitate this, the primary route to obtain
Technical Support is via email. While it is possible to phone the Technical Support team, in
cases where models are required in order to understand the query, an email with the model
will be required. Where models are too large to send via email, the Technical Support team
can send out a link which can be used to upload the model. Where required, phone calls or
video meetings can be set up to discuss queries after the initial query has been received.

The contact details of the support teams are provided below:

Edinburgh, Scotland: Houston, USA:

email: [email protected] email: [email protected]
tele: +44 (0) 131 474 7030 tele: +1 281 531 1121

As well as access to Technical Support, maintained clients can also profit from a number of
other benefits.

1.6.3.1 Software Upgrades

Petroleum Experts are constantly improving the software and also researching new ways of
obtaining value from the software. These improvements and advancements are provided to
maintained clients via new builds and versions of the software.

Petroleum Experts aims to release a new version of IPM every 12-18 months and these new
versions are denoted with a change in the version number i.e. IPM 11 to IPM 12. Within each
version of the software, a number of different builds will be released to fix known issues and
add certain advancements.

It is important to note that all builds and versions of IPM are backwards compatible which
means that models build in older versions/builds of the tools will always be able to open and
run in newer versions. For example, a model build in IPM 9 can be opened in IPM 10. Models
build or saved in newer versions, however, cannot be opened in older versions of the
software. For example, a model saved in IPM 12 cannot then be opened in IPM 11 or earlier.
Different builds of the same IPM version are both backwards and forwards compatible which
means that a model saved in IPM 12 build 100 could be opened in previous builds (build 90
etc) and also future builds (build 101 etc).

To find out the version of the tools which is currently being used, the user can browse to Help
in any of the programs. The version and build is then shown on the screen, an example of
which is shown below:

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For PVTp, this can be accessed from the Home tab of the Main Menu Ribbon by selecting
About PVTp.

To find out the current commercial version of the software, please either contact the Technical
Support team or log onto the Web User Area.

1.6.3.2 Annual User Group Meeting

Every year, Petroleum Experts hosts a meeting of our Users in Edinburgh, Scotland. This
User Group Meeting is an opportunity for Petroleum Experts to present the new functionality
and also for clients to present their work to each other to gain a better understanding of how
others are creating value. The User Group Meetings are also used as an opportunity to
receive development requests from clients and discuss each one with all attendees. Based
upon the feedback of the user community, each request will be given a priority and then added
to the development plan of the next version of the software as appropriate.

Invitations to the meeting are sent out to our main contacts in all maintained clients and then
each company decide to send a representative or team to attend the meeting.

As the number of clients who can attend the meetings from each client are limited, all
presentations which are given by Petroleum Experts (and all client who provide permission)
are uploaded to our Web User Area so that all clients can understand what new developments
are coming and also the presented case studies. A database of the presentations from all of
the User Group Meetings through time is also available and is a fantastic source of information
on the advancements and developments which have been made to the software over time.

1.6.3.3 Web User Area

Maintained clients also have access to the Petroleum Experts Web User Area which can be
accessed through the Help | Web User Area menu of any product:

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In PVTp, this can be accessed via the Home tab in the Main Menu Ribbon.

In addition to access to the Web User Area, clients can also directly contact the Technical
Support team via Technical Support menu in this same menu. This part of the Web User
Area not only allows support queries to be registered with the support team, but also stores
all previous queries which each user has sent so that they can be easily accessed and
referenced in the future.

When the Web User Area is accessed, different information can be seen:

- The current commercial version and build number

- A list of the issues fixed in the recently released builds
- Presentations from the User Group Meeting
- A database of Frequently Asked Questions about the software

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User Guide
 User Guide 34

2 User Guide
For any users of PVTp prior to IPM12, it is immediately obvious that the user interface is
vastly different. Thus the purpose of this User Guide is to describe and demonstrate how to
navigate around this new interface and outline what all the available option are.

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2.1 What is in this Guide

This PVTp User guide will include a description of all the different options available in PVTp.

As of IPM 12, the interface in PVTp has changed dramatically. One of the main objective of
this was to improve the usability of the software, and to make the process more transparent
and guided. There have been a number of new tools added to do this and these will be
covered extensively, in particular a Characterisation Wizard 76 which is specifically intended to
help new and existing users of PVTp understand the new workflow. The other objectives of
the redesign are to:

Store and import the Lab Report seamlessly allowing us to create a repository for all
necessary data.
Allow easy quality checking of the Lab Report data within PVTp.
Allow effective quality checking of the EOS at every step of the characterisation.
Make the process more transparent and more guided.
Convey the steps and thinking process used.
Offer repeatability and auditability - therefore the model must contain all data required
to repeat the process.
Provide extensibility to user DLLs for additional calculations.

Due to the significant differences in appearance, and therefore workflow, this User Guide is
divided into separate sections, each touching on a different aspect of utilising PVTp, with the
express purpose of helping users navigate through the tool and understanding the new "Data
Object" based approach that has been adopted.

This Guide has therefore be separated into the following sections:

The first section, Using 36 PVTp 36 , will introduce the idea of using "Data Objects", familiarise
users with the layout of the tools, how to make connections between data objects, how to
navigate through the menus and shortcuts.

The second section, General Workflow 91 , will discuss the basic approach used to construct
PVTp models, the Characterisation Wizard and all of the Characterisation and Calculation
objects available. This section will also cover how users can add their own objects.

The third section covers the engineering theory and models 385 embedded in PVTp and the
detail of its calculations.

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2.2 Using PVTp

This section's primary focus is to help build the user's familiarity with the user interface and
how they can use the tool with confidence and efficiency.

This section will:

1. Introduce what "Data Objects" are and what advantages this approach can bring to
PVTp,
2. Familiarise users with the layout of the tools
3. Show how to make and break connections between data objects so that data is
passed in the desired ways (both the Characterisation and Calculation objects)
4. Show how to navigate through the menus
5. Highlight useful keyboard shortcuts.

2.2.1 Data Object Approach

Any user with familiarity with RESOLVE will be familiar with the idea of data objects, however
for those that are new to the idea, this section will briefly explain how it works and what
benefits it can bring - particularly when applied to fluid characterisation problems.

A "data object" is essentially an element that we can set down on a virtual canvas that
encapsulates a single major idea or function. There may be many minor functions performed
within the same object, but these are all related to the major function, i.e. the overall step of
the process that the object is trying to represent.

There are two classes of data object in PVTp, Characterisation and Calculation objects.
These can be used in all different kinds of combinations depending on the modelling objective.

To illustrate the idea of data objects in more detail, the simple example below with
Characterisation objects can be used:

This represents the typical path taken when characterising a fluid, i.e.

1. Defining the sample, composition etc. (PVT Sample)

2. Defining any pseudo components (Pseudo Properties)

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3. Creating an initial EOS of the fluid (Before Regression)

4. Performing a regression to match to lab data (Regression)
5. Creating a final characterised EOS (After Regression)

These objects have been connected up sequentially showing the linear progression through
the above process. Each object encapsulates a logical step in the process and is
recorded in the series of objects. This immediately brings two distinct advantages:

1. The thought process during the characterisation is clear for others to see
2. The characterisation can be repeated by recalculating objects

Prior to IPM12, the characterisation process has been typically regarded as a non-unique
solution where the resulting EOS is highly dependent on the path taken and choices made
during the characterisation. These choices and pathways have historically been hidden from
view, as the EOS was being continually overwritten, making it almost impossible to reproduce
an existing EOS perfectly without having a detailed step-by-step guide.

With the data object approach this is now no longer the case. Each object now stores a
record of the EOS, ensuring that the starting point for any subsequent step is always the
same. This means that the process of characterising a fluid can now be repeated and
audited.

Of course, as there are always multiple ways that any fluid can be characterised, there may
have been many different methods and paths tried during the process. These can now also
be recorded so the future engineers can see what has been tested and how these results
compare. Below is an example of 3 different pathways to characterise the same fluid. As
can be seen, as the data object approach provides flexibility, it allows us to build any pathway
we chose.

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Of course with multiple pathways like that shown above, it is important to be able to identify
which stream contains the official EOS. In the above example, this has been done by that
symbol shown on "After Regression 3". (For more information on this see the section on Mark
as Official 65 .)

2.2.2 Launch Screen Layout

When PVTp is opened, the following screen will be shown.

To get started, either a new or existing file can be opened by selecting one of the options
highlighted in the red box below, or a recently opened file can be selected from the list show
in the blue box to reopen that file.

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2.2.3 Main Screen Layout

The main PVTp interface is divided up into different sections, as highlighted in the screenshot
below:

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The sections are listed below and will be discussed in following sections:

1. The Main Menu Ribbon - red

2. The Navigation Tree - orange
3. The Characterisation Wizard - green
4. The Characterisation Window - blue
5. The Calculation Window - purple
6. The Workbench - pink

2.2.3.1 Main Menu Ribbon

The Main Menu Ribbon is split into five tabs, as can be seen below:

Taking them in order, there is:

1. File

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2. Home
3. Panel Actions
4. Characterisation
5. Calculation

2.2.3.1.1 File Menu Tab

As with many other applications the File tab allows users to:

Create new files

Open existing files
"Save" and "Save File As"
Close the file (but leave PVTp open)
View and open recent files
Exit PVTp

2.2.3.1.2 Home Menu Tab

The Home tab allows users to set up the file options and global settings, such as units, as well
as a number of other things. All of these can be split into two categories: "Options" and
"Help" This section will cover each button in this menu tab.

2.2.3.1.2.1 Calculation Options

The Calculation Options (or preferences) are set up in this window and accessed via the
Home 41 tab in the Main Menu Ribbon.

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EOS Model This can either be based the Peng Robinson or Soave
Redlich Kwong equations of state.

Oil Density Method This allows the oil density correlation used during the
Automatch calculation to be set. This can either be the
Standing Katz or Costald correlations.

Phase Detection A flag is available to switch on and off the advanced phase
detection on a
file by file basis.

Running with this checked "on" is more secure with problem

fluids but there is a considerable penalty in speed.

The Phase Determination numbers below refer to the

advanced method.

Use Advanced Phase There are two phase determination functions which are used
Detection (default value ON) throughout the Equation of State Calculations: advanced
detection function and a simpler function based on
determining the Critical Point of the mixture. This check box
allows the user to try either method.

Oils tend to have well defined Critical Points giving a faster

calculation speed with this feature used to check phase.

Override All Phase Detection This function removes all attempts to override the phase

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(default detected by the

value OFF) main method. This should only be used for extremely difficult
fluids where the normal phase detection procedures do not
work effectively.

If it is selected two radio buttons will appear which allow the

user to set the phase. Forcing the phase can lead to
contradictions in some functions e.g. phase envelope
generation and compositional gradient calculation.

Max Iterations (default value 500)

There is a phase determination function which is used
throughout the Equation of State Calculations. The function
starts at a high pressure and goes down in steps until a two
phase area is detected.

This value limits the number of steps allowed before the

function is stopped, assuming that a single phase is
detected at all pressures tested.

Increasing the value will slow down the PVT calculations

Vapour Fraction Test Value This is the cut off ratio between gas and liquid at which the
phase is determined to be either gas or liquid.

I.e. if the ratio detected is greater than this value, then the
phase is said to be gas and vice versa.

Minimum Pressure Step (default value 0.5)

There is a phase determination function which is used
throughout the Equation of State Calculations. The function
starts at a high pressure and goes down in steps until a two
phase area is detected.

This value limits the smallest allowed step before the

function is stopped.

Decreasing the value will slow down the PVT calculations.

Increasing the value may cause phase changes to be
missed.

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Number of Iterations - Flash (default value 60)

Calculations The BUT Library is at the core of all the Equation of State
Calculations.

This value controls the action of many programs within the

Library, limiting the number of times a solution is sought in
any particular subroutine.

Adjusting this value will have an indeterminate affect on the

systems accuracy and performance.

Degree of Precision - Flash (default value 3)

Calculations The BUT Library is at the core of all the Equation of State
Calculations.

This value limits the accuracy sought in any particular

subroutine.

If a more precise solution is required the value can be

increased. That said, adjusting this value will have an
indeterminate affect on the systems accuracy and
performance.

2.2.3.1.2.2 Units
Selecting the Units button in the Home 41 tab in the Main Menu Ribbon allows us to set the
units used in the program as well as options for validation ranges and customised settings.

The unit system is flexible, allowing any variable to have a specified unit of measurement or
for all variables to conform to a standard unit set (e.g. Oil Field, Norweigian S.I. etc.). This
makes it possible to modify the units system so that it corresponds to data reports supplied
by a service company or customise the units system to suit personal preferences.

PVTp always works internally in Oil Field units. To facilitate data entry and output display in
any units system, PVTp accepts data in the specified Input units and converts it to Oil Field
units for calculation. The results (in Oil Field units) are converted back to the specified Output
unit set if necessary. By making selections from the different categories, one can work in the
preferred units and save the results in the units required by company policy.

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Unit OptionsThe Units menu is divided into two main sections:

1. Variables - Select any item from the list of variables displayed. To

select an item, move the scroll box up or down, until the required
variable appears on the screen

2. Validation - Used to set up the error checking limits for each selected
input variable

Unit The following default Units Systems are provided:

Systems
Oilfield Units
Norwegian S.I.
Canadian S.I.
German S.I.
French S.I.
Latin S.I.

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Customized unit systems can be created and saved under new names. Different
units can be selected for both input and output

Changing The Input and Output units for each variable on the list can be changed.
the Units To change or customise the default Units System:

Scroll through the measurement variables list until the unit item to modify
is visible on the screen.
Select the unit category (Input and/or Output) to modify.
Select the unit field corresponding to the measurement item and click on
the arrow to its right to display the list of unit options.
Select the preferred measurement unit

Validation To reduce the possibility of entering incorrect data, PVTp checks that input
Limits data falls within predetermined validation limits. For most purposes, the default
validation limits are adequate. For particular applications, the user can change
the validation limits if required by entering new values directly from the units
definition screen.

Find the required variable by scrolling through the list, and then enter required
changes in the low and high validation limit boxes. Enter the custom validation
limits in the units currently in use. To permanently attach the new validation
limits to a custom units system, click Save before leaving the validation screen
by clicking OK.

To save changes, click Save. The user will be prompted to enter a name for
the new Unit System. This new system can now be recalled and applied to any
file. The ability to have separate input and output unit systems allows the user
to work with familiar units and to create reports in any required unit system.
PVT calculates internally in Oilfield Units.

If some particular units have been modified during the course of a PVT session,
the changes will be written into the .PVI file when the input data are saved.
Irrespective of the current unit system settings, recalling a previously saved
.PVI file will cause PVT to revert to the units saved in the recalled .PVI file. To
permanently impose a new set of units on the recalled file, open a custom units
file (or use one of the internal unit sets) and then save the .PVI file. The new
unit settings will be used whenever the .PVI file is loaded

The changes made to the units system are file specific, each holding its own unit set, though it
is possible to create custom unit systems from this dialogue. Once the unit set is defined, the
Save button allows this to be saved, and therefore recalled later, for both the input and output
units.

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2.2.3.1.2.3 Evaluate OS Statement

This screen can be used to test the OpenServer commands and variables. In the Evaluate
OpenServer screen a field is available to input the OS string, which can correspond to a
parameter or a command.

Type or Paste the OS string in the OpenServer String field, then select one of the basic
modes (DoGet, DoSet, DoCommand), if required enter the Value and click Evaluate to
perform the function.

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All OS commands available in PVTp are displayed in the list on the left hand side of the
screen. Individual OS commands can be selected and then copied to the command line to be
executed by pressing the Copy command button at the bottom of the screen.

OS strings for parameters in the tools can be found by pressing Ctrl and right clicking on the
value in question.

2.2.3.1.2.4 Component Databases

This section describes the setup and use of user component databases.

A default database of components is supplied with PVTp. This database properties were
initially obtained from GULF Oil and ELF databases on hydrocarbon fluids and have been
updated through the years to corresponding data such as the Petroleum Engineers handbook
amongst others. If additional components are required, these can be added to supplement
the default database by creating a User Database.

The user databases can therefore be made up of entirely new components or existing
components with some properties adjusted. The user database points are held within an
ASCII file with a UDB extension. The directory where these files are stored is saved within
the PROSPER.ini file.

The steps below outline how a user component database can be added:

1. Select Component Database from the main menu ribbon.

2. Browse to the location where the database will be saved.

3. Select Add Database and give the database a name.

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4. Enter the database values. This can be done manually, or by using the selected
correlations in the dropdown menus to "Fill in Values". Note that the molecular weight
is required to fill in the table using the correlations.

Once a database has been set up, the components listed can be used within the PVT Sample
104 object, as shown below:

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The "Set User Database Directory" button in this screen will also allow user components to be
added and modified.

2.2.3.1.2.5 Lumping Rules

Selecting Lumping Rules from the Home 41 tab in the Main Menu Ribbon will launch Lumping
Rules interface which allows the user to manage the rules in a file.

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Add - Lumping This option adds a new empty Lumping Rule, which can be modified by the
Rule user as necessary.
Remove - This option removes a Lumping Rule.
Lumping Rule
Lumping Rule The list of the Lumping Rules describes the various rules present in the
Information PVTp file.

Tag Name used in the program to identify a Lumping Rule.

Number of Lumps Number of components used in the Lumped
composition.

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Last Edited Each rule is also identified by a date.

Description This is an editable label that the user can enter to give
more information about the Lumping Rule. When
creating a Lumping Rule using the Manual Lumping, the
program will enter a default label ("Created from
lumping of ...") that can be modified at will.

PSAT This allows to enter the BIC Multiplier to match the PSAT. Note that the
Adjustment user can change this parameter as required to achieve a better matching
Lumps Data
Add - Lumps Data Allows an additional lump to be added to an existing
rule.
Remove - Lumps Allows selected lump to be removed from an existing
Rule rule.
Lump Name Allows the user to give or modify the name of the lump.
Lumping Mode Allows a lump to be created or modified by one of the
following methods:

Combine Components by Name

Molecular Weight Range
Pseudo Options
Single Component
Single Components Excluded
All Non Assigned Components

2.2.3.1.2.6 Register User DLL

This button allows the user to add their own DLL to PVTp. This enables the native
functionality to be extended to meet the needs of individual users. When a user DLL is added,
it will be available in every instance of PVTp opened on that machine.

On selecting this the "Register User DLL" button from the Home 41 tab in the Main Menu
Ribbon, the following screen is displayed.

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Unregister This option allows the user to remove an existing user DLL selected from
Select the list.
Register This allows a new DLL to be added.

To add a user DLL, the following workflow is followed:

1. Select Register.
2. Browse to the location of the DLL. (Note that we recommend storing the DLL inside
the same location as Petroleum Experts executables.)

3. Select the required DLL and select Open.

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Once a DLL is added, its contents will be displayed in the list. Each DLL can hold any number
of "objects" which can either be calculation or characterisation objects. These are identified in
the list as shown below:

Added DLLs will appear in the respective Main Menu Tabs depending on their object type.
This is illustrated below:

2.2.3.1.2.7 OS Compatibility
When an existing file that has been created in a version of PVTp prior to IPM12 is opened,
this screen shows the OpenServer compatibility indexes that may need to be modified for
user defined scripts to run as they did prior to IPM12.

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As IPM12 uses a Data Object Approach 36 , streams from previous versions of PVTp are now
represented by a new series of data objects, each given a unique name corresponding to the
stream in the original pre-IPM12 file. When the object is created, an index is assigned based
on systematic order "of the workflow" i.e. PVT Sample logically comes before Pseudo
Properties etc.

This may not match the indexes used within existing OpenServer scripts, therefore the user
can manually change (by typing or using the up/down arrows) the indexes assigned to
different objects in the IPM12 file to match those used in the scripts.

2.2.3.1.2.8 Help Index

This allows the online help to be accessed.

2.2.3.1.2.9 About PVTp

Selecting this button will open a screen, like the one shown below, that details information
about the version of the software being use, the license number in use, and information about
the memory load and computer specifications.

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2.2.3.1.2.10 What's New

This option will take the user to the What's New in PVTp? section of the online help.
2.2.3.1.2.11 Web User Area
This button provides access to the Petroleum Experts Web User Area, which contains a
number of technical resources and other useful information.

2.2.3.1.2.12 Web Home Page

Selecting this button will launch the Petroleum Experts main website.

2.2.3.1.2.13 Technical Support

This button takes maintained users to the Technical Support section of the Web User Area.
For more information on how to access support please refer to the Help and Technical
Support 27 section.

2.2.3.1.2.14 Check License

This feature allows the user to check which license they are currently using.

2.2.3.1.3 Panel Actions Menu Tab

This tab contains all the functions required to manipulate the objects placed down in the
Characterisation and Calculation windows.

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Each of these functions will be outlined in the following sections, including note of any
keyboard short-cuts that will help the user perform these functions.

2.2.3.1.3.1 Connect
The Connect function allows objects in the Characterisation window to be linked together.
Connections can only be made in one direction between objects and in the logical order of the
characterisation. The user is helped to understand which connections are allowed by all the
possible termination point being highlighted. This ensures that data is passed through the
characterisation in a logical way.

When the Connect function is in use, the Connect button in the menu will be selected, as
shown in the screenshot below, and will remain so until the button is pressed again, releasing
the function.

When Connect is pressed (as above) connections between objects can be made by:

1. Clicking and holding down on the first object

2. Dragging a line to the next object (all potential termination points for the line will be
highlighted, helping the user understand which objects can be connected together)

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3. Releasing the mouse click

Note: connections can be removed by redrawing over them in the same method as shown
above.

Keyboard Short-Cut

It is also possible to connect objects by following the above approach, except rather than
selecting Connect from the Menu Tab, simply hold down Ctrl on the keyboard while clicking
and dragging between objects.

2.2.3.1.3.2 Select
The Select function allows objects in the Characterisation window to be chosen and
highlighted so that the "output" fluid description from that object can be used during
calculations.

To provide an example of this, lets say we want to calculate the phase envelope for a fluid
where we have just defined an initial pseudo property so that we can see how close we are to
matching the saturation pressure for example. To do this we will have performed the following
steps:

1. Added and populated a PVT Sample and Pseudo Properties object within the
Characterisation window

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2. Added a Phase Envelope object to the Calculation window

3. To let the Phase Envelope object know what fluid description to use during its
calculation, it needs to be selected. Press Select in the Panel Actions tab.
4. Choose the Pseudo Properties object.

5. Press Select again to release this function.

Now that the Pseudo Properties object is selected, it shows a green tick icon on it (as seen
above), the Phase Envelope can now be calculated using this fluid description (EOS), as
shown below.

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Multiple characterisation objects can be selected at the same time, allowing comparisons to
be made easily. An example of this is shown below:

Note: To deselect individual objects, simply press Select from the Panel Actions tab and click
on the object you want to remove from selection.

Keyboard Short-Cut

It is also possible to select objects without pressing the Select button in the Panel Actions
tab. Simply hold down Alt on the keyboard while clicking on the desired object(s).

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2.2.3.1.3.3 Unselect All

Pressing this button is a quick way to remove all selection from the characterisation objects.

2.2.3.1.3.4 Move
The Move function allows objects to be moved around their respective windows. To move an
object, simply follow the steps below:

1. Press the Move button in the Panel Action tab.

2. Click on the object you want to move and drag it to its new location.

3. When finished, press the Move button in the Panel Action tab again to release the
function.

Keyboard Short-Cut

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It is also possible to move objects without pressing the Move button in the Panel Actions tab.
Simply hold down Shift on the keyboard while dragging on the desired object around.

2.2.3.1.3.5 Mask
The Mask function allow the user to mask Calculation objects. Multiple Calculation object
can be calculated at the same time be selecting the Calculate Objects 88 button at the bottom
of the screen, as shown below.

If the user does not want to calculate all of the Calculation object, but does not want to
individually calculate objects either, the Mask function can be used. Simply follow the steps
below:

1. Press Mask in the Panel Action tab.

2. Choose the Calculation object(s) to be masked.

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3. Press Mask in the Panel Action tab again to release the function.
4. Press Calculate Objects and only unmasked Calculation objects will calculate.

Note: To unmask individual objects, simply press Mask from the Panel Actions tab and click
on the object you want to unmask.

2.2.3.1.3.6 Delete
The Delete function allows objects to be deleted from either the Characterisation or
Calculation windows.

To use this function, simply follow the steps below:

1. Press Delete in the Panel Action tab.

2. Choose the object(s) to be deleted. Or if it is an annotation or multiple objects to be
deleted, click and drag over all desired items.
3. Press Delete in the Panel Action tab again to release the function.

Note: this function can be undone by selecting Undo 65 .

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2.2.3.1.3.7 Zoom
It is possible to zoom in and out of the Characterisation and Calculation windows. This can
be done by selecting either the Zoom In, Zoom Out or Zoom To Fit buttons highlights below.

For example, to zoom in simply follow the steps below:

1. Press Zoom In in the Panel Action tab.

2. Click on the window to be zoomed as many times as required.

3. Press Zoom In in the Panel Action tab again to release the function.

Note: Zoom To Fit will resize both windows.

Mouse Short-Cut

It is also possible to zoom in on the Characterisation and Calculation windows without

pressing Zoom In or Zoom Out buttons in the Panel Actions tab. Simply move the cursor to
the window to be zoomed and use the mouse scroll wheel.

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2.2.3.1.3.8 Undo and Redo

The Undo function allows the user to reverse the last action performed, while the Redo
function can reverse the Undo function.

Only certain operations can be undone using the Undo function. These include:

Adding an object
Removing an object (Delete 63 )
Connecting objects (Connect 57 )
Adding text annotations (Text 66 )
Adding rectangles (Rectangle 68 )
Adding arrows (Arrow 70 )
Copying the model to the workbench (Workbench 82 )
Copying the workbench to the model (Workbench 82 )
Clearing the workbench (Workbench 82 )

2.2.3.1.3.9 Mark as Official

The Mark as Official annotation is a very useful way to allow users to identify which
characterisation pathway is the main one contains the official EOS.

This is particularly important to when multiple characterisation pathways have been tried and
are still present in the file. For example, if three different characterisation paths are tested,
this can make it difficult for others to know which path is the best one or the one selected for
use in subsequent modelling tasks.

To use the Mark as Official annotation, simple follow the steps below:

1. Press Mark as Official in the Panel Action tab.

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2. Choose the Characterisation object that contains the official EOS.

3. Press Mark as Official in the Panel Action tab again to release the annotation.

2.2.3.1.3.10 Text
The Text feature allows annotations to be added to the Characterisation and Calculation
windows to help users during the characterisation process by making notes more visible.

To use this feature simply follow the steps below.

1. Press Text in the Panel Action tab.

2. Click and drag a text box where the text should go.

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3. To enter text into the text box, double click on the box then enter and format the
require text as below:

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4. Once a text box is drawn, the Text button in the Panel Action tab is automatically
released.

2.2.3.1.3.11 Rectangle
The Rectangle feature allows boxes to be drawn in the Characterisation and Calculation
windows to allow objects to be visually grouped for whatever reason.

To use this feature simply follow the steps below.

1. Press Rectangle in the Panel Action tab.

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2. Click and drag a box where the box should go.

3. Boxes can be edited/formatted by double clicking within the box itself:

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4. Once a box is drawn, the Rectangle button in the Panel Action tab is automatically
released.

2.2.3.1.3.12 Arrow
The Arrow feature allows arrows to be drawn in the Characterisation and Calculation
windows to allow additional annotation.

To use this feature simply follow the steps below.

1. Press Arrow in the Panel Action tab.

2. Click and drag the arrow in the direction it will point.

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3. The arrow can be edited/formatted by double clicking on it:

4. Once an arrow is drawn, the Arrow button in the Panel Action tab is automatically

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released.

2.2.3.1.3.13 Snap To Grid

The Snap To Grid feature allows objects placed on a grid in an orderly way and applies to
the Characterisation and Calculation windows simultaneously.

To use this feature, simply follow the steps below:

1. Press Snap To Grid in the Panel Action tab.

2. The grid will appear in both the Characterisation and Calculation windows.
3. New objects added will automatically position at the nearest grid point, while existing
objects will move to the nearest grid point.
4. Press Snap To Grid in the Panel Action tab again to release the feature.

2.2.3.1.4 Characterisation Menu Tab

This tab contains all the Characterisation objects that can be used during the characterisation
process and will ultimately be placed in the Characterisation window.

The objects can be split into six different categories:

PVT Data objects These objects hold all the information about the sample and lab report.
These objects include:

1. PVT Report 101

2. PVT Sample 104

Characterisation These objects encapsulate the characterisation process, where the

objects component properties are modified to match the lab data. These

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objects include:

1. Pseudo Properties 119

2. Regression 137
3. PVT Fluid 158

Recombination These objects encapsulate the process that can be performed on

objects different EOS streams. These objects include:

1. Target GOR 170

2. Target PSAT 173
3. Blend Streams 178
4. Blend To GOR 182
5. Decontamination 188

Water objects These objects allow the addition and study of water within the fluid
mixture. These objects include:

1. Saturate with H2O 192

2. Add Water 194

Export objects These objects encapsulate different ways to get the EOS out of PVTp
in different formats depending on the application. These objects
include:

1. Export EOS 197

2. Lumping 231

User Defined These objects are created and added by the user, and as such can
objects have any function. Please refer to Register User DLL 52 for further
details.

For more information about any of these objects, please select the links above.

2.2.3.1.5 Calculation Menu Tab

This tab contains all the Calculation objects that can be used and will ultimately be placed in
the Calculation window.

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The objects can be split into six different categories:

Phase Saturation These calculation objects all relate to the phase envelope and
objects detection. These objects include:

1. Phase Envelope 241

2. Critical Point 245
3. Saturation Pressure 246
4. Compositional Gradient 249

Phase Expansion These calculation objects encapsulate the main laboratory experiments
objects carried out to determine the fundamental fluid proporties. These
objects include:

1. Constant Composition Expansion 258

2. Constant Volume Depletion 266
3. Differential Liberation 274
4. Oil Depletion 282

Surface Separation These calculation objects encapsulate all methods of determining

objects separation properties for oil and gas phases. These objects include:

1. Separator 290
2. K Values 298
3. Split Factors 305
4. Path To Surface 313

Miscibility objects These calculation objects allow miscibility studies to be performed for
injection fluids. These objects include:

1. Swelling Test 322

2. Slim Tube 331

Flow Assurance These calculation objects allow various different flow assurance studies
objects to be performed. These objects include:

1. Isenthalpic Flash 341

2. Hydrate Formation 345

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3. Hydrate Protection 349

4. Water Saturation 352
5. Wax Appearance Temperature 357
6. Wax Amount 360
7. Salt Map 366
8. Salt Solubility 372
9. CCE with Salt 376

User Defined These objects are created and added by the user, and as such can
objects have any function. Please refer to Register User DLL 52 for further
details.

For more information about any of these objects, please select the links above.

2.2.3.2 Navigation Tree

The Navigation Tree is dynamically updates as the PVTp file evolves. It shows the starting
and end points for all different characterisation pathway in the file.

For example, in the screenshot below there are three possible characterisation pathways for
the the same fluid. This means that there are three different termination points shown in the
Navigation Tree.

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This tree is designed to work in conjunction with the Characterisation Wizard. For further
information about how the Characterisation Wizard can be used, please refer to the following
sections:

1. Characterisation Wizard Window 76

2. Characterisation Wizard 93

2.2.3.3 Characterisation Wizard Window

This window allows the Characterisation Wizard to be used to help guide the user during the
characterisation process. Although this wizard will not make recommendations about the
models or methods to use during each step in the characterisation, it will provide a logical
progression for objects to use in the characterisation. It also shows the typical objects/steps
that need to be included:

1. PVT Report 101

2. PVT Sample 104

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3. Pseudo Properties 119

4. Regression 137
5. Export 197

For more information about how the wizard can be used, please refer to the Characterisation
Wizard 93 section.

This section will illustrate how to navigate the wizard to help understand what is in any given
file.

Let us use the following example, where there are three different characterisation pathways
(shown below). Depending on which item is selected in the Navigation Tree 75 , the
Characterisation Wizard will display different information.

For each step in the Characterisation Wizard, items can be one of four statuses. These are:

Completed and ValidAny step in the characterisation process that has been already been

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performed, i.e. all the data has been entered and is valid. This will be
identified by a green tick symbol:

Not Completed or If a required step has not been performed yet, this step will be
Invalid identified by a red cross symbol:

Not Included in Any step that is not essential for a basic characterisation, though can
Object be included depending on the case, and has not been included (yet) will
be identified by a black bar symbol:

Note: this status is only possible for objects that exist in the file.

Object Not Part of Any step in the wizard that is not (yet) part of the file will appear
the File greyed, as shown below:

2.2.3.3.1 Choice of EOS

Before the Characterisation process can be started, the user first needs to select the EOS
model that will be used to describe the fluid. In PVTp, two cubic equation of state models,
namely the Soave Redlich Kwong (SRK) and the Peng Robinson (PR) equation have been
implemented.

The difference between the two formulations lies in how the two approach the definition of the
attractive term. Neither formulation has distinct advantages over the other and in terms of the
characterisation, both can yield equivalent results. As such, the use of either model primarily
depends on the user's preference. The Peng Robinson EOS is used by default.

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For details on how to change the EOS, please refer to the Calculation Options 41 section.
2.2.3.3.2 Units
The unit system used can be altered at any stage of the characterisation by selecting Units 44
from the Home 41 tab in the Main Menu Ribbon.

The default unit system is Oilfield. If required, the validation ranges for inputs can also be
altered from this screen - however please note that these ranges have been preset as to
prevent unphysical data from being entered accidentally.
2.2.3.4 Characterisation Window
The Characterisation Window is where Characterisation object are placed so that the
characterisation process can be developed.

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2.2.3.5 Calculation Window

The Calculation Window is where required Calculation object are placed.

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2.2.3.6 Workbench
The Workbench feature allows and replica of the file to be created so that users can test out
ideas without affecting the main model.

Show Workbench This will show the workbench. If the workbench has not been
used in the file yet, it will initially be empty.
Hide Workbench This will hide the workbench.
Copy Model To This will replicate the current model within the workbench window:
Workbench

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Copy Workbench To This option will pass the contents of the workbench back to the
Model main Characterisation window 79 . Doing this will overwrite the
current model, so should be done with care.

On pressing this button the following confirmation is required:

Clear Workbench This will delete the contents of the workbench. On pressing this
button the following confirmation is required:

2.2.4 Miscellaneous

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2.2.4.1 Window Docking

All windows (with the exception of the Navigation Tree 75 , Characterisation Wizard 76 and Main
Menu Ribbon 40 ) have the ability to be docked or un-docked within PVTp.

Windows that are initially docked by default (such as the Calculation Window 81 ) can be drag
out of place and viewed as a separate window. To do this, select the "Name Tab", as shown
below, for the window and drag it away:

To dock a window, simply follow the steps below:

1. Select the bar at the top of the window and start to move it around

2. This will show the following icon:

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3. Drag the window so that the desired location is highlighted on the icon above.

4. When happy, release the window.

2.2.4.2 Right Click Menus

If the user right clicks on objects or within windows, they will be offered a number of options.
These are described below:

Object Right Click Menu

This menu allows the following operations to be performed on that object:

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Characterisation Window Right Click Menu

This menu allows the following operations to be performed, or for Characterisation objects to
be added in that location:

Calculation Window Right Click Menu

This menu allows the following operations to be performed, or for Calculation objects to be
added in that location:

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2.2.4.3 Tooltip Quick Status

If the mouse is moved over any object, a tooltip will be displayed for that object.

The tool tip will show information about:

1. Type of object
2. The object's label
3. A description of the purpose of the object

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In some instances the an object may have a warning associated with it. In such cases, an
amber warning symbol will appear on the object and the user can hover over it to understand
the reason, as shown below:

2.2.4.4 Calculate Objects (Ctrl+A)

This button allows all Calculation objects present in the file to be calculated at the same time.
This button is located at the bottom of the PVTp screen, as shown below.

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Note: All calculation object will be calculated on pressing Calculate Objects (Ctrl+A), except
those than have been masked. For more information on masking, please refer to the Mask 62
section.

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2.3 General Workflow

The objective of this section is to help the user understand the general workflow that can be
followed during a basic characterisation.

As every fluid is different, there is no one size fits all approach that can be applied. Every
characterisation is specific to that particular fluid, and it is possible to follow a number of
different characterisation strategies to achieve equally valid EOS models, meaning that the
whole process is non-unique. As the objective of any characterisation is to simply ensure that
the EOS is representative of the actual fluid; the validity test is therefore for the EOS to
reproduce the experimental lab measurements.

With this in mind, it is important to have the following things when characterising a fluid with
any software:

The ability to quality check the EOS at every step of the characterisation.
The ability to quality check the Lab Report data.
Flexibility to create any characterisation pathway required for a fluid.
The ability record the steps and thinking process used in a characterisation, to
offer repeatability and auditability.

In order to achieve this, as of IPM 12 a data object approach has been introduced. For more
information on data objects please refer to the Data Object Approach 36 section.

There are two classes of data object in PVTp, Characterisation and Calculation objects,
which can be used in any combination depending on the modelling objective.

Though in reality it is not possible to perform a characterisation without using Characterisation

and Calculation objects together, for clarity and ease these data object types will be
described separately. For information on the different objects available, please refer the
Characterisation Data Objects 101 and Calculation Data Objects 241 sections.

The following sections will therefore cover:

The challenges traditionally faces during a characterisation and how these are
overcome in PVTp using the data object approach (Traditional Workflow Challenges
92 ).

How the Characterisation Wizard 93 can be used to help understand the new (as of
IPM 12) characterisation workflow.
A description of all of the Characterisation Data Objects 101 .
A description of all of the Calculation Data Objects 241 .

Note: The best way to understand the PVTp workflow will be to complete one of the worked

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examples in the Worked Example 458 section.

2.3.1 Traditional Workflow Challenges

Traditionally speaking a characterisation will take the path shown below. Due to the nature of
the characterisation process it is often a highly iterative workflow, where the analyst often has
to revert to an earlier stage in the process when a dead end in the characterisation is
reached.

Due to the EOS being continually overwritten at each stage, not only is it almost impossible to
recreate a characterisation without detailed documentation and step-by-step guides, reverting
to an earlier stage in the process can mean beginning again from scratch. Below is the
traditional workflow used

Using data objects, the PVTp workflow will now automatically keep a historical record of the
EOS as it evolves. This means that rather than there being one EOS description in the model,
there are in fact several. Each characterisation object will have an EOS fed into them from
immediately upstream of it, which will now act as the starting point for the object.

This means that objects can be recalculated an infinite number of times, and the same results
will be obtained, thus making the process repeatable and make it clear to see the thinking
process that has been followed.

Keeping a record of the EOS evolution also allows comparisons between different EOS
descriptions to be made during calculations. This means that any step taken can be

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immediate evaluated without overwriting the starting point of the step (i.e. making it impossible
to undo), inherently reducing the number of iterations required.

Now that this ability exists, the general workflow for PVTp is now will change subtly, however
the effects are huge for improving the usability of PVTp and clarity of what is happening to
the EOS.

2.3.2 Characterisation Wizard

Although there is no single characterisation pathway that would work for all fluids, there a
number of basic components that are typically used. Some of these steps are essential, while
others can be optional depending on the fluid, though in our experience we find these are
commonly used. The steps are:

1. Reviewing the PVT lab report (PVT Report 101 )

2. Defining the sample, composition etc. (PVT Sample 104 )
3. Defining any pseudo components (Pseudo Properties 119 )
4. Performing a regression to match to lab data (Regression 137 )
5. Exporting final characterised EOS (Export 197 )

As of IPM 12, these steps are performed by a series of data objects (as shown above),
meaning that the user would have to place the objects in the correct window and connect
them up correctly to pass data. Although this process is not difficult, it can take time for a
user to become familiar with this process. This is where the Characterisation Wizard comes
in to make the process easier.

This section will explain how the Characterisation Wizard can be used to help create an
EOS. If may be useful to review the Characterisation Wizard Window 76 section to help
understand how this works.

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To help understand how the wizard can be used, this guide will address using it in a new file
and an existing file.

2.3.2.1 Using the Wizard in a New File

On opening a new file in PVTp, the wizard can immediate be used to automatically put
Characterisation Data Objects 101 down on the Characterisation Window 79 .

The following steps show how a single characterisation pathway can be created using the
wizard by double clicking on the available options. This applies to new files and when a
completely new pathway is desired in an existing file. The wizard will initially look like this:

1. If a lab report is available in Excel format, it can be imported into the PVTp file. To
do this double click on Add PVT Report in the Characterisation Wizard.

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See the PVT Report 101 section for details on how to use this object.

2. Double click on Add PVT Sample in the Characterisation Wizard.

See the PVT Sample 104 section for details on how to use this object. Only once this
object is valid will the next step become available in the wizard.

3. Double click on Add Pseudo Properties in the Characterisation Wizard.

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See the Pseudo Properties 119 section for details on how to use this object. Only once
this object is valid will the next step become available in the wizard.

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Note: this next step can either be to go to a Regression or to Export the EOS.

4. Double click on Add Regression in the Characterisation Wizard.

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See the Regression 137 section for details on how to use this object. Only once at least
one function has been performed with this object will the next step become available in
the wizard.

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5. Double click on Add Export in the Characterisation Wizard.

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See the Export EOS 197 section for details on how to use this object.

2.3.2.2 Using the Wizard in an Existing File

The Characterisation Wizard can also help to test new approaches in an existing file.

For example, let say that we want to try an alternative approach for this fluid sample. By
selecting the PVT Sample in the Navigation Tree 75 shown below, the Characterisation
Wizard now shows the option to add a new Pseudo Properties 119 object, allowing the process
described in the previous 94 section to be continued.

If the new approach is to start from an intermediate point it may also be helpful to know that
objects can be copied and pasted, retaining their original input connection. This is done by:

1. Right clicking on the object to be copied.

2. Choosing Copy from the menu.
3. Right click where the new object will go.
4. Choose Paste.

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2.3.3 Characterisation Data Objects

All of the characteriation objects that are available within PVTp can be added to model by
choosing the desired one from the Characterisation tab in the Main Menu Ribbon 40 and
placing it on the Characterisation Window 79 .

In the following sections, each of the Characterisation Data Objects will be detailed in turn.

2.3.3.1 PVT Report

This object allows an Excel lab report to be imported and stored within the PVTp file. The
object can be found in the Characterisation Menu Tab 72 and can be placed down in the
Characterisation Window 79 .

This allows data to be more easily quality checked within the file and reduces the amount of

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manual data entry required - therefore making this process less prone to errors.

After adding the object, double click on it to open it.

Browse The allows this user to import the lab report associated with the fluid to
be characterised.
OK This will close the object, accepting changes.
Cancel This will close the object, rejecting changes.
Help This will access the Help.

Once a file has been linked, the data can be quality checked and any necessary changes
made, without affecting the Excel file.

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Reload Data From This allows any local modifications made within this interface to be
File discarded and the PVT report to be reset to match the original Excel
file.
Archive original (Default: Checked)
Excel file
Checking this item will store a copy of the Excel file within the PVTp
model. This means that if the model is subsequently share with others,
the lab report Excel file does not also need to be shared.

Checking this option also activates the option to "Export Archived Excel
File".
Export Archived This allows a new Excel file to be created from the data stored in this
Excel File interface.
Remove Current This allows entire tabs to be removed fro the local copy of the report
Tab without affecting the original Excel file.

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2.3.3.2 PVT Sample

The PVT Sample object is designed to encapsulate all the required information about the fluid
sample that will be used within the characterisation.

There are a number of sub-sections within the PVT Sample object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,
though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. Sample Information 104

2. Select Components 106
3. Enter Components 108
4. Enter Lab Data 113
5. Mass Balance Calculator 117

2.3.3.2.1 Sample Information

This section of the data object allows users to enter the basic information about the sample
itself and the analyst.

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Sample Collection Data The Company, Location, Field, Platform, Analyst and Sample
Type can be noted here.
Reference Conditions Here the reference pressure and temperature can be set to any
desired value.
Reservoir Conditions Here the reservoir temperature, pressure and depth can be
defined.
Additional Information This interface allows any notes about the file to be stored for
future reference.

Note Regarding Reference Conditions

Some PVT reports particularly from warmer areas demand values other than the default
numbers of 0 psig and 60°F. Although the differences in FVF and GOR are not large, use of
the wrong reference conditions can make matching difficult. When the PVT file is saved the
Standard conditions used are also saved with it.

When changing the reference P and T conditions it is

important to remark that:

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the gas volumes at Standard Conditions will always

correspond to the Units System in use. For example,
in Oilfield the "scf" corresponds to cubic foot at 60°F
and 0 psig.

the oil volumes will change depending on the entered

reference conditions.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.2.2 Select Components

This interface allows the sample components the be selected. Once the required components
(hydrocarbon, non-hydrocarbon, user defined and pseudo) have been selected, the user must
press Apply to confirm the selection and pass this to the "Enter Composition" tab (next tab).

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Components There are four types of components that can be defined in a

sample:

1. Hydrocarbon
2. Non-Hydrocarbon
3. User Defined
4. Pseudo

Which of these components are required will depend on the lab

report composition. Typically pure components up to C6 are
defined with heavier components defined as an initial pseudo
component.

Component Database - The main component data base provided as standard with PVTp
Main Database includes:

1. Hydrocarbon components with carbon numbers up to C34

2. Common Non-Hydrocarbon components

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Component Database - This database allows the user to define any additional components
User Database that they require for the characterisation.

Set User Database This button allows a user defined database to be created. Please
Directory refer the User Databases 48 section for more details.

Modern reports identify many more components than in the past. Unfortunately, although a
lab report may state the amount of C12 measured for example, it is not possible to know in
detail all the species involved or the resulting properties of the mixture. If C12 is selected as
a component within the program, the package must provide an average value which is likely to
be inconsistent. In addition the regression and flash calculation complexity increases as the
square of the number of components. Therefore increasing the number of components slows
down the calculations, without necessarily improving accuracy.

Based on experience we have found it better to stop at C6 and defined the rest as a C7+
pseudo component which can be split, rather than to add more reported components. The
additional component information is however useful in gas condensates to identify the amount
and relative molecular weights of the very heavy material.

Under certain circumstances, it can be advantageous to combine nC4 and iC4 and nC5 and
iC5. This reduces the number of components and speeds up all calculations. However, if an
integrated model is being produced including surface simulation, it is necessary to include the
iC4 and iC5 along with the nC4 and nC5.

2.3.3.2.3 Enter Components

Once components have been selected and applied in the "Select Components" tab, the molar
or weight percentages of each component can be defined.

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Composition Input There are two options to enter the composition:

1. Enter Total Stream Composition - as shown in the

screenshot above.
2. Recombine from Separator Oil and Gas Streams - this
option will be described in more detail below in the
Recombine from Separator Compositions 111 section.

Input As There are two options:

1. Input as Mole - this allows the molar amount to be entered

and the weight amount to be subsequently calculated using
the molecular weight.
2. Input as Weight - this allows the weight amount to be
entered and the molar amount to be subsequently calculated
using the molecular weight.

Molecular weights for components in the component databases are

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automatically filled in, while the pseudo component molecular

weights must be manually entered.

Input Type There are two options to enter the composition:

1. Percent
2. Fraction

Reservoir Fluid Here, information about the cumulative percentage will be

displayed:

1. Total Mole % - this keeps track of the mole percentage

entered so far
2. Remaining % - this displays the percentage left.

3. Normalise - this allows the mole percentages to be scaled

to be the is exactly 100%

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4. Average Mole Weight - this calculates the average

molecular weight for the entered components.

2.3.3.2.3.1 Recombine from Separator Compositions

Recombination can either be used as:

A method of calculating the reservoir composition from separator and stock tank
compositions and volumetric properties
A quality check on feedstock analysis i.e. by comparing the recombined
composition with the lab reported composition

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The recombination calculation comes in two modes. The default version is Simplified. The
mode can be changed using the radio buttons at the top right of the display. The simplified
mode reflects the basic recombination done in most PVT reports. The table inputs and
controls are the same as those described in more detail below for the extended mode version.

One oil and one gas composition is entered. These are normally from a separator test.
Additional inputs include an oil density and GOR. The GOR entered must be referenced to
Stock Tank conditions. the calculate the reservoir composition press Perform
Recombination.

A typical Simplified display is shown in the figure below:

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When an extended recombination is perform, the number of stages required can be entered.
The reservoir fluid composition is obtained by combining the analysis of the stock tank oil,
stock tank gas and the gas from up to 10 separator stages. The table allows the user to
enter the required compositions.

Only separator stages for which data exists should be filled in. The program ignores any
separator stages with a zero total composition.

NOTE: All GOR data must be entered with respect to Stock Tank Barrels (STB)

2.3.3.2.4 Enter Lab Data

In this tab it is possible to enter lab data either manually or by importing data stored in the
PVT Report data object. Once the data has been added, it can be quality checked, modified
and plotted as required. The following section describes how experiments can be added and
the data populated. Depending on the fluid and lab report, different experiment may be added
in each file. It is possible to add the following experiments:

Saturation Pressure
Constant Composition Expansion
Constant Volume Depletion
Separator

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Differential Liberation
Compositional Gradient
Swelling Test
Wax Appearance Temperature
Wax Amount

Laboratory This window allows the user to see which experiments have been
Experiments entered in the file. As experiments are added, they will appear in this
list. Selecting an experiment will display the data table or plots for
that experiment.

Add Experiment This button allows experiments that are not yet present in the file to be
added. Selecting this button will display a menu of experiments to
choose from, as shown below:

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Once a new experiment is added, a blank table will appear ready for
data to be entered.

Remove Experiment This button will delete the selected experiment for the list.

Edit Lab Data This tab allows all the experimental data for the selected test to be
entered. This can either be done manually or by using the Import
From PVT Report feature.

Import From PVT This feature allows data within a PVT Report 101 object to be selected
Report and imported into this interface. For further details on this feature,
please refer to the Import From PVT Report 116 section.

Plot Lab Data Once data has been entered in the Edit Lab Data tab it can be plotted
within this tab. This can make it easier to quality check the data and
visually spot any inconsistencies.

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Important Note on Differential or CVD

The calculation of GOR and FVF for a differential liberation is done
with respect to residual volume. In order that this volume can be
determined all the experimental steps must be added.

In the same way, the CVD is a path-dependent process, that is

why it is important to enter all the pressure steps followed in the
lab.

2.3.3.2.4.1 Import From PVT Report

The option to import data directly from the PVT Report allows the user to quickly and
accurately assign data to a fluid EOS.

Pressing the Import From PVT Report button below will allow the user to select specific data
to made part of the PVT Sample object.

The general workflow to use this option is outlined below:

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1. Press Import From PVT Report

2. Select a tab from the report
3. Click and drag over the area containing the required data
4. Press Set Selection as Data Table
5. Press Auto-Map Remaining
6. If data has been mapped with the wrong units, hold down Shift while changing the unit
drop down box to change the units while leaving the numbers unchanged.
7. Press OK

The best way to understand this workflow is to follow Example 1 475 , which uses this feature to
add lab data.

2.3.3.2.5 Mass Balance Calculator

This feature is found within the PVT Sample 104 object. The objective is to provide a tool which
helps to validate PVT report Black Oil data.

The calculation does not use any Equation of State model; it works only on the mass values

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within the dialogue. If a report is consistent, the mass of fluid removed at the reservoir should
tally with the combined mass of oil and gas at the surface.

Fluid
The calculator comes in 2 forms depending on the reservoir fluid:

Oil Using the basis of 1 stock tank barrel, it is possible from the stock tank oil density
GOR and gas gravity plus the equivalent separator data to calculate a total mass
of gas and oil associated with this volume of production. Similarly from the oil FVF
and density, we can calculate the equivalent mass of this barrel of oil at reservoir
conditions. If the two masses are not very similar then there is an inconsistency in
the reported results which must be further investigated and eliminated.

To carry out this calculation:

1) Set the fluid to Oil using the radio button provided

2) Enter the reservoir, separator and tank data required.
3) Select Validate using the mode radio button.
4) Click on Calculate.

If all the data has been entered correctly, the program will show the masses
calculated for surface and reservoir conditions and the percentage difference
between them.

Gas/ In a similar way to that described for oils, the data from a gas or condensate can
Condensa be used to construct a mass balance between surface and reservoir.
te
Unfortunately, most condensate reports do not have enough information to do a
full balance. Instead the program uses the data entered and assumes the masses
are equal. With the data provided, it calculates a series of values for gas FVF,
density and molecular weight which can be validated against report or EoS
calculated numbers. Two gas FVFs and gravities are reported. The first or dry
value assumes that all the reservoir gas ends up as gas at surface. The real value
follows from the mass balance and takes into account the gas that turns to
condensate

Mode
Two calculation modes are available:

Validate After all the input parameters are entered, the program will compare the
mass calculated at surface with the mass calculated at reservoir level
Calculate This mode is useful if a key piece of Black Oil data is missing. Enter all
Missing the data as above and press calculate. The program will assume the
Value mass at surface and reservoir are equal and fill estimate the missing

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value. If more than one piece of data is missing an error message will be
generated
2.3.3.3 Pseudo Properties
The Pseudo Properties object is designed to encapsulate all the required steps to define the
pseudo component well.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Pseudo Properties object, which can be seen
by the buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Pseudo Properties 119

2. Volume Shifts 124
3. Split Pseudo 126
4. BIC Input Data 136
5. Output Fluid 137

The Pseudo Components represent the largest source of unknowns within a mixture. They
also tend to have a significant influence on the overall mixtures characteristics. It is logical,
therefore, to concentrate on the pseudo properties when matching and regression operations
are being done. Sometimes the number of pseudos does not provide enough freedom to carry
out the matching required. One option for overcoming this situation is to split the last pseudo
into two or more components. Surface facilities may also require ten or more pseudos to
model surface separation processes.

This object offers a facility to do this splitting in a controlled manner.

The pseudo can be split in various ways. The options available are described in more detail in
Pseudo Component Splitting 402 within the modeling section. Basically, the pseudo selected,
normally the last, is split out into up to 200 components before being regrouped into the the
required number of pseudos.

2.3.3.3.1 Pseudo Properties

This section of the data object allows users to enter the molecular weight, specific gravity and
boiling point of the pseudo component. An example of this interface is shown below.

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Collapse heavy If there are multiple pseudos in this screen, they can be
components to collapsed down to a reduced number using this feature.

Boiling Temperature There are three correlations available to determine the boiling
point of the pseudo:

1. Petroleum Experts
2. A.N. Other Correlation
3. Standing and Katz

Tc, Pc, Vc and Omega There are nine correlations available to determine the critical
properties of the pseudo:

1. TWU/Edmister
2. Bergman(PNA) and Cavett
3. Bergman(PNA) and Cavett/Edmister
4. Cavett/Edmister
5. Mathew, Roland and Katz/Edmister

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6. Robinson and Peng(PNA)

7. Lee and Kessler/Edmister
8. Riazi and Daubert/Edmister
9. Pedersen

The % aromatics within the properties grid allows the user to fix
a limit on the % used within the various calculations. To fix the
value enter the required number in the appropriate edit box. To
remove the limit blank out the value within the edit box.

Please note that while the majority of these correlations use the
boiling point to correlate the critical properties, the Pedersen
correlation (added in IPM 12) uses the MW and SG directly. As
the Automatch 121 functionality uses the boiling point to tune the
density, this means that if the Pedersen model is selected the
Automatch functionality will not be used.
MW/SG/BPt Mode There are three correlations available to determine the boiling
point of the pseudo:

1. Petroleum Experts
2. A.N. Other Correlation
3. Standing and Katz

Critical Properties Mode There are two modes:

1. Automatic - in this mode the pseudo properties are

calculated using the chosen correlations for boiling
point, Tc, Pc, Vc and Omega and the MW/SG/BPt
Mode. Depending on there options, various cells will
grey out so that they cannot be altered manually.

2. Manual - in this mode all the pseudo properties can be

entered or adjusted by the user

AutoMatch of Densities This feature allows the user to perform a reality check of the
vis BPts EOS by adjusting the pseudo components' properties in order to
reproduce the same density at standard conditions as empirical
correlations (Standing-Katz or Costald) that are proven to be
reliable references.

This option is enabled by default.

The equation of state value suffers from the main problem of the
method i.e. the EOS equation will not generally predict an

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accurate value from initial entries. Matching to laboratory data

must always be done before any calculated value can be used
with confidence.

A wayward set of EOS parameters normally shows up as a

large deviation between the two density values when the mixture
is subject to a Constant Composition Expansion at standard
conditions.

The matching will halt when a match has been found to within
0.2% or the max iterations have been completed. If no match is
made, try adjusting the pseudo properties or selecting new
options.

Enable AutoMatch If the user chooses to switch off the AutoMatch feature, this box
should be unchecked.

Use Zero BI Coefficients This procedure is normally carried out with zero-ed Binary
Interaction Coefficients. PVTp automatically stores and zeros
the BICs. After matching the coefficients are restored.

The check box allows the user to skip the zeroing step, giving
more flexibility with difficult mixtures.

Note: any BICs applied later on in the object will not be affected
by this option.

Match Oil Viscosities This changes the Vc values to bring the Lohrenz , Bray and
Clark (LBC) calculated oil viscosity to a more reasonable level.
See Viscosity Modeling 412 .

This option is enabled by default though a checkbox allows the

user to switch this feature off.

Lohrenz , Bray and Clark is the most commonly used viscosity

model but it tends to give high errors for oils. The Little and
Kennedy correlation is very good at predicting the viscosity of
oils above bubble point. Below saturation pressure results are
mixed with some fluid values being totally unsatisfactory.

This automatching feature follows the procedure outlined below:

Find the type of fluid. If the fluid is not an oil do not

proceed

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Find the saturation pressure at the reference

temperature
Use the Little and Kennedy model to calculate the
viscosity of the oil at a pressure just above saturation
Adjust the Vc values of the pseudo components until
the LBC viscosity matches that predicted by Little and
Kennedy

Density Method Within the PVT package two liquid densities are calculated by
two different methods.

1. The first is based on a choice of empirical correlation.

2. The second is calculated from the Equation of State Z
factor.

The density correlations 408 available are Standing and Katz or

Costald.

Experience has shown that the Standing and Katz value which is
derived mainly from specific gravities is always fairly close to
the measured density at standard conditions.

Costald is used extensively in surface facilities modelling and

also gives good results in most cases. The results are however
very sensitive to the value of Costald Volume and Acentric
Factor and Tc which are calculated from the property
correlation.

Maximum Iteration This is where the user can change the maximum number of
iterations to run before quitting the calculation.

Iterations This will show the number of iterations actually performed.

Last Error This will give the error for the last iteration

Method Suggestions
The following correlations can be used for the calculation of BPts, Tc, Pc, Vc and Omega
(AF):

For Volatile Oils or Try:

Condensates A. N. Other Correlation for Boiling Point
Bergman(PNA) and Cavett/Edmister for Acentric Factor
The values of binary coefficient varies greatly depending

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on fluid. The most effective number is between the C1

and heaviest component.

For Oils Try:

Petroleum Experts Correlation for Boiling Point
TWU/Edmister for Acentric Factor
Start with a small value of BIC e.g. 0.05 between the
C1 and heaviest component

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.3.2 Volume Shifts

This section of the data object allows users to see the initial volume shift values for each
component and to set different volume shift settings. An example of this interface is shown
below.

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Volume Shift Status This allows the user to choose whether the full composition can
use volume shifts or not. The default is for this option to be
"Yes".

Correct CO2 Density This option enables the user to choose if the correction to CO2
density is desired. CO2 density is notoriously difficult to predict
with conventional EOS models, as such considerable work has
been done to do this better.

This option is set to "Yes" by default.

For more information, please refer to the CO 410 2 410 properties 410
section.

Temperature Correction This allows a temperature correction to the J+Y Formulation.

This correction is by default set to "No".

For further information about this correction, please refer to the

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section on Temperature Dependent Volume Shifts 394 .

Calculation Methods There are two methods available:

1. Original J+Y Formula - this is the Jhaveri and

Youngener formulation (SPE 13118)
2. Calc. with Component SGs

Calculation Range The calculation range can either be for all components or limited
to the pseudo values.

d Value This parameter is part of the Original J+Y Formula method.

Please refer to the SPE 13118 paper for further details.

e Value This parameter is part of the Original J+Y Formula method.

Please refer to the SPE 13118 paper for further details.

Minimum S Value This is the minimum number allowable for the volume shifts. If a
volume shift is determined below this limit, a validation error will
be raised.

Maximum S Value This is the maximum number allowable for the volume shifts. If
a volume shift is determined above this limit, a validation error
will be raised.

This is important to prevent unphysical results, such as negative

densities, that can arise when very large volume shifts are used.

2.3.3.3.3 Split Pseudo

Within this tab of the Pseudo Properties object there are two sections:

1. Profile
2. Split

Between these sections the user is able to select all the methods and settings required to split
the pseudo up in a satisfactory way.

Profile

This section of the data object allows users to understand how the distribution of components
within the pseudo component and select the most appropriate methods for a given fluid. An

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example of this interface is shown below.

Split There are three options here:

1. Disable Pseudo Splitting

This option is the initial default of the object. This
option essentially disables all of the options for splitting
and will reset the fluid back to the original number of
pseudos defined originally.

2. Last Pseudo
This option will take the last pseudo and determine its
component distribution according to the selected
methods.

3. Selected Pseudo
This option will take a specified pseudo and determine
its component distribution according to the selected

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methods.

Component This dropdown list will become active when the "Selected
Pseudo" option is chosen.

Split Method There are four methods available here:

1. Original 403
The distribution of components is made up of a
combination of rising and falling exponential functions
which meet at the input average molecular weight of
the pseudo.

This method is not recommended and is only retained

for backwards compatibility.

2. Petroleum Experts 1 404

This method is an upgrade of the Original Method to
give more consistent results.

3. Petroleum Experts 2 404

The distribution of components is made up of a single
falling exponential function.

4. Whitson 406
The most recent and most flexible method. This uses a
gamma function to produce a distribution which an vary
considerably in shape.

In this method a three parameter gamma probability

function is used to generate a series of distributions for
the plus fraction. Unlike the previous methods a series
of possible distributions can be calculated for the same
fluid by changing the main parameter alpha.

For further information on all these methods please refer to the

Pseudo Component Splitting 402 section.

End Mode There are two methods:

1. Calculate to End
This will calculate a many components as possible

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given the original MW and method selected.

2. Stop at Limit
The maximum component number can be defined.

Limit To This is where the "Stop and Limit" maximum component number
is defined.

Follow Split Profile This feature allows the user to determine all or part of the
component distribution. This can be extremely helpful in dealing
with contamination or fluids with distinctive distributions e.g.
biodegraded fluids.

Enabling this option will add the following table to the display:

When the distribution is recalculated the split algorithm will give

the components the values defined in the above table and follow
a declining distribution for subsequent undefined components.

This methodology is key to the decontamination 188 procedure.

Whitson Beta and Eta This option is only active when the Whitson Method is used.
Mode The two modes available are:

1. Auto
2. User - this option allows the user to change the Beta
and Eta values

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Alpha The main shape function is alpha and this is always a user input
in the program.

Please refer to the Whitson Method 406 for more details.

Beta Beta is normally a calculated value the formula for which is

M+n is the average molecular weight, alpha and eta are the other
two distribution parameters, n is the plus fraction number.

Please refer to the Whitson Method 406 for more details.

Eta Eta is the start molecular weight and is normally estimated from

where n is the plus fraction number.

Please refer to the Whitson Method 406 for more details.

Find Best Alpha This feature is designed to help the user determine the most
appropriate alpha parameter and split number combination.

Go to the Find Best Alpha 132 section for further details.

Automatically Follow This option allows different methods to be used to determine the
Split Method MW and SG of the component distributions. Unchecking this
option will enable the dropdown menus below.

The default is for this option to be checked.

Molecular Weight or If we are not "automatically following the split method", here any
Specific Gravity Method desired methods to determine the MW and SG can be chosen.
The options available are:

1. Petroleum Experts
2. Whitson
3. Modified Petex

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MW or SG Normalisation This area allows the user to control how the data base
Mode properties are normalised to reproduce the input MW or SG.

1. All Values Adjusted

2. End Value Only Adjusted
3. No Values Adjusted

MW Max Value Here the maximum value for MW can be set. The default value
is set to 1000.

SG Max Value Here the maximum value for SG can be set. The default value
is set to 10.

MW and SG Errors This facility helps the user find the best combination of database
before Normalisation properties. This table is populated by using each database in
turn and performing the split. This is done with the normalisation
of the final SG and MW values switched off.

The program will then highlight the combination of databases

that get closest to the input SG and MW properties.

Select Best Choosing this option will implement the combination of

databases that best match the input data.

Split

This section of the data object allows users to understand how the distribution of components
within the pseudo component and select the most appropriate methods for a given fluid. An
example of this interface is shown below.

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Split Number Here the number of splits desired can be set.

Maximum Splits This tells the user the maximum number of splits possible, given
the different splitting methods selected in the Profile tab and the
input MW and SG.

AutoMatch These options are the same as those available in the Pseudo
Properties tab of this object. As such, please refer to the
AutoMatch 121 options for further details.

Pseudo Splits Table This table displays the split profile and properties. if changes
are made to the split number etc. the object may need to be re-
calculated to see this update in the table.

2.3.3.3.3.1 Find Best Alpha

When using the Whitson 406 splitting method, this section of the data object allows users to
understand the best combination of alpha and split number.

There are two tabs when using this feature:

1. Find Best Alpha

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2. Results Plot

These tabs will be explained below.

Find Best Alpha

An example of this interface is shown below.

AutoMatch These options are very similar to those available in the Pseudo
Properties tab of this object. As such, please refer to the
AutoMatch 121 options for further details.

Zero all BICs prior to Before adding BICs via the selected mode, if any BIC were
addition below previously present, they will be reset to zero.

BIC Mode There are a number of modes available:

1. No Addition of BICs
No BICs will be applied

2. C1 with Last Pseudo

A value for the Binary Interaction Coefficient 402 will be

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set between methane and the heaviest pseudo

produced by the split.

The value used for the BIC is entered in the BIC Value
entry field.

3. C1 with All Pseudos

A value for the Binary Interaction Coefficient 402 will be
set between methane and each pseudo produced by
the split.

4. Recalculate All BICs

All the BIC will be re-calculated based on one of the
BIC estimation models.

BIC Value If the "C1 with Last Pseudo" or "C1 with All Pseudos" is
selected, this input box becomes active allowing the user to
enter the BIC value desired.

Minimum and Maximum This allows the user to specify the range a pseudo splits they
Number of Pseudo Splits want to use in the calculation. Every integer between these
values will be tested.

Minimum and Maximum This allows the user to specify the range alpha values they want
Alpha Values to use in the calculation.
Number of Alpha Values The sets how many alpha values to test. The range set will be
evenly divided up by this number.

Calculation Mode This sets which data to evaluate with the alpha and split number
combinations. The following option are available.

1. PSAT and SEP

2. PSAT only
3. SEP only

Match Data - From Lab This option is enabled by default and will automatically populate
Data the PSAT and Separator data with the data available in Lab
Data 113 section of the PVT Sample 104 object.

PSAT data If the "From Lab Data" is unchecked, the user can enter the
desired values by hand.

Separator Data If the "From Lab Data" is unchecked, the user can enter the

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desired values by hand.

Calculation Results This table show the calculated values and errors for each of the
combinations. The combination with the lowest overall error will
be highlighted in blue.

This combination can be implemented by pressing the Select

button, shown below:

Results Plot

This allows the user to more easily visualise the results. An example of this interface is shown
below.

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2.3.3.3.4 BIC Input Data

This section of the data object allows users to binary interaction coefficients to the model. As
with pseudo properties, it is very important that care is taken in the choice of coefficients as
no correlation will accurately model all mixtures. The BICs act as matching variables which
bend the idealized cubic equation of state to meet the measured properties of the real
mixture. For further information, please refer to the Binary Interaction Coefficient 391 section.

An example of this interface is shown below.

Add Binary Interaction This option is initially disabled. If the user chooses to include
Coefficients BICs, the table and input options will become active.

Coefficients for Pure There are three choices for where the BICs for pure
Components components will come from:

1. Peng Robinson
2. Soave Redlich Kwong
3. Chevron Method - default method

Coefficients for Pure There are three choices for where the BICs for pure
Components components will come from:

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1. Petroleum Experts Method

2. Molecular Weight Correlation
3. Semi-Theoretical Method
4. Chevron Method - default method

Set Max Value To This allows the maximum value of BIC to be set for the whole
table. Any BIC that previously is above this value, will be reset
to the entered value.

Zero Range From This allows the BICs for the specified range of components to
be set to zero.

Table This is a read only table that can be updated to reflect the
options set by re-calculating the object.

If the user wishes to manually change the BICs, this can be

done within a PVT Fluid 158 object.

2.3.3.3.5 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.3.4 Regression
The Regression object is designed to encapsulate all the required steps to perform a
regression on EOS properties to fine tune the EOS to match lab data.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Regression object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,
though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. Lab Data Weightings 140

2. Regression Inputs 142
3. Regression Variables 147

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4. Regression Error Details 150

5. Output Fluid 151

Additionally to understanding the Regression object layout and workflow it is important to:

1. Have an understanding of the best practices when it comes to performing

regressions. As such, there is a Regression Best Practices 151 section for reference.
2. Have an understanding of how a multi-stream regression may be carried out. See
the Multi-Stream Regression 153 section for further details.
3.

An important principle to understand at this point is that the EOS does not respect the
fundamental law of conservation of mass. Let us use the generic figure below to help
understand the problem.

It is fairly straightforward to match the reservoir conditions i.e. Zvap, Psat, in isolation. This will
give a model which works reliably in the match area. However, the non-predictive nature of
the EOS and its weakness towards material balance means that this matching does not give
valid results as the pressure changes rising up the wellbore to separator conditions. Liquid
dropout and Separator GOR etc. become very suspect.

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Similarly, the separator area can be well matched in isolation, but this model would not be
valid if used to predict reservoir properties.

Treating the areas separately essentially describes two different models for the same fluid
and so the constant mass expansion going from well to surface cannot be resolved. The error
this approach causes can be very significant and will come out in many ways e.g. in the
inability to resolve reserves with production.

To avoid such problems we recommend that reservoir and separator matching must always
be done together. Densities or density derived data must be included for reservoir and
surface to force a material balance on the system.

Note: the EOS calculation initially calculates Z liquid and Z vapour. Densities are calculated
directly from the Zs, and so matching Z, matches density.

The recommended minimum information to be used for matching is:

OILS Bubble Point pressure

A measure of density (oil density or Z liquid) at reservoir or
saturation pressure conditions
Some measure of Separator volumetric properties i.e. GOR or oil
FVF
A measure of density (oil density or Z liquid) at separator or
stock tank conditions

GAS Dew Point pressure

CONDENSATES A measure of density (gas density or Z vapour) at reservoir or
saturation pressure conditions
Some measure of Separator volumetric properties i.e. GOR or oil
FVF
A measure of condensate density (oil density or Z liquid) at
separator or stock tank conditions
Liquid Dropout (CCE or CVD) from reservoir pressure to
surface conditions

Regression Strategy

Before commencing with the regression to fine tune the EOS, it is best practice to first gain a
better understanding of the current strengths and weakness of the EOS description and then
develop a regression strategy on that basis.

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Generally the regression is only intended for fine tuning - meaning that as a prerequisite the
EOS must already be in a state where it can reproduce the general trend of the experimental
data, if this is not the case then the definition of the pseudo properties, i.e. MW, SG, BPT,
constituent profile, splitting and BICs, may need to be revisited.

If the regression is performed with an EOS that is too far from the lab experiments, then the
regression may compensate for this by calculating unrealistic properties. A common example
of this being that the EOS is unable to accurately predict the insitu density, so when the
regression is then performed using the volume shift - which corrects the density - this can
result in large volume shifts being calculated that may actually result in negative densities to
be calculated.

To prevent this, it is generally recommended that an initial simulation of the lab experiments is
conducted before progressing with the regression, and based on the outcome of this
comparison a regression strategy should be developed, to minimise the number number of
regression steps needed and to avoid undoing already made progress.

For an example of how to develop a regression strategy, please refer to the characterisation
examples, Example 1 475 and Example 2 556 .

2.3.3.4.1 Lab Data Weightings

This section of the data object allows users to include/exclude and change the weighting on
the various data points that have been automatically propagated down from the PVT Sample
104 object. An example of this interface is shown below.

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PVT Sample This list shows all the PVT Sample 104 objects that feed into the
Regression object.

Laboratory Experiment For the selected PVT Sample, the list of experiments shown will
reflect those previously entered in the PVT Sample 104 object.

Navigating down this list will automatically update the table to

show the lab data.

Weighting Any data point or groups of points can be given a different

weighting between 10 (high) and 1 (low).

This will affect how the regression algorithm responds to the

error generated by this point. This weighting is combined with
the process weighting (high, medium, low) available within the
Regression Inputs 142 display to give an overall value.

To change a weighting, select a point or group of points and

change the weighting value from the dropdown menu.

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Weightings Key Weightings of less than 10 are indicated by the point having a
BLUE text colour and the strength of the blue colour indicates
the scale.

Match Point - Include/ Any data point or groups of points can be excluded from the
Exclude regression process.

Simply highlight the desired points and press Exclude. Excluded

points are indicated by a GREY text background colour.

To include points highlight again and press Include.

Generally speaking, we do not want to include all of the lab data during a regression as this
may significantly limit the flexibility of the regression. For further guidance on this, please
refer to the characterisation examples, Example 1 475 and Example 2 556 .

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.4.2 Regression Inputs

This section of the data object allows users select the different options for regression,
including the algorithm, properties to regress on and the method. An example of this interface
is shown below.

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Regression Algorithm There are two regression algorithms available:

1. Levenberg-Marquardt - this is the default algorithm

used in PVTp. This is historically the method used in
PVTp.
2. Particle Swarm - this is a new edition to PVTp as of
IPM 12.

For more details on these methods, please refer to the

RESOLVE User Manual.

Master Stream Here the master stream can be selected from the dropdown
menu. This is only relevant when multi-stream regressions 153
are performed. This allows the regression to use the selected
stream as a starting point in the algorithm.

Regress On There are three options for properties to regress on and

depending on which option is selected, the Match Variables
table will update:

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1. Phase and Vol. Properties

As shown in main screenshot above above.

2. Viscosity

3. Thermal Properties

Oil Viscosity Models There are two models available:

1. Lohrenz Bray Clark - see the note 146 below.

2. Pedersen at al
3. Zhou et al

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4. Little Kennedy
5. Black Oil - Beal
6. Black Oil - Beggs
7. Black Oil - Petrovsky
8. Black Oil - Bergman Sutton
9. Black Oil - Egbogah

Please refer to the Viscosity 412 section for further information.

Gas Viscosity Models There are two models available:

1. Lohrenz Bray Clark - see the note 146 below.

2. Pedersen at al
3. Zhou et al
4. Little Kennedy
5. Black Oil - Lee
6. Black Oil - Carr

Please refer to the Viscosity 412 section for further information.

Pseudo Enthalpy Models There are two models available:

1. Original
2. Lee and Kesler

Please refer to the Enthalpy 423 section for further information.

Match Using There are four methods available:

1. Tcs Pcs AFs with Multiplier on Each Property

This applies a unique multiplier on the Tcs, Pcs and
AFs respectively, for all the selected properties.

Note that Volume Shifts can still be applied with this

method, and all selected components will have their
own Volume Shift multiplier.

2. Tcs Pcs AFs with Shift/Multiplier on Each Property

This applies a unique multiplier and shift on the Tcs,
Pcs and AFs respectively, for all the selected
properties.

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Note that Volume Shifts can still be applied with this

method, and all selected components will have their
own Volume Shift multiplier and shift.

3. Tcs Pcs AFs and VShift with Multiplier on Each

Property
This applies a unique multiplier on the Tcs, Pcs, AFs
and Volume Shift respectively, for all the selected
properties.

4. Tcs Pcs AFs and VShift with Shift/Multiplier on

Each Property
This applies a unique multiplier and shift on the Tcs,
Pcs, AFs and Volume Shift respectively, for all the
selected properties.

Match Variable Here the data available for regress is listed. Each experimental
measurement can be selected and a weighting defined. The
default weighting is High.

Note that only data included in the Lab Data Weightings 140 tab
will be available for selection here. Any data sets that have
been completely excluded will be greyed out.

Streams This shows a list streams feeding into the Regression object.

See the Multi-Stream Regression 153 section for more details.

Clear Selected This will clear the selected match variables for the highlighted
stream.

Clear All This will clear all the match variables for all the streams.

Note on Lohrenz Bray Clark (LBC)

The LBC method is known to have significant weaknesses as a compositional

correlation for viscosity. It does, unfortunately, have some limitations of which the
user should be aware. The values calculated for oils, without matching, are
generally not very good and can sometimes be wrong by an order of magnitude.

This limitation is counteracted to a great extent by the Automatching of Viscosity

feature. Unfortunately, another problem arises from the inflexibility of the
algorithm. With heavier oils it can be difficult to get a full match from reservoir

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pressure to surface.

If this occurs and the output is to be in the form of Black Oil tables it may be
better to match the viscosity within PROSPER or MBAL using Black Oil
correlations.

That said, LBC is the default correlation adopted in viscosity modelling for oil and
gas fluids.
2.3.3.4.3 Regression Variables
This section of the data object allows users select the different properties they wish to modify
during the regression. Depending on what sort of data is being regressed on (e.g. viscosity
data etc.), and what models have been selected, this interface will look different.

An example of this interface is shown below.

Num Regression This indicates the number of variables that have been selected
Variables that the regression will change.

All On This will check all the boxes available in the property table.

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Clear All This will uncheck all the boxes available in the property table.

Clear Pure This will uncheck all the boxes available in the property table for
pure components.

Allow Pure Tc Pc and AF Setting this option to "Yes" will allow check boxes to appear for
the critical temperature and pressure, and acentric factor for the
pure components.

Setting the option to "No" will remove these check boxes.

Allow Pure VShift Setting this option to "Yes" will allow check boxes to appear for
the critical temperature and pressure, and acentric factor for the
pure components.

Setting the option to "No" will remove these check boxes.

Mult/Shift Table This table allows the user to view the multiplier and shifts
determined during the regression and by check/unchecking the
boxes the user is able to include/exclude these from the
regression easily.

Iteration Number This shows the number of regression iterations that have been
performed.

Best Error This shows the lowest error achieved during the regression
cycle.

Error This shows the current calculated error.

Max Iterations This allows the user to change the maximum number of
iterations the regression will perform.

There should be no reason to change this.

Max/Min Mult This allows the user to change the allowable range of multipliers
(Tcs, Pcs, AFs and VShift) found during the regression.

There should be no reason to change this.

Max/Min BIC Mult This allows the user to change the allowable range of BIC
multipliers found during the regression.

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There should be no reason to change this.

Property Table Depending on which regression method 145 is selected, this table
will update.

The user can select which properties of each component they

want to be part of the regression.

BIC Regression Mode As the Binary Interaction of the lightest and heaviest
components is of most importance, it is also possible to regress
on the Binary Interaction Coefficient of them. For regressing on
the Binary Interaction Coefficient, there are three options
available as can be seen in the figure below.

There are three options available:

1. C1 and Last Pseudo Only

This will allow the regression to alter the BIC between
the last pseudo component and C1 component only.

2. C1 and All Pseudos to Same Value

This will allow the regression to alter the BICs between
the C1 component and all pseudo components to use
the same value.

Please note that this option may not be suitable for all
fluids, as the requirement for a BIC is purely dependent
upon the fluid being characterised. Although the option
"All Pseudos to Same Value" is the default option, if
this method does not provide a good match with
respect to the lab data, then the user may wish to
consider using the other options for the BIC
Regression.

3. C1 and All Pseudos to Same Multiplier

This will allow the regression to alter the BICs between
the C1 component and all pseudo components to use
original values multiplied by the same value.

4. Disable BIC Regression

This mean that the original BICs set up in the Pseudo
Properties 119 object will be conserved.

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Separator Calculation This allows the user to define a separation path through which
Method the oil or gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and
CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard

conditions can significantly change the final oil characteristics
and the amount of gas liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these
options require the respective calculation object to the present
so that the inputs of those objects can be used respectively. If
more than one of these objects is available, the drop down
boxes can be used to select the correct one.

2.3.3.4.4 Regression Error Details

This section of the data object allows users to view the best calculated error for each of the
selected data points during the regression. This helps to give the user an idea of which data
points the regression is struggling to match the most, meaning the user may want to review
the Lab Data Weightings 140 .

An example of this interface is shown below.

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2.3.3.4.5 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.3.4.6 Regression Best Practices

Regression on Pure Components

As previously discussed, the regression is merely a mathematical tool that will attempt to
minimise the difference between the reported lab data and the calculated data from the EOS
by adjusting the critical properties, volume shifts and BICs. In this process, however, the
regression does not differentiate between the selected pure and pseudo components.

Historically, it was a viable option to regress on the properties of both pure and pseudo
components, however this is now considered bad practice. This is because the pure
components’ critical properties can be measured in the lab and thus have small uncertainties
compared to the pseudo components. Furthermore, modern day process simulators generally
do not accept EOS descriptions where the pure component properties have been modified
from database standards. As such, if we did regress on these, we would be unable to build a

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fully integrated model (capturing from reservoir to processing plant).

With this in mind, it is best practice to only regress on the pseudo components' critical
properties.

Multiple Regression Steps

Most regressions should produce a characterised EOS that is able to reproduce the lab
results after performing just two or at most three regressions and these regression steps
should also be reproducible.

Unlike previous workflows, where it could become difficult to keep track of the precise series
of regression steps that were performed, resulting in a possible match being unreproducible,
the data object approach allows the user to keep a record of the steps performed, which is
particularly useful when performing regressions.

Performing many regression steps is typically a sign of no clear regression strategy having
been developed, the initial state of the EOS being too far away from the desired results or
counteracting forces, i.e. trying to matching the Psat, yields a worse match on the liquid
density. In the former case, the regression strategy may require review and in the later the
pseudo properties, i.e. the splitting profile, number of pseudos, etc., may require review.

With this in mind, it is best practice to achieve a match with the fewest number of distinct
regression steps – typically 2 or 3 at most.

Interrupting Regression Runs

To save time, a regression run can be terminated early if there is no observed change in error
with each regression step or the change in error is small. However, this can cause problems
when the error itself is still large because it means that the parameters have little effect on the
error. If this is the case, large changes in parameters may be calculated in order to reduce
the error, which can lead to unphysical properties to be calculated, e.g. negative densities if
the volume shifts are too large.

With this in mind, when interrupting a regression and the error is still large, this generally
indicates that the regression setup for that particular regression should be reviewed.

It should also be noted that terminating a regression early, even when the error is small, can
result in the EOS being difficult to reproduce exactly, as the point of termination may be
different each time. So avoid this, try and let the regression go to completion.

Notes on Regression

NOTE 1 The Oil FVF within the Separator calculation is corrected through all the

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succeeding stages. This correction can add up to 10 % to the un-

corrected value. To activate the correction add all stage temperatures and
pressures to the match table, even if no other matching is done within the
lower stages.

NOTE 2 If no satisfactory regression can be achieved the problem may be within

the following:

1. Incorrect or incompatible data entered for lab matching.

2. Too few pseudos used to give the system flexibility to match. See
the Split Pseudo 126 section for further details.

3. The distribution of the pseudos may not adequate for matching, in

which case a new definition of the Pseudo Properties 119 may be
tried.

The regression may succeed if a different path is taken to the solution e.g.
by

1. Taking each calculation consecutively i.e. regressing on one

calculation then using the regressed values as input to the next. A
reasonable order is Psat, followed by CCE then Separator etc.
i. I.e. setup a series of Regression objects. See Example 1 475
for guidance on this approach.

2. Selecting a different BIC correlation or entering new values

manually (via a PVT Fluid 158 object). Most calculations are very
dependent on the value of coefficient between the lightest and
heaviest components.

3. Taking care to match the Pseudo properties to the best lab

measurement available. This can be done by changing the
weightings 140 etc.

4. Selecting a different set of properties to regress e.g. density is

sensitive to Pc,Tc values while viscosity is almost totally dependent
on Vc.

5. Increasing the number of groups or ungrouping completely as this

gives the calculation more flexibility

2.3.3.4.7 Multi-Stream Regression

There are instances where we may wish to perform a multi-stream regression to allow us to
create a single EOS model that is applicable within a complex system. Some common
examples of when this may be required are:

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Different fluid samples from different depths

o Different composition, API, GOR etc.
Different fields tied in to the same surface network

This is not to say that a single EOS model is required within integrated models. In fact IPM is
well equipt to handle the blending of different EOS models and completely different fluid
types. GAP, our surface network modelling tool, has been specifically designed with this
consideration in mind, as often it is not possible to create a single EOS that adequately
describes significantly different fluids.

That said, having a single EOS where the component list and properties are the same, can
make blending more straight forward and clear from a users point of view.

The objective of the multi-stream regression is to create a single EOS model for several
samples. These samples will have different compositions but the same component properties
after regression. One important requirement is that the samples must have the same number
of components (both pure and pseudo) and the pseudos must be split in the same way.

To set up this kind of regression, the Regression object must have multiple inputs connected
to it, as illustrated in the simple example below:

Once a multi-stream regression case has been created (as above), the Regression object
screens will change subtly. An example of these screens is shown below:

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The key difference comes from the highlighted section, as this is where we can tell PVTp
which input stream links to which output stream.

Input Stream This lists all the objects connected directly upstream of the
Regression object.

Output Stream This lists all the objects connected directly downstream of the
Regression object until that object has been linked to an input
stream.

Input-Output Mapping Once streams have been mapped, the pairings will shown in this
list.

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Map Selected This function allows a mapping link to be created. To do this:

1. Select a stream from the Input Streams list.

2. Select a stream from the Output Streams list.
3. Press Map Selected.
4. Observe the pairing in the Input-Output Mapping list.

Remove Selected This function allows a mapping link to be deleted. To do this:

Mapping
1. Select a mapping pair from the Input-Output Mapping
list.
2. Press Remove Selected Mapping.

It is particularly important to validate the resulting EOS models after a multi-stream

regression, as it may not always be possible to achieve a satisfactory match.

2.3.3.4.8 Regression with Solids

In the Equation of State model ,viscosity is calculated by the method of Lohrenz, Bray and
Clark (LBC).

This display is called by the Regress Option in the Regression Match Data dialog. if a Solid
option has been entered in the Match Data Tables.

The possible entries include Wax Appearance Temperature and Amount of Wax.
If either of these option is chosen the display expands to include two further columns as
shown below:

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From the expressions within Wax modeling and Wax Model Details it can be seen that the
important variables as far as solid formation are concerned are Melting Point and Heat of
Melting.

Since a component is only allowed into the solid if its melting point is greater than the test
temperature only the heaviest components have any effect.
Melting Point is the key variable and it should be used first.
Heat of Melting has little effect on Wax Appearance Temperature but it significantly changes
the percentage of wax produced.
The lack of significant properties to change and the inflexibility of the underlying correlations
may mean that the model cannot fully match the variability found in complex wax forming
fluids.

NOTE: From the models it is obvious that the other component properties used in regression
i.e. Tc,Pc,AF etc. do not significantly influence solid formation. Their effect comes in the
composition and fugacity of the liquid solvent. It is therefore possible to match solid formation
in isolation from the other match points e.g. PSAT in a similar way to that proposed for
matching viscosities.

The procedure to adopt is as follows:

1. Set up and carry out the fluid matching for all variables except solids e.g. PSat,PSat
density, separator GOR , Stock Tank density etc. Suggestions for the variables to use

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are given in the Worked Example 459 . See also What Properties to use in Regression.

2. Enter the Wax values to be matched to using the WAT and %Solids tables within the
Match Data Tables.

3. Within the Match Selection Dialog, switch off all selections (psat etc. ) except solids.

4. Click on Regress to bring up the Parameter Selection Dialog . Use the Clear All button
to remove the Tc,Pc AF etc. Selections. Select the component Melting Points and if
necessary Heats of Melting (as above)

5. Click on Regress to match wax properties.

6. Return the matching system to the selections prior to step 1 i.e. PSat etc and Tc Pc
AFs selected. Regress again .This step is not really necessary as the matching should
not be disturbed. The operation does, however, re-establish the selections which made
the overall match possible.

Note:
If a different wax model is to be selected, then it is possible to change the model by
accessing the Change button in the Regression screen and selecting the desired was
calculation option:

See Wax modeling 434 for more details on the model types available.
2.3.3.5 PVT Fluid
The PVT Fluid object encapsulate all the component properties and EOS settings that make
up the fluid description up to that point in the characterisation process.

There are a number of tabs within the PVT Fluid object, each of which will be discussed
separately. These include:

1. Properties 159
2. More Properties 160
3. BICs 161
4. Plot 161
5. EOS Options 162
6. Water Composition 165
7. Hoffmann Quality Plot 166

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It should be noted that unless the user wishes to manually change parameters or settings,
there is no requirement to interact with this object. If not changes are made in this object, it
will therefore hold the same description as the Output Fluid of other Characterisation
objects. In such cases, it is not necessary to use this object.

Some Calculation object require fluid descriptions from this kind of object, rather than the
Output Fluid within other Characterisation objects. Any Calculation object where this applies
have this requirement documented within their respective sections.

In addition to the above, it is possible to import an existing EOS description into this object.
For information of the different formats possible please refer to the Import Options 168 section.

2.3.3.5.1 Properties
Below is an example of the properties view in this object:

In this tab the user can view the following properties for each component:

1. Composition
2. Component Type
3. Critical Temperature 400

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4. Critical Pressure 400

5. Acentric Factor 387
6. Omega A 385
7. Omega B 385
8. Critical Volume 412
9. Molecular Weight
10. Boiling Temperature
11. Specific Gravity
12. Volume Shift S 393
13. Parachor 423

2.3.3.5.2 More Properties

Below is an example of the more properties view in this object:

In this tab the user can view the following properties for each component:

1. Composition
2. Component Type
3. COSTALD Acentric Factor 409
4. COSTALD Volume 409
5. Z Rack (This is the Z factor as obtained via the Rackett equation)

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6. Z Crit
7. Melting Point
8. Heat of Fusion 435
9. Molar Volume
10. Solubility Parameter
11. Solubility Parameter (Solid)

2.3.3.5.3 BICs
Below is an example of the BICs view in this object:

Here binary interaction coefficients (BICs) can be viewed and manually modified if required.

For more information on BICs please refer to the BIC Input Data 136 section in the Pseudo
Properties object and the Binary Interaction Coefficient 391 section.

2.3.3.5.4 Plot
This interface allows the user to plot the component properties. Below is an example of the
plot view:

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2.3.3.5.5 EOS Options

Below is an example of the EOS options view in this object:

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In this tab the user can view or modify (is the Use Upstream box is unchecked) the following
settings:

Oil Viscosity The user can choose from the following models:
model
1. Lohrenz Bray Clark
2. Pedersen at al
3. Zhou et al
4. Little Kennedy
5. Black Oil - Beal
6. Black Oil - Beggs
7. Black Oil - Petrovsky
8. Black Oil - Bergman Sutton
9. Black Oil - Egbogah

Please refer to the Viscosity 412 section for further information.

Gas Viscosity The user can choose from the following models:
model
1. Lohrenz Bray Clark

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2. Pedersen at al
3. Zhou et al
4. Little Kennedy
5. Black Oil - Lee
6. Black Oil - Carr

Please refer to the Viscosity 412 section for further information.

Allow User LBC Checking this box allows the user to modify the coefficients that are part
Coefficients of the Lohrenz Bray Clark model.

Enable/Disable Checking or unchecking these options will respectively enable and

Volume Shift disable the Volume Shifts.
Pseudo Enthalpy The user can choose from the following models:
model
1. Original - Uses a simple correlation to determine each
component enthalpy as a function of SG, MW and BPt.
2. Lee and Kesler - Provides a more complex description of fluid
enthalpy by correcting specific heat capacities. This is
particularly useful for heavy oils.

The user can also enter shift and multiplier coefficients if desired to
match lab measurements.

Please refer to the Enthalpy 423 section for further information.

Water and Multi- The user can choose from the following flash methods:
Phase Flash
model 1. Two Phase
2. Pseudo Multi Phase
3. Multi Phase Soreide and Whitson
4. Multi Phase Hydrafact Cubic
5. Multi Phase Hydrafact CPA

The user can also choose from the following two phase flash methods:

1. Original
2. IPM High Mode

When water is added to the fluid, the CCE and Separator calculations
become 3 phase flashes by default. This flag optionally changes the
calculation back to being two phase.

Use Upstream Having this box checked for an option will grey that option out and use
the same settings as have been previously defined upstream of that
particular PVT Fluid object.

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If any of these options are changed, the PVT Fluid object icon will appear as shown below:

2.3.3.5.6 Water Composition

Below is an example of the water composition view in this object:

In this tab the user can view or modify (is the Use Upstream box is unchecked) the following
settings:

Inhibitors Any number of hydrate inhibitors can be selected from this list.

Once a selection is made, the mole percent needs to be added to the

table.

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Clear Inhibitors This button will clear the current selection.

Salts This is where different salt compounds can be added to the water
composition.

Salts Mode There are two options for entry:

1. Use Salinity Only - this allows the water salinity to be entered in

the Water Salinity box. Note, right clicking on this box will allow
the salinity units to be changed.

2. Use Composition - this allows the user to enter a weight

percentage in the table.

Clear Salts This button will clear the current selection.

Convert Salinity This button will covert the entered salinity value into the equivalent weight
to Composition percent of NaCl.

Convert This button will clear the current selection salt weight percentages into
Composition to an equivalent salinity.
Salinity
Use Upstream Having this box checked for an option will grey that option out and use
the same settings as have been previously defined upstream of that
particular PVT Fluid object.

If any of these options are changed, the PVT Fluid object icon will appear as shown below:

2.3.3.5.7 Hoffmann Quality Plot

The principles behind the Hoffmann Qulaity Plot are described in the paper:

Equilibrium Constants for a Gas-Condensate System by A. E. Hoffmann, J. S. Crump and

C.R. Hocott, Trans., AIME (1953)198, 1-10.

The basis of the plot is that if log (KP) is plotted against a characteristic b function the
resultant values should approximate to a straight line. Any gross deviations from this
behaviour suggest that the X, Y combination for that component is suspect.

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An example of this interface is shown below:

Pressure This is the pressure at which the samples were taken. This could be a
physical measurement or the pressure used in a flash calculation.

Temperature This is the temperature at which the samples were taken. This could be
a physical measurement or the temperature used in a flash calculation.

Liquid Comp. Here is where the liquid composition should be entered.

Vapour Comp. Here is where the vapour composition should be entered.

Liquid/Vapour This helps with user ensure 100% is accounted for.

Total
Results Plot Here is where the various results can be plotted.

Results Table Here the results can be viewed in a tabular format.

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Normally the composition table is blank and on entering the required data, the calculation is
automatically performed.

2.3.3.5.8 Import Options

If this object is put on the canvas without being connected to another object upstream of it, the
interface will appear as below:

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By selecting the Import Fluid button the following screen will be displayed:

IPM EoS This allows a *.prp file format to be imported. These sorts of formats
Composition can be exported from PVTp, as well as the other applications such as
PROSPER and MBAL.

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Eclipse This allows for an *.inc or *.pvo file format to be imported.

Compositional
Format There is also the requirement to specify the unit set before importing.

CMG This allows for a *.gem file format to be imported.

Compositional
Format There is also the requirement to specify the unit set before importing.

2.3.3.6 Target GOR

The Target GOR object is designed to allow the user to recalculate the composition of a fluid
to meet a specified GOR.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Target GOR object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,
though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. Target GOR Input 171

2. Output Fluid 173

Use this option to create a new EOS with a particular GOR by combining the separator gas
and stock tank oil from a matched stream. This is particularly useful when one wants to
estimate the correct composition of a wrongly recombined (or sampled) fluid or when the
GOR changes due to the reservoir depletion below saturation pressure.

The procedure for creating the new EOS is as follows:

Connect any Characterisation object with an EOS within it to the Target GOR object,
for example:

Enter the target GOR and select the required method.

Calculate the object.
If required, reconnect the Target GOR object to another object to continue the
characterisation process or "select" the object for further calculations:

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IMPORTANT NOTE
When this stream is created it is done with surface gas and oil. The process therefore
mimics a fluid recombination. If the objective is to reflect a loss or gain of gas at
reservoir conditions then the approach is not entirely appropriate. The gas evolved
near saturation or that present in the gas cap may be quite different to that produced
from the separators. Using the swelling test or other methodologies may produce
better results.

2.3.3.6.1 Target GOR Input

Below is an example of the Target GOR calculation input screen.

Method There are two methods. The options refer to the source of the gas and
oil which are mixed to create the new fluid which matches the target
GOR.

1. Use Separator Fluids

The stream performs a full separator calculation using the
selected path to surface. The accumulated gas and dead oil

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compositions found during this flash are then mixed in the GOR
target calculation. The input separator train is used to calculate
the GOR of the new mixture

2. Fluids from Near PSAT

The saturation pressure of the stream is calculated at the
reservoir temperature. A flash is then carried out a pressure just
below this pressure value. The gas and oil compositions found
during this flash are then mixed in the target GOR calculation.
The selected path to surface is used to calculate the GOR of the
new mixture.

Note that the resulting composition can be very different using the two
methods. Since the Fluids from Near PSAT method uses gas and oil
which already have a significant GOR, mixing these two fluids cannot
produce a fluid with a GOR beyond the range of the intial values . To
help the user these limits are displayed as the maximum and minimum
GOR for this method.

Max Iterations The maximum number of iterations PVTp will try before giving up on the
calculation.

Tolerance The accuracy tolerance (% error) of the final value. If desired, this value
can be changed here.

Target GOR This is the value of GOR the original fluid will be recombined to match.

Stream GOR This is the original fluid GOR.

Number of The number of iterations carried out.

Iterations
Best GOR This is the closest match to the target GOR achieved.

Path to Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

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The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.6.2 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.3.7 Target PSAT

The Target PSAT object is designed to allow the user to recalculate the composition of a fluid
to meet a specified saturation pressure.

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There are a number of sub-sections within the Target PSAT object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,
though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. Target PSAT Input 174

2. PSAT Profile 177
3. Output Fluid 178

The procedure for creating the new EOS with the specified saturation pressure is as follows:

Connect any Characterisation object with an EOS within it to the Target PSAT object,
for example:

Enter the target saturation pressure and select the required methods.
Calculate the object.
If required, reconnect the Target PSAT object to another object to continue the
characterisation process or "select" the object for further calculations:

2.3.3.7.1 Target PSAT Input

Below is an example of the Target PSAT calculation input screen.

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Method There are two methods. The options refer to the source of the gas and
oil which are mixed to create the new fluid which matches the target
PSAT.

1. Use Separator Fluids

The stream performs a full separator calculation using the
selected path to surface. The accumulated gas and dead oil
compositions found during this flash are then mixed to create a
new fluid with the targeted saturation pressure.

2. Fluids from Near PSAT

The stream has its saturation pressure calculated at the input
reservoir temperature. A flash is then carried out a pressure just
below this PSAT value. The gas and oil compositions found
during this flash are then mixed to create a new fluid with the
targeted saturation pressure.

Note that the results can be very different using the two methods. In
general a much higher maximum saturation pressure can be found using
the Fluids from Near PSAT method.

Max Iterations The maximum number of iterations PVTp will try before giving up on the
calculation.

Tolerance The accuracy tolerance (% error) of the final value. If desired, this value
can be changed here.

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Use Reservoir By checking this option the reservoir temperature from the connected
Temperature from PVT Sample object will be used. If a different temperature is required,
PVT Sample uncheck this box to enable the Reservoir Temperature input box..

Reservoir This is the temperature at which the Target PSAT will be performed.
Temperature
Target Fluid Type Select from Gas or Oil.

When recombining oil and gas, depending on the proportions either an

oil or a gas can be obtained, both having the same PSAT.

The phase envelope below illustrates this:

Target PSAT This is the saturation pressure the original fluid will be recombined to
match.
Stream PSAT This is the original fluid's saturation pressure for the specified
temperature.
Number of The number of iterations carried out.
Iterations
Best PSAT This is the closest match to the target PSAT achieved.
Path to Surface This option is only available with the Use Separator Fluids method is
used.

This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

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Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.7.2 PSAT Profile

After performing the Target PSAT calculation, the saturation pressure profiles for the liquid
and vapour phases. An example of this is shown below:

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Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that are able to be plotted.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.3.7.3 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.3.8 Blend Streams

The Blend Streams object allows the user to blend stream together. Blending is performed
by looking for a match on component name and/or molecular weight or specific gravity. If no
match is found on this basis, the components are carried forward individually.

There are a two sub-sections within the Blend Streams object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,

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though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. EOS Blend Input 179

2. Output Fluid 181

2.3.3.8.1 EOS Blend Input

To set up this kind of blending, the Blend Streams object must have multiple inputs connected
to it, as illustrated in the simple example below:

Please note:

Input streams can come from any object with an "Output Fluid" section or a PVT Fluid
158 object.

It is not essential to have an equal number of output streams as input streams.

o It is possible to have any number of output streams.
o This includes the option to have no output streams. This is because the Blend
Stream object contains an Output Fluid 181 .
o This feature simply makes it possible to pass data to another object for
subsequent processing or export.
o All output streams will have the same composition.

An example of these screens is shown below:

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The key difference comes from the highlighted section, as this is where we can tell PVTp
which input stream links to which output stream.

Input Type There are two methods for defining the blend ratio:

1. Mole Percent
2. Mass Percent

Depending on which option is selected, PVTp will automatically

calculated the other option once input is complete.

Stream Amounts This table allows the user to define the stream ratios for
blending. The list is ordered depending in the order that the
input streams were connected to the Blend Streams object.

Input Stream This lists all the objects connected directly upstream of the
Blend Streams object.

Output Stream This lists all the objects connected directly downstream of the
Blend Streams object until that object has been linked to an
input stream.

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Input-Output Mapping Once streams have been mapped, the pairings will shown in this
list. In the case of the Blend Streams object, it does not really
matter about how input and output streams are paired, as all
output streams will have the same composition after
blending.

Map Selected This function allows a mapping link to be created. To do this:

1. Select a stream from the Input Streams list.

2. Select a stream from the Output Streams list.
3. Press Map Selected.
4. Observe the pairing in the Input-Output Mapping list.

Remove Selected This function allows a mapping link to be deleted. To do this:

Mapping
1. Select a mapping pair from the Input-Output Mapping
list.
2. Press Remove Selected Mapping.

2.3.3.8.2 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

In this particular case, it may be helpful to understand how the streams are blended. Below is
a simple example where an 80:20 mole % blend is taking place. As can be seen below, the
Output Fluid contains a mixture of unique and common components from each stream:

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2.3.3.9 Blend To GOR

The Blend to GOR object allows users to blend streams together so that they satisfy a
specific GOR.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Blend to GOR object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,
though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. Blend to GOR Input 183

2. GOR Profile 186

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3. Output Fluid 187

2.3.3.9.1 Blend to GOR Input

To set up this kind of blending, the Blend To GOR object must have multiple inputs connected
to it, as illustrated in the simple example below:

Please note:

Input streams can come from any object with an "Output Fluid" section or a PVT Fluid
158 object.

It is not essential to have an equal number of output streams as input streams.

o It is possible to have any number of output streams.
o This includes the option to have no output streams. This is because the Blend To
GOR object contains an Output Fluid 181 .
o This feature simply makes it possible to pass data to another object for
subsequent processing or export.
o All output streams will have the same composition.

An example of these screens is shown below:

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The key difference comes from the highlighted section, as this is where we can tell PVTp
which input stream links to which output stream.

Max Iteration The maximum number of iterations PVTp will try before giving
up on the calculation

Tolerance The accuracy tolerance (% error) of the final value. If desired,

this value can be changed here.

Target GOR This is the value of GOR the streams will be blended to match.

Number of Iterations The number of iterations carried out.

Best GOR This is the closest match to the target GOR achieved

Blending Results Once the object is calculated, here is where the user will see
the proportions of each stream required in a mole and mass
percentage.

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Path To Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which
the oil or gas will be flashed to correct the GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard

conditions can significantly change the final oil characteristics
and the amount of gas liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these
options require the respective calculation object to the present
so that the inputs of those objects can be used respectively. If
more than one of these objects is available, the drop down
boxes can be used to select the correct one.

Input Stream This lists all the objects connected directly upstream of the
Blend Streams object.

Output Stream This lists all the objects connected directly downstream of the
Blend Streams object until that object has been linked to an
input stream.

Input-Output Mapping Once streams have been mapped, the pairings will shown in this
list. In the case of the Blend Streams object, it does not really
matter about how input and output streams are paired, as all

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output streams will have the same composition after

blending.

Map Selected This function allows a mapping link to be created. To do this:

1. Select a stream from the Input Streams list.

2. Select a stream from the Output Streams list.
3. Press Map Selected.
4. Observe the pairing in the Input-Output Mapping list.

Remove Selected This function allows a mapping link to be deleted. To do this:

Mapping
1. Select a mapping pair from the Input-Output Mapping
list.
2. Press Remove Selected Mapping.

2.3.3.9.2 GOR Profile

Below is an example of the GOR Profile plot.

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Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.3.9.3 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

In this particular case, it may be helpful to understand how the streams are blended to meet
the GOR. Below is a simple example where GOR of 2000 scf/STB is being targeted. As can
be seen below, the Output Fluid contains a mixture of unique and common components from
each stream:

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2.3.3.10 Decontamination
The Decontamination object is designed to allow the user to extract a part of the
composition that has been identified as a contaminant to the fluid.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Decontamination object, which can be seen by
the buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Decontaminate Input 189

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2. Results Plot 191

3. Output Fluid 192

While the following section details the screens and inputs for the decontamination object, it is
recommended that the Decontamination Example 625 be reviewed before this object is used.
2.3.3.10.1 Decontaminate Input
Below is an example of the Decontamination calculation input screen:

Use Contaminant If the composition of the contaminant is available, this can be used as
Composition basis fro the decontamination of the reservoir fluid
Use This model consists of entering directly the composition of the
Decontaminant uncontaminated fluid in the region of contamination. The program will
Composition then determine the total uncontaminated fluid composition.

Contaminant Composition

If the Use Contaminant Composition option is selected, then the Contaminant Compostion
tab should be used to enter the appropriate data.

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Contaminant Input This option dictates whether the contaminant composition needs to
Mode be entered by either mole or weight percent.
Contaminant Amount Enter the percentage of the original composition which is
contaminant. Depending upon the option selected in the Input Mode,
this can be entered in either mole% or weight%.
Contaminant This is used to enter the composition of the contaminant which is to
Composition be removed. The sum of the components entered should equal
100%.
Contaminant As the contaminant is likely to contain only a fraction of the total
Composition - Start/ different components of the full fluid, it is possible to filter the table
End to make it easier to enter data. Entering a value into the Start box
will remove all components before the selected one while entering a
value into the End box will remove all components after the selected
one.

Split Composition

If the Use Decontaminant Composition option is selected, then the Split Composition tab
should be used to enter the desired composition:

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Decontam Comp Enter the mole percent of the decontaminated fluid sample into the
Profile column. Please note, that it is possible to only enter values for the
components which are affected by the decontamination process. If this
is done and the total mol% does not add up to 100%, then the other
components will have their mol% changed until it does.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.10.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

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Select EOS The initial (contaminated) and result (decontaminated) fluids can be
selected for plotting on the right hand side of the screen.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis.
X-Axis Variable All variables are plotted against component index.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.10.3 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.3.11 Saturate with H2O

The Saturate with H2O object is designed to allow the user to saturate a fluid with water at a
given pressure and temperature.

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There are two sub-sections within the Saturate with H2O object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately,
though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections
include:

1. Sat. With Water Input 193

2. Output Fluid 194

2.3.3.11.1 Sat. With Water Input

Below is an example of the Sat With Water Input screen:

Use Reservoir By checking this option the reservoir pressure and temperature from the
Conditions From connected PVT Sample object will be used to calculate the mole
PVT Sample percentage of water saturated in the sample.
If a different pressure and temperature are required, uncheck this box to
enable the Reservoir Temperature/Pressure input boxes.
Please note that if no PVT Sample is included in the input stream, then
this option will be greyed out and a reservoir pressure and temperature
need to be defined explicitly.

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Reservoir Enter the temperature to be used to calculate the mole percentage of

Temperature water saturated in the sample.

Reservoir Enter the pressure to be used to calculate the mole percentage of water
Pressure saturated in the sample..

Use Salts in By checking this option the Reservoir Water Composition tab will be
Calculation enabled at the top of the screen. This allows salts and inhibitors to be
added to the water which will effect the waters ability to saturate the
fluid.
For more information on the Water Composition tab can be found here
165 .

Saturated Water After the calculation has been run, the mole percentage of water
Mole Percent saturated in the fluid will be reported in this box.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.11.2 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.3.12 Add Water

The Add Water object allows the user to include water within an EOS description.

There are two sub-sections within the Add Water object, which can be seen by the buttons
down the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately, though
it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Add Water Input 195

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2. Output Fluid 196

2.3.3.12.1 Add Water Input

Below is an example of the Add Water input screen:

Enter WCT/WGR Selecting this option will enable the user to define the amount of water
to be added to the stream using either water cut or WGR.

WCT/WGR - Use If the Enter WCT/WGR option is selected, then this option allows the
dominant phase (on which the water amount is to be defined) to be set.
If Oil WCT is selected, then the oil phase will be used as the dominant
and the water cut will need to be entered.
If Gas WGR is selected, then the gas phase will be used as the
dominant and the water gas ratio will need to be entered.

Water/Gas Ratio Enter the Water Gas Ratio which will be used to calculate the amount of
water to be added to the stream.

Water Cut Enter the Water Cut which will be used to calculate the amount of water
to be added to the stream..

Path To Surface If the Enter WCT/WGR option has been enabled, then the amount of
Data water to be added will be defined at standard conditions. As such, it is
necessary to know the path the fluid has taken to get to surface.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas

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liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Enter Water Selecting this option will enable the user to define the mole percent of
Amount water to be added to the stream

Water Mole If the Enter Water Amount option is selected, enter the mole percent of
Percent water which is to be added to the stream.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.12.2 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

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2.3.3.13 Export EOS

The Export EOS object allows the user to export the fluid description in a number of different
formats, including EOS, blackoil tables and third party formats.

There is only one sub-section within the Export EOS object, which can be seen by the button
on the left hand side of the object. This sub-section is the Export Input 197 section.

2.3.3.13.1 Export Input

Below is an example of the Export Input screen:

Select Export This option allows the export file type to be selected. When each type is
Type selected, a new tab is added to the bottom section of the screen.

Use Reservoir By checking this option the reservoir temperature from the connected
Temperature from PVT Sample object will be used for export types which require a
PVT Sample Reservoir Temperature.
If a different temperature is required, uncheck this box to enable the
Reservoir Temperature input box.
Please note that if no PVT Sample is included in the input stream, then
this option will be greyed out and a reservoir temperature need to be

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defined explicitly.
Reservoir For export types which require a Reservoir Temperature, this value will
Temperature be used if the Use Reservoir Temperature from PVT Sample option is
not selected.

Water Salinity For export types which require a Water Salinity, this value will be used.

Path to Surface For given export types (and if tables are generated) the Path to Surface
Data is required.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Export This option exports the chosen format to file.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

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2.3.3.13.1.1 IPM EOS Composition

Below is an example of the IPM EoS Composition Type screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to export the
- Export lumped composition only, the delumped composition only or both
Composition compositions.
Export Lump Rule If a Lumping Rule has been defined for the fluid, this can be exported
with Composition as part of the *.prp file if this option is selected. For more information on
lumping rules, please refer to the Lumping 231 section.

Below is an example of the export file produces by the IPM EoS Composition Export Option
within PVTp
NOTES
1) the options read are dictated by the file version number. The program maintains
compatibility with old file versions but some properties or options may not be set
2) all variables are exported and imported in field units only.

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In case Lumping/Delumping is present in a stream, the .PRP file will contain both the Full and
Lumped composition and the Lumping Rule to pass from one to the other.
An example is shown below:

*
* Petroleum Experts - PRP Export File
*
*
*Export File Signature
*#PetexPRP
*Export File Version
*#16
*
* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! FILE DETAILS !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
* FILE NAME : C:\Users\tmerbecks\Downloads\Lumping-Delumping_final.prp
* Exported : Tue Mar 21 18:35:15 2017
* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
*
*
* Equation Type 0 - Peng Robinson 1 - SRK
0
*
*
*
* Number of Components Number of Lumped Components - Set to 0 if No Lumping Present
*
17 6
*
*
* Mole Critical Critical Accentric Molecular Specific Critical

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Volume Boiling Parachor OmegaA OmegaB Costald Costald Component

* Percent Temperature Pressure Factor Weight Gravity Volume
Shift Point Volume Accentric Fact Name
*
* percent degrees F psig lb/lb.mole Gravity l/kg.mole
degrees F l/kg.mole
* ------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
--------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
---------
*

0.309999985 -233.104004 477.32608 0.0390000008 28.0100002 1.02600002 89.8000031 -

0.153999999 -320.350006 60.4000015 0.457235529 0.0777960739 89.8000031 0.0390000008 "N2"
2.32999988 87.6920013 1058.25891 0.238999993 44.0099983 1.10099995 93.9000015 -
0.100199997 -109.209999 78 0.457235529 0.0777960739 93.9000015 0.238999993 "CO2"
68.7299966 -116.517998 658.380798 0.0109999999 16.0400009 0.414999992 99.1999969 -
0.169021085 -258.790009 70 0.457235529 0.0777960739 99.1999969 0.0109999999 "C1"
12.3699994 89.7979965 693.651184 0.0989999995 30.1000004 0.546000004 148.300003
0.144581646 -127.389999 115 0.457235529 0.0777960739 148.300003 0.0989999995 "C2"
5.00999975 206.005997 602.682983 0.152999997 44.0999985 0.584999979 203 -
0.0737650841 -43.6899986 155 0.457235529 0.0777960739 203 0.152999997 "C3"
1.29999994 274.694 514.359985 0.182999998 58.0999985 0.600000024 263 -
0.93227005 10.8500004 181.5 0.457235529 0.0777960739 263 0.182999998 "IC4"
1.40999993 305.294006 535.963135 0.199000001 58.0999985 0.600000024 255 -
0.79191643 31.1900005 200 0.457235529 0.0777960739 255 0.199000001 "NC4"
0.59999997 369.806 468.361511 0.226999998 72.1999969 0.620999992 306 -
1.02865613 82.1299973 225 0.457235529 0.0777960739 306 0.226999998 "IC5"
0.79999996 385.59201 474.827759 0.250999987 72.1999969 0.629999995 304 -
0.707209468 96.8899994 245 0.457235529 0.0777960739 304 0.250999987 "NC5"
0.959999952 454.100006 425.008331 0.298999995 86.1999969 0.663999975 370 -
0.338579506 155.75 282.5 0.457235529 0.0777960739 370 0.298999995 "C6"
1.03275995 469.004913 366.199249 0.324606925 118.205002 0.790524006 513.026123 -
0.16004476 278.516998 360.825439 0.457235529 0.0777960739 477.350708 0.324606925 "C7::C9"
1.44994993 520.127625 358.507416 0.389556885 142.317001 0.816838026 610.499512 -
0.0385923348 356.419006 421.399597 0.457235529 0.0777960739 549.466553 0.389556885
"C10::C11"
1.20878994 584.877441 352.221069 0.45922333 168.371002 0.841445029 718.668579
0.0267236773 435.45401 481.993744 0.457235529 0.0777960739 654.734863 0.45922333
"C12::C13"
0.649470968 817.557922 343.423096 0.51284194 191.102005 0.856844008 804.419373
0.109054677 492.145996 531.406311 0.457235529 0.0777960739 748.999084 0.51284194
"C14::C14"
0.525084974 918.090881 294.021149 0.556492388 207.529007 0.867217004 876.045715
0.159527346 535.682007 565.459473 0.457235529 0.0777960739 819.955505 0.556492388
"C15::C15"
0.751112962 953.889587 285.648468 0.600647986 230.606003 0.878147006 947.97522
0.124890819 579.065002 611.420898 0.457235529 0.0777960739 917.979065 0.600647986
"C16::C17"
0.562835972 1006.14093 251.158356 0.667824745 265.493011 0.891615987 1060.04675
0.145392463 641.086975 677.985229 0.457235529 0.0777960739 1071.88171 0.667824745
"C18::C20"
*
* Binary Interaction Coefficients
*
* Only non-zero BICs are exported and imported
* WARNING the number of non-zero BICs in IPM is currently limited to 450
* Any values over this limit will be lost
*
* Number of non-zero BICs to be written or read
*

1
* Only first half of array is exported - values will be copied to second half
*
16 2 0.05

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*
* Volume Shift Flag
*
1
*
* OIL Viscosity Options
* LBC LBCCOEFF PED BEGGS BEAL PETROSKY BERGMAN EGBOG
*
LBC
*
* GAS Viscosity Options
* LBC LBCCOEFF PED LEE CARR
*
LBC
*
*Enthalpy Model
*
0
*
*Enthalpy Model Shift Multiplier
*
0 1
*
*
* CO2 Correction
*
1
*
* Hydrate Model Options
* MUNCK HCUBIC HCPA
*
MUNCK
*
* Use Hyd Inhibitor
*
1
*
*
* Use Alcohol Correction
*
1
*
* Water Composition
*
* Number of Salts
*
0
*
* Number of Inhibitors
*
1
*
* Inhibitor List
*
* 1 Methanol
* 2 Ethanol
* 3 Ethyl Glycol:MEG
* 4 DEG
* 5 TEG
* 6 Glycerol
* 7 i-Propanol
* 8 n-Propanol

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* 9 Propylene Glycol
*
* Inhibitor Index Amount
1 0.564971751
*
*
* Water Cut
* Use Gas Water Cut
*
0
*
*Water Cut Oil
0
*Water Cut Gas
0
*
*
*
* LUMPED COMPOSITION
*
* Mole Critical Critical Accentric Molecular Specific Critical
Volume Boiling Parachor OmegaA OmegaB Costald Costald Single
Exempt Component
* Percent Temperature Pressure Factor Weight Gravity Volume
Shift Point Volume Accentric Fact
Name
*
* percent degrees F psig lb/lb.mole Gravity l/kg.mole
degrees F l/kg.mole
* ------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
--------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
--------------- --------------- ---------
*

68.9558529 -117.041487 657.567835 0.0111257241 16.093748 0.417743474 99.1577895 -

0.168953638 -259.066423 69.9568946 0.457235529 0.0777960739 99.1577895 0.0111257241 0 0
"N2C1"
19.6898842 119.087449 713.630145 0.129276 35.3029576 0.621522061 155.773112
0.0601443885 -103.965524 120.793506 0.457235529 0.0777960739 155.773112 0.129276 0 0
"CO2C2C3"
5.09919845 345.928987 491.767872 0.225351081 67.3141989 0.619337284 292.593688 -
0.756716136 65.9552069 220.936884 0.457235529 0.0777960739 292.593688 0.225351081 0 0
"IC4NC4IC5NC5C"
3.73980836 527.027649 358.600859 0.394198462 144.1027 0.817533849 618.649876 -
0.0511828439 360.504783 424.294635 0.457235529 0.0777960739 563.761263 0.394198462 0 0
"C7::C9C10::C1"
1.95242008 898.147491 307.41717 0.558993412 210.989919 0.867981781 879.944596
0.128994331 537.920271 571.901745 0.457235529 0.0777960739 834.258395 0.558993412 0 0
"C14::C14C15::"
0.562835972 1006.14093 251.158356 0.667824745 265.493011 0.891615987 1060.04675
0.145392463 641.086975 677.985229 0.457235529 0.0777960739 1071.88171 0.667824745 1 0
"C18::C20"
*
* LUMPED Binary Interaction Coefficients
*

1
* Lumped Values
*
5 0 0.0689654214
*
* Lumped Volume Shift Flag
*
1

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*
* Composition Lump Tag
*
"LUM1"
*
* Number of Lump Rules Exported
*
1
********************************************
* Lump Rules Tag
"LUM1"
* Lump Rules Description
"Created from Lumping of Lumping-Delumping_start.pvi¼‘ "
* Last Edit Date
19 2 2009
* Number of Lumps
6
* Lump Name
"N2C1"
* Lump Type
1
* Lump Description
"N2 + C1"
* Lump Data
* Number of Components in Lump
2
* Component Name Index Type
"N2" 0 2
"C1" 5 2
* BIC Multiplier Flag Value
1 1.38552967
*
*** End of Lump 1 ***
* Lump Name
"CO2C2C3"
* Lump Type
1
* Lump Description
"CO2 + C2 + C3"
* Lump Data
* Number of Components in Lump
3
* Component Name Index Type
"CO2" 1 2
"C2" 6 2
"C3" 7 2
* BIC Multiplier Flag Value
1 1.38552967
*
*** End of Lump 2 ***
* Lump Name
"IC4NC4IC5NC5C6"
* Lump Type
1
* Lump Description
"iC4 + nC4 + iC5 + nC5 + C6"
* Lump Data
* Number of Components in Lump
5
* Component Name Index Type
"IC4" 8 2
"NC4" 9 2

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"IC5" 10 2
"NC5" 11 2
"C6" 12 2
* BIC Multiplier Flag Value
1 1.38552967
*
*** End of Lump 3 ***
* Lump Name
"C7::C9C10::C++"
* Lump Type
1
* Lump Description
"C7::C9 + C10::C11 + C12::C13"
* Lump Data
* Number of Components in Lump
3
* Component Name Index Type
"C7::C9" -1 3
"C10::C11" -1 3
"C12::C13" -1 3
* BIC Multiplier Flag Value
1 1.38552967
*
*** End of Lump 4 ***
* Lump Name
"C14::C14C15:++"
* Lump Type
1
* Lump Description
"C14::C14 + C15::C15 + C16::C17"
* Lump Data
* Number of Components in Lump
3
* Component Name Index Type
"C14::C14" -1 3
"C15::C15" -1 3
"C16::C17" -1 3
* BIC Multiplier Flag Value
1 1.38552967
*
*** End of Lump 5 ***
* Lump Name
"LAST_PSEUDO"
* Lump Type
3
* Lump Description
"Last Pseudo Component"
* Lump Data
* Number of Components in Lump
1
* Component Name Index Type
"LAST_PSEUDO" 0 3
* BIC Multiplier Flag Value
1 1.38552967
*
*** End of Lump 6 ***
*
*# ************* End of Lump Rule *************
*
*
* Separators T, P
*

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3 1
100 500
90 100
60 0
*
* Reference Temperature
*
255
*
*# End of file
*

2.3.3.13.1.2 PROSPER Hydrate

The PROSPER Hydrate export type is used to generate a hydrate curve which can then be
imported into PROSPER.

Below is an example of the PROSPER Hydrate screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Hydrate For more information on all of the options available for running the
Calculation hydrate calculation, please refer to the Hydrate Formation 345 section.
Options

The file is in ASCII e.g.

*

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 207 PVTP

* Petroleum Experts - Hydrate Export File

*
*
*Export File Signature
*#PetexHYD
*Export File Version
*#1
*
* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! PVT FILE DETAILS !!!!!!!!!!!!!!
* PVT FILE NAME : C:\PVTP_Files\Samples\Ipm360\samples\pvtp\BLEND.PVI
* Exported :Thu Nov 09 08:47:02 2006
* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
*
* All variables are exported in Field units
*
* Temperature Pressure
* (degrees F) (psig)
30 98.4336
37.7778 184.709
45.5556 339.382
53.3333 628.548
61.1111 1295.94
68.8889 3239.27
76.6667 6487.05
84.4444 10804.8
92.2222 15642
100 20592.4
*
*
*#End of File

2.3.3.13.1.3 Petex Black Oil Table

The PETEX Black Oil Table export type is used to generate a black oil tables for the different
IPM programs.

Below is an example of the PETEX Black Oil Table screen:

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To generate Black Oil Tables, the following steps should be taken:

1. Enter the export file path using the Browse option.

2. On the left hand side of the screen, use the Add Temp button to add as many temperature
tables as are required. Please note that if isothermal tables are to be exported only 1 table is
required. If tables need to be removed, select Remove Temp.
3. For each table, enter the temperature in the Temperature field.
4. For each table, enter a range of pressures in the Pressure column of the table. This can be
done manually or by copy and paste. Please note that if the saturation pressure is not
entered, this will be added automatically during the calculation.
5. Select the source of the fluid density via the Export Density option.
6. To select the required export variables, on the right hand side of the screen select the
program which the table is to be exported to in the Target Program input and the type of fluid
to be exported in the Fluid Type menu. once both have been selected, press Set and then

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 209 PVTP

will add the required columns to the table.

7. Select Export at the bottom of the screen to run the calculation and export the results to
the Export File location.

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Add Temp. This will add a new table with a blank temperature.
Remove Temp. This will delete the currently selected temperature table.
Temperature Enter the temperature of the currently selected table.
Saturation Once the table has been calculated, the saturation pressure will be
Pressure reported in this field.
Export Density This option can be used to select the source of the fluid density which is
exported in the table. Two options are available:
- EoS Density - will calculate the density directly from the EoS
- Standing Katz Density - will calculate the density via the
Standing Katz correlation
Export Variables - Select the IPM program which the table will be imported into. This will
Target Program affect the properties which are included in the table.
Export Variables - Select the type of fluid which is being modelled. This will affect the
Fluid Type properties which are included in the table.
Export Variables - This option will select the PVT properties which are required to be
Set included in the table based upon the Target Program and Fluid Type.

2.3.3.13.1.4 MBAL PVT with Depth

MBAL PVT with Depth files (*.ptg) are files which contain the data in a form which can be
imported into MBAL when the Variable PVT tank model is selected. This contains information
on how the fluid properties change with depth and is derived from the standard Compositional
Gradient 425 calculation.

The format is fairly general and could be used for other packages. An ASCII text file is
produced by this procedure.

Below is an example of the MBAL PVT with Depth export screen:

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Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Composition For more information on all of the options available for running the
Gradient compositional gradient calculation on which this export is based, please
Calculation refer to the Compositional Gradient 249 section.
Options

A typical export file is shown below:

*
* Petroleum Experts - MBAL PVT with Depth Export File
*
*
* (BLANK LINES AND LINES WITH AN ASTERISK (*) IN COLUMN 1
* ARE IGNORED)
* - ANY INDIVIDUAL ITEM VALUE > 3.4e35 = missing item
*
* UNITS for each data item are assumed to be whatever the current is
* setting at the time of export
*
*Export File Signature
PetexPGD
*Export File Version
1
*
* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! PVT FILE DETAILS !!!!!!!!!!!!!!
* PVT FILE NAME : C:\HAMID\AX.PVI

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* Exported :Sun Feb 08 17:02:49 1998

* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

* DATA COLUMN IDENTIFIERS

*
*
* DPTH - Depth
* PRES - Pressure
* TEMP - Temperature
* PSAT - Bubble/Dew Point Pressure
* GOR - Gas-Oil Ratio
* OAPI - Oil Gravity
* GGRV - Gas Gravity
* WSAL - Water Salinity
* MH2S - Mole H2S
* MCO2 - Mole CO2
* MN2 - Mole 2
* OFVF - oil Formation Volume Factor
* GFVF - gas Formation Volume Factor
* OVIS - oil Viscosity
* GVIS - gas Viscosity
* ZLIQ - oil Compressibility
* ZVAP - gas Compressibility
* GFVF - gas Formation Volume Factor
* CGR - produced cgr
*
**************** DEPTH TABLE VARIABLES EXPORTED ****************
DPTH ,PRES ,TEMP ,PSAT ,GOR ,OAPI ,GGRV ,WSAL ,MH2S ,MC02 ,MN2 ,
****************************************************************

**************** MATCHDATA TABLE VARIABLES EXPORTED ****************

PRES ,GOR ,OFVF ,OVIS ,GVIS ,ZLIQ ,ZVAP ,GFVF ,CGR ,
********************************************************************

********************** UNITS *****************************

* Units Used in Depth Table Variables:-
*feet ,psig ,degrees F ,psig ,scf/STB ,API , , , , , , ,
* Units Used in MatchData Variables:-
*psig ,RB/STB ,centipoise ,centipoise , , ,ft3/scf ,bbls/MMscf ,
********************************************************************

********************** DATA *****************************

* NUMBER OF DEPTHS
7

* Reference Depth in feet

9369
* Reference Pressure in psig
3280
* Reservoir Temperature in degrees F
240
* Temperature Gradient in deg F/100 ft
1.8
*Data no 1 at Depth 8869 feet
8869 ,3220.42 ,231.003 ,2980.33 ,17528.4 ,59.6764 ,0.756737 ,0 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e
+038 ,0.00906007 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
993.433 ,396.508 ,1.34781 ,0.138438 ,0.0141965 ,0.334204 ,0.898412 ,0.0174201 ,53.706 ,
1986.9 ,1109.68 ,1.79818 ,0.0946761 ,0.0175569 ,0.552108 ,0.842573 ,0.00822854 ,42.6687 ,
2980.33 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0254712 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.814226
,0.00531417 ,1.234568e+038 ,

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3477.05 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0286318 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.842439

,0.00471613 ,1.234568e+038 ,
3973.76 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0316125 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.876937
,0.00429788 ,1.234568e+038 ,

*Data no 2 at Depth 9035.67 feet

9035.67 ,3237.14 ,234.002 ,3048.63 ,1.234568e+038 ,59.7848 ,0.763556 ,0 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,0.00887868 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
1016.2 ,409.348 ,1.36064 ,0.135219 ,0.0142724 ,0.33949 ,0.896489 ,0.0170727 ,62.0198 ,
2032.43 ,1155.64 ,1.83571 ,0.0916819 ,0.017834 ,0.560222 ,0.840694 ,0.00806241 ,50.1091 ,
3048.63 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0266022 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.811896
,0.0052033 ,1.234568e+038 ,
3556.74 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0299055 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.843699
,0.00463785 ,1.234568e+038 ,
4064.83 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0329984 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.881508
,0.00424217 ,1.234568e+038 ,

*Data no 3 at Depth 9202.33 feet

9202.33 ,3254.66 ,237.001 ,3130.92 ,13072.7 ,59.9214 ,0.772361 ,0 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e
+038 ,0.00863199 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
1043.63 ,426.478 ,1.37682 ,0.131639 ,0.0143599 ,0.345723 ,0.893948 ,0.0166547 ,74.6633 ,
2087.29 ,1216.41 ,1.88403 ,0.0883227 ,0.0181829 ,0.569793 ,0.838169 ,0.00786225 ,61.9258 ,
3130.92 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0282337 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.808286
,0.00506646 ,1.234568e+038 ,
3652.75 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0317214 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.845046
,0.00454321 ,1.234568e+038 ,
4174.56 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.0349646 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.887356
,0.00417645 ,1.234568e+038 ,

*Data no 4 at Depth 9369 feet

9369 ,3280 ,240 ,3279.88 ,4316.35 ,60.7132 ,0.834684 ,0 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,0.0065 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
1093.28 ,483.188 ,1.42496 ,0.124293 ,0.0144985 ,0.354491 ,0.884976 ,0.0158165 ,273.857 ,
2186.6 ,1358.06 ,1.99025 ,0.0827284 ,0.0188862 ,0.585908 ,0.831526 ,0.00748011 ,316.012 ,
3279.88 ,4316.35 ,4.11191 ,0.0464585 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.76052 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
3826.53 ,4316.35 ,3.87211 ,0.0513914 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.834998 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
4373.17 ,4316.35 ,3.69423 ,0.0561634 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.910005 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,

*Data no 5 at Depth 9535.67 feet

9535.67 ,3306.98 ,242.999 ,3168.36 ,3380.86 ,60.8218 ,0.847811 ,0 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e
+038 ,0.00597958 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
1056.11 ,455.891 ,1.41045 ,0.125053 ,0.0144333 ,0.345564 ,0.888033 ,0.0164925 ,360.764 ,
2112.25 ,1249.86 ,1.9233 ,0.085132 ,0.0184277 ,0.574194 ,0.83661 ,0.00782229 ,453.442 ,
3168.36 ,3380.86 ,3.40831 ,0.0518623 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.743622 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
3696.42 ,3380.86 ,3.23817 ,0.0571572 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.823709 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
4224.47 ,3380.86 ,3.10936 ,0.0623314 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.903482 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,

*Data no 6 at Depth 9702.33 feet

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 213 PVTP

9702.33 ,3336.35 ,245.998 ,3100.22 ,3017.7 ,60.8607 ,0.853655 ,0 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e

+038 ,0.00574032 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
1033.4 ,437.28 ,1.40159 ,0.125082 ,0.0144059 ,0.340151 ,0.890203 ,0.0169632 ,408.444 ,
2066.82 ,1185.27 ,1.88612 ,0.0862731 ,0.0181776 ,0.567039 ,0.84003 ,0.00805995 ,532.838 ,
3100.22 ,3017.7 ,3.1531 ,0.0543352 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.734882 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
3616.92 ,3017.7 ,3.00609 ,0.0597755 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.816837 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
4133.61 ,3017.7 ,2.89377 ,0.0651067 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.898189 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,

*Data no 7 at Depth 9869 feet

9869 ,3366.84 ,248.997 ,3045.5 ,2779.84 ,60.884 ,0.857745 ,0 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,0.00556968 ,
* Number of MatchData Lines
5
1015.16 ,421.808 ,1.39481 ,0.124852 ,0.0143902 ,0.335786 ,0.892026 ,0.0173724 ,445.867 ,
2030.35 ,1134.7 ,1.85835 ,0.0870026 ,0.0179929 ,0.561257 ,0.84289 ,0.00826661 ,596.749 ,
3045.5 ,2779.84 ,2.99245 ,0.0560421 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.728205 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
3553.09 ,2779.84 ,2.85924 ,0.0615715 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.811196 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,
4060.66 ,2779.84 ,2.75683 ,0.0669972 ,1.234568e+038 ,0.893412 ,1.234568e+038 ,1.234568e+038
,1.234568e+038 ,

********************** END *****************************

2.3.3.13.1.5 MBAL Variable Bubble Pt. (Oil)

MBAL Variable Bubble Pt. (Oil) (*.pvb) files are files which contain the data in a form which
can be imported into MBAL when the Variable PVT tank model has been selected. The
format is fairly general and could be used for other packages.

The objective is to provide a full black oil map for reinjecting gas into an oil to provide a range
of fluids with differing Bubble Points.
The calculate results can be split into 2 fluid types:

Saturated These tables represent the oil's properties at various saturation

pressures. For each entered pressure and temperature, the oil and gas
are recombined until a fluid with a matching saturation pressure is
formed.
For pressures below the original oil's bubble point a straightforward
CCE calculation is done to the table temperature and pressure. The
oils black oil properties are then calculated and reported.
If the pressure is above the original fluid's bubble point then more gas
is added to the fluid until the bubble point matches the pressure of the
table. This new composition is then taken through a CCE to obtain the
results.
Undersaturated These tables represent the oil's properties at pressures above the
saturation pressure. For each bubble point (which will have a different
composition), the fluid is flashed at the table temperature and the
range of input pressures to calculate the oils density, viscosity and FVF

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Below is an example of the MBAL Variable Bubble Pt. (Oil) export screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Creation of Fluids If the original fluid has a saturation pressure less than a value in the
at Higher PSAT table, then gas needs to be added to the composition until the saturation
pressure of the sample matches the maximum pressure in the table.
The option selects the source of that gas:
- Use Separator Fluids
- Use Fluids from Near PSAT

More details of these options are provided in the Target PSAT 173
section.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature

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Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.
If the objective is to generate isothermal tables, then the same minimum
and maximum temperature should be entered and the number of values
should be set to 1.
2.3.3.13.1.6 ECLIPSE (Black Oil) Format
ECLIPSE (Black Oil) Format (*.inc) files are files which contain the data in a form which can
be imported into an Eclipse Blackoil Simulator. Since not all Eclipse (or even PVT data) is
available within this file, it has been assumed that the file will be edited by the user where
required and "included" in the Eclipse input file.

The export is on the basis of a single stream at a single temperature. The temperature is used
for the calculation is the Reservoir Temperature enterd at the top of the screen. Multiple
temperature files can be produced by merging several individual export files.

The calculations are carried out over a range of pressures for each of the three phases VIZ.
Oil, Gas and Water. Each has an independent pressure range setting. Eclipse allows for a
variety of PVT data types, indicated by selection of Keywords. The Eclipse documentation
should be used as a reference on how these types are depicted and used.

Below is an example of the ECLIPSE (Black Oil) Format export screen:

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Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Phase Table Select the type of oil to be modelled:

Types - - No Oil
Oil - Oil with Dissolved Gas
- Undersaturated Oil with Constant Dissolved Gas
- Constant Oil with Dry Gas
Phase Table Select the type of oil to be modelled:
Types - - No Gas
Gas - Wet Gas with Vaporised Oil
- Dry Gas
- Dry Gas with Constant Vaporised Oil
- Constant Gas with Undersaturated Oil
Phase Table Select the type of oil to be modelled:

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Types - - No Water
Water - Water Included
Oil Keyword Depending upon the oil type selected, different keywords may be
Options selectable.
Gas Keyword Depending upon the gas type selected, different keywords may be
Options selectable.
Unit System As the unit system is defined within the main deck of the ECLIPSE
model, any PVT model needs to have the same units. Select either Field
or Metric depending upon the units defined in the main deck the file is to
be imported into.
Note that Eclipse has less unit options than PVTp. It is up to the user to
output in units which match the rest of the Eclipse input file. The units
dialog can be used to make any changes required
Creation of Fluids If the original fluid has a saturation pressure less than a value in the
at Higher PSAT table, then gas needs to be added to the composition until the saturation
pressure of the sample matches the maximum pressure in the table.
The option selects the source of that gas:
- Use Separator Fluids
- Use Fluids from Near PSAT

More details of these options are provided in the Target PSAT 173
section.
Export Real Gas The Real Gas FVF is the gas FVF which accounts for the fact that some
FVF liquid dropout occurs at surface conditions, whilst the standard gas FVF
assumes no condensate drops out.
This option will change which FVF is reported in the Eclipse Black Oil
table.
PMAX If the PVCO+PMAX option is selected, the PMAX keyword can be
specified to tell ECLIPSE the maximum pressure which the simulation is
expected to get to. For more information on this option, please refer to
the ECLIPSE User Guide.
Additional Inputs With the PVDO option the user will be asked for the bubble point of the
oil. All pressure inputs are above this value giving the oil a fixed RS value.
This RSCONST is calculated within the Eclipse Export Dialog. Similarly
with the PVDG option the user will be required to enter a dew point for
the gas.
Water Phase Enter the pressure at which the water properties are to be calculated.
Pressure Rather than use a table of water properties, ECLIPSE requires that a
single pressure is defined along with a water compressibility and
viscosity gradient.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures to be entered from
Automatic which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum

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Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.

Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
pressure need to be added.
Depending upon the selected options, a range for both gas and oil
phases may be required. These ranges do not need to be the same.
2.3.3.13.1.7 ECLIPSE (Compositional) Format
ECLIPSE (Black Oil) Format (*.inc) files are files which contain the data in a form which can
be imported into an Eclipse Compositional Simulator. Since not all Eclipse (or even PVT data)
is available within this file, it has been assumed that the file will be edited by the user where
required and "included" in the Eclipse input file.

The file is exported as a PVO type including matched composition and properties.

Below is an example of the ECLIPSE (Compostional) Format export screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to export the
- Export lumped composition only, the delumped composition only or both
Composition compositions.
Water Properties - Select this option if water properties are to be exported as part of the
Include Water file.

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 219 PVTP

Properties
Water Properties - Enter the pressure at which the water properties are to be calculated.
Water Pressure Rather than use a table of water properties, ECLIPSE requires that a
single pressure is defined along with a water compressibility and
viscosity gradient.
Unit System As the unit system is defined within the main deck of the ECLIPSE
model, any PVT model needs to have the same units. Select either Field
or Metric depending upon the units defined in the main deck the file is to
be imported into.
Note that Eclipse has less unit options than PVTp. It is up to the user to
output in units which match the rest of the Eclipse input file. The units
dialog can be used to make any changes required
2.3.3.13.1.8 CMG (Black Oil) Format
The CMG (Black Oil) Format (*.inc) files are files which contain the data in a form which can
be imported into a CMG Blackoil Simulator.

Below is an example of the CMG (Black Oil) Format export screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Creation of Fluids If the original fluid has a saturation pressure less than a value in the

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at Higher PSAT table, then gas needs to be added to the composition until the saturation
pressure of the sample matches the maximum pressure in the table.
The option selects the source of that gas:
- Use Separator Fluids
- Use Fluids from Near PSAT

More details of these options are provided in the Target PSAT 173
section.
Calculation Type The Black Oil tables to be exported for CMG can be generated using
either a Constant Composition Expansion or Differential Liberation
experiment.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures to be entered from
Automatic which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
pressure need to be added.
2.3.3.13.1.9 CMG (Compositional) Format
CMG (Compositional) Format (*.gem) files are files which contain the data in a form which can
be imported into a CMG Compositional Simulator.

Below is an example of the CMG (Compostional) Format export screen:

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 221 PVTP

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to export the
- Export lumped composition only, the delumped composition only or both
Composition compositions.
Water Properties - Select this option if water properties are to be exported as part of the
Include Water file.
Properties
Water Properties - Enter the pressure at which the water properties are to be calculated.
Water Pressure
Unit System Select either Field or Metric depending upon the units defined in the
main deck the file is to be imported into.

2.3.3.13.1.10 Shell MultiSim (Black Oil) Format

The Shell MultiSim (Black Oil) Format (*.dat) will generate files which can be imported into
MultiSim.

Below is an example of the Shell MultiSim (Black Oil) Format export screen:

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Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Calculation Type The Black Oil tables to be imported into MultiSim assuming it is either an
Oil or a Volatile Oil. Depending upon the option in MultiSim, the matching
option should be selected here.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures to be entered from
Automatic which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
pressure need to be added.

2.3.3.13.1.11 Shell MultiSim (Compositional) Format

The Shell MultiSim (Compositional) Format (*.dat) will generate files which can be imported
into MultiSim.

Below is an example of the Shell MultiSim (Compositional) Format export screen:

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Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to export the
- Export lumped composition only, the delumped composition only or both
Composition compositions.
Water Properties - Select this option if water properties are to be exported as part of the
Include Water file.
Properties
Water Properties - Enter the pressure at which the water properties are to be calculated.
Water Pressure Rather than use a table of water properties, ECLIPSE requires that a
single pressure is defined along with a water compressibility and
viscosity gradient.
Export A range of temperatures need to be entered with appropriate labels for
Temperatures each.
Set Temperatures This will set two different temperatures in the table:
to Default - Reservoir - Using the Reservoir Temperature at the top of the screen
- Surface - Enters 60 degF.

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2.3.3.13.1.12 VIP (Compositional) Format

VIP (Compositional) Format (*.inc) files are files which contain the data in a form which can be
imported into a VIP Compositional Simulator.

Below is an example of the VIP (Compostional) Format export screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to export the
- Export lumped composition only, the delumped composition only or both
Composition compositions.

2.3.3.13.1.13 Chears (Compositional) Format

Chears (Compositional) Format (*.chears) files are files which contain the data in a form which
can be imported into a VIP Compositional Simulator.

Below is an example of the Chears (Compostional) Format export screen:

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Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to export the
- Export lumped composition only, the delumped composition only or both
Composition compositions.
K Value Range Enter the minimum pressure which is to be used in the K Value range
Data - From calculation.
Pressure
K Value Range Enter the maximum pressure which is to be used in the K Value range
Data - To calculation.
Pressure
K Value Range Enter the step size which is to be used in the K Value range calculation.
Data - Step Size

2.3.3.13.1.14 KAPPA (Black Oil) Format

The KAPPA Black Oil Table export type (*.kbo) is used to generate a black oil tables for use
in the KAPPA software.

Below is an example of the PETEX KAPPA (Black Oil) Format export screen:

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To generate Black Oil Tables, the following steps should be taken:

1. Enter the export file path using the Browse option.

2. On the left hand side of the screen, use the Add Temp button to add as many temperature
tables as are required. Please note that if isothermal tables are to be exported only 1 table is
required. If tables need to be removed, select Remove Temp.
3. For each table, enter the temperature in the Temperature field.
4. For each table, enter a range of pressures in the Pressure column of the table. This can be
done manually or by copy and paste. Please note that if the saturation pressure is not
entered, this will be added automatically during the calculation.
5. Select the source of the fluid density via the Export Density option.
6. To select the required export variables, pick the type of fluid from the Export Variables
table on the right hand side of the screen.
7. Select Export at the bottom of the screen to run the calculation and export the results to
the Export File location.

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

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Add Temp. This will add a new table with a blank temperature.
Remove Temp. This will delete the currently selected temperature table.
Temperature Enter the temperature of the currently selected table.
Saturation Once the table has been calculated, the saturation pressure will be
Pressure reported in this field.
Export Density This option can be used to select the source of the fluid density which is
exported in the table. Two options are available:
- EoS Density - will calculate the density directly from the EoS
- Standing Katz Density - will calculate the density via the
Standing Katz correlation
Export Variables Select the type of fluid which is to be exported. Depending upon the
option selected, different properties will be added to the Black Oil table.
2.3.3.13.1.15 OLGA - Leda Flow Format
The OLGA - Leda Flow Format (*.tab) can be exported for use in both OLGA and Leda Flow
transient flow simulators.

Below is an example of the OLGA - Leda Flow Format export screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location and file name which the model is to
exported to.

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Flash Mode The model can be setup to export using either Two Phase or Multi
Phase modes. Selecting Mutli Phase will give more options regarding
the presence of water in the stream.
Export Options - Enabling this option will add the saturation pressure to the range of
Export Bubble/ pressures selected.
Dew Points
Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.

If Multi Phase mode is selected, then a number of additional options are added to model
water:

Enter WCT/WGR Selecting this option will enable the user to define the amount of water
to be added to the stream using either water cut or WGR.

WCT/WGR - Use If the Enter WCT/WGR option is selected, then this option allows the
dominant phase (on which the water amount is to be defined) to be set.
If Oil WCT is selected, then the oil phase will be used as the dominant
and the water cut will need to be entered.
If Gas WGR is selected, then the gas phase will be used as the
dominant and the water gas ratio will need to be entered.

Water/Gas Ratio Enter the Water Gas Ratio which will be used to calculate the amount of
water to be added to the stream.

Water Cut Enter the Water Cut which will be used to calculate the amount of water
to be added to the stream..

Enter Water Selecting this option will enable the user to define the mole percent of
Amount water to be added to the stream

Water Mole If the Enter Water Amount option is selected, enter the mole percent of
Percent water which is to be added to the stream.

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2.3.3.13.1.16 ROXAR Pvt Format

The ROXAR Pvt Format can be exported for use in both in ROXAR MPFMs and other
software.

Below is an example of the ROXAR Pvt Format export screen:

Export File Select Browse to select the location which the files are to be exported
to.

Flash Mode The model can be setup to export using either Two Phase or Multi
Phase modes. Selecting Mutli Phase will give more options regarding
the presence of water in the stream.
GOR Correction - Enable this option if the current composition should be recombined to
Adjust form a new fluid which has the same in-situ gas and oil rates as was
Composition to measured in the MPFM. The recombination is performed using the
MPFM In-Situ options selected in the Path to Surface Data section.
GOR If this option is not selected, then the current fluid composition will be
used.
GOR Correction - If the fluid composition is to be adjusted to match the measured rates of

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Gas Rate the separator, enter the measured (in-situ) gas rate here.
GOR Correction - If the fluid composition is to be adjusted to match the measured rates of
Oil Rate the separator, enter the measured (in-situ) oil rate here.
GOR Correction - If the fluid composition is to be adjusted to match the measured rates of
Pressure the separator, enter the pressure at which the in-situ gas and oil rates
were measured.
GOR Correction - If the fluid composition is to be adjusted to match the measured rates of
Temperature the separator, enter the temperature at which the in-situ gas and oil
rates were measured..
Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.

If Multi Phase mode is selected, then a number of additional options are added to model
water:

Enter WCT/WGR Selecting this option will enable the user to define the amount of water
to be added to the stream using either water cut or WGR.

WCT/WGR - Use If the Enter WCT/WGR option is selected, then this option allows the
dominant phase (on which the water amount is to be defined) to be set.
If Oil WCT is selected, then the oil phase will be used as the dominant
and the water cut will need to be entered.
If Gas WGR is selected, then the gas phase will be used as the
dominant and the water gas ratio will need to be entered.

Water/Gas Ratio Enter the Water Gas Ratio which will be used to calculate the amount of
water to be added to the stream.

Water Cut Enter the Water Cut which will be used to calculate the amount of water
to be added to the stream..

Enter Water Selecting this option will enable the user to define the mole percent of
Amount water to be added to the stream

Water Mole If the Enter Water Amount option is selected, enter the mole percent of

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Percent water which is to be added to the stream.

2.3.3.14 Lumping
The Lumping object is designed to encapsulate all the possible ways to lump components
together in an EOS to create a smaller EOS description.

There are two sub-sections within the Lumping object, which can be seen by the buttons down
the left hand of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately, though it
should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Lumping Input 232

2. Output Fluid 241

While it can be useful to have a lumped version of a composition (as less components means
a lower calculation time), not all programs or objectives can be achieved with such a
composition.

It is therefore valuable to have a way of not only lumping a larger composition into a smaller
composition, but also a rule which allows this to be reversed and the lumped composition to
be 'delumped' back into the original. By creating a so called 'lumping rule', it is possible to
track how the delumped composition will change based upon the changes of the lumped
composition in the reservoir model. This lumping rule is applied within RESOLVE.

As described in the Technical Overview 6 , the Lumping/Delumping feature provides with a

unique methodology to:

Determine a pair of EOS models, one with a large number of components (called
"Full" or "Delumped" further below) and the other with a small number of components
(called "Lumped"), equivalent to each other (i.e. consistent Psat and GOR)
Determine the logic followed to create the pair - the Lumping Rule. The Lumping
Rule describes the correspondence between the Full and the Lumped compositions
and is used to pass from the Full composition to the Lumped or viceversa
QC the pair Full/Lumped compositions and export them to IPM as .PRP file

The steps to create a pair Full/Lumped compositions are the following:

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Creating the The starting point is an EOS that has been matched to a PVT lab report.
Lumped from This initial EOS represents the "Full" composition as it has been matched
the Full using as large as necessary a number of components. For example, if
composition the EOS is to be used in a process simulator, a large number of
components can be chosen (for example 20 or more).
The process of creation of a "Lumped" composition consists of defining
the various groups of components manually or recalling an existing
grouping of an existing Lumping Rule. In the first case (manual Lumping)
a Lumping Rule is created, which contains the logic followed to create
the lumping. In the other two cases, the Lumping rule comes from an
already existing grouped composition or from an already existing Lumping
Rule.
When creating the Lumping Rule the program makes sure that the
most important PVT properties (saturation pressure, GOR and
density at surface) in the Full and Lumped compositions are
consistent with each other

Quality This can be achieved by running all the most common calculations and
checking the comparing important parameters like CCE Oil FVF and density, CVD
pair Full/ liquid dropout, etc. obtained with both the Full and the Lumped
Lumped are compositions
consistent to
each other

2.3.3.14.1 Lumping Input

Below is an example of the Lumping input screen:

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Lumping When creating a lumped composition, the user has the choice to either
Method manually select which components go into each lump (by selecting Manual
Lumping) or lump the components based upon an existing lumping rule (by
selecting Lump from Rule).
Lumping When the lumping calculation is completed, the user can choose to have the
Output output stream contain only the lumped composition (by selecting Lumped
Only) or both the lumped and delumped compositions (by selecting Full
and Lumped).
Rule Creation This option will select if a lumping rule is to be created during the lumping
process. This can then be used in other programs (such as RESOLVE) to
dynamically lump and delump compositions. If existing lumping rules exist,
they can also be overwritten. The options are:
- None - No rule will be created
- Create Rule - A new rule will be created

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- Overwrite Rule - A new rule will be created and will overwrite the
currently selected rule
Lumping Rule If a lumping rule is to be used, created or overwritten during the lumping
calculation, then a list of the lumping rules in the current model will be listed
here. Select the one which is to be used.
Manage This button takes us into the Manage Lumping Rules 236 screen.
Lumping Rules
Target GOR If this option is selected then a Target GOR calculation will be used as part
Options - of the Lumping/Delumping to make sure that the Lumped composition
Match with reproduces the same GOR as the Full composition.
Target GOR
Target GOR If the Match with Target GOR option is enabled, then the Target GOR
Options - method needs to be selected. More information on these options can be
Target GOR found in the Target GOR 170 section.
Method
PSAT Options - If this option is selected, then a match on the saturation pressure will be
Match with included. The matching of the saturation pressure is achieved by applying a
PSAT BI coefficient multiplier to the BI coefficients of the Lumped composition
to match the saturation pressure of the Full composition.
PSAT Options - By checking this option the reservoir temperature from the connected PVT
Use Reservoir Sample object will be used to calculate the saturation pressure used for the
Temperature match.
from PVT If a different temperature is required, uncheck this box to enable the
Sample Reservoir Temperature input box.
Please note that if no PVT Sample is included in the input stream, then this
option will be greyed out and a reservoir temperature need to be defined
explicitly.
PSAT Options - This value will be used if the Use Reservoir Temperature from PVT
Reservoir Sample option is not selected to calculate the saturation pressure.
Temperature
Fluid Properties These are results fields and are used to quickly verify that the Full and
- PSAT/GOR Lumped compositions give similar results. The Reservoir Temperature entry
determines the temperature at which the saturation pressure is calculated.
Volume Shift These options allow to enable/disable the volume shift independently for the
Full and Lumped compositions.
Lumps Setup This section is used to create the different lumps when the Manual
Lumping method has been selected. Details on the different options are
provided below.
Lumps Setup - This button will create a new lump based upon the components selected in
Add Lump the table on the right of the screen.
Lump Setup - This button will remove all previously created lumps. When the lumps are
Clear All Lumps removed, the components which were within them will be readded to the
table on the right of the screen so they can be placed within new lumps.
Lump Setup - This feature allows lumps to be quickly created by using the ELF grouping

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AutoLump technique. The Lumping/Delumping will then apply the Match with Target
GOR and PSAT to reproduce the fluid GOR and saturation pressure if
selected. In the ELF technique, the pure components are sorted
automatically into lumps while the total number of lumps required is entered
in the edit box provided.
Lump Setup - This sets the number of lumps which will be created via the AutoLump
Num Lumps option.
The smaller the number of groups the faster the calculation will
go.However, if too small a number is used the Equation of State may not
be able to match the more complex properties of the mixture, e.g.
regression on a particular combination of separator measurements may not
find a reliable solution.
Lumps Setup Once lumps have been created, they will be added to the Lumps Setup
Table table. From here they can be viewed, deleted or held.
Lumps Setup Select this option in the row of the lump which is to be deleted. When a
Table - Delete lump is deleted, the components which were within the lump will be
readded to the table on the right of the screen so they can be placed within
new lumps.
Lumps Setup If single components are present (for example: CO2 alone), when passing
Table - Hold from the Full to the Lumped composition or viceversa, the amount of these
components are kept constant to guarantee they are preserved when
converting from one composition to the other. This is an option particularly
useful in the cases where one wants to accurately track the quantity of a
certain component, for example in case of CO2 injection.
To hold the given lump, tick the box.
Path to Surface In order to know certain properties, such as the GOR, a path to surface is
Data required as the processes which are used to return an oil to standard
conditions can significantly change the final oil characteristics and the
amount of gas liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs of
those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these objects
is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the correct one.

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Important Note:
When the options Match with GOR, PSAT and Hold Amount of Single Components are
enabled, the program will try and honour all of them at the same time.
However, it is important to note that in many cases it is not possible to physically
respect all of them at the same time.
For example, if a single component is to be held and at the same time the GOR of the
Lumped is to be matched to the Full composition GOR, the program will have to iterate
by setting the single component composition the same as the Full composition,
recombine the fluid to match the GOR, then re-set the single component composition
again to be the same as the Full composition. If this gives significantly different
properties then it will need to recombine the fluids again until the GOR is honoured and
the single component composition is kept the same. In many cases it is not possible to
achieve the matching of the GOR keeping the same mole fraction.
That is why a hierarchy has been established in respecting the properties:
the Hold Amount is honoured first,
then the GOR second
then the PSAT third
This is because matching of the PSAT is relatively easy by manipulating opportunely
the EOS.
It is important to note that the user has full control about which options can be
selected, as well as any manual adjustments can be performed to achieve the most
suitable matching

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.14.1.1 Manage Lumping Rules

The Manage Lumping Rules screen allows the user to view the details of each Lumping Rule,
create a rule manually or edit an existing one.

Below is an example of the Mange Lumping Rules screen:

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The basic steps for creating or editing a Lumping Rule are:

1. Select (or Add) the Lumping Rule to be modified.

2. Enter the basic Lumping Rule data and BIC multiplier.
3. For each lump to be added/modified:
a. Add/Select the lump to the Lump Data Table
b. Set the Lumping Mode of the selected lump
c. Setup the components or rules to be used for this lump
4. Repeat step 3 for each lump to create a full lumping rule.

More information on each of the options within the screen are provided below:

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Select Lumping Use this dialogue to select the Lumping Rule which is to be analysed.
Rule
Select Lumping This will add a new, blank Lumping Rule which can then be manually
Rule - Add defined by the user.
Select Lumping This will delete the currently selected Lumping Rule.
Rule - Delete

Lumping Rule Use section contains general information on the selected lumping
Information rule.
Lumping Rule Provides the date on which the lumping rule was last edited.
Information - Last
Edited
Lumping Rule This tag is the short name used by other programs to identify the
Information - Tag lumping rule.
Lumping Rule This is the full name of the lumping rule.
Information - Name
Lumping Rule This allows the user to give a description of the lumping rule to
Information - improve auditing of the model.
Description

PSAT This option is used during the creation of a lumping rule to match the
Adjustment saturation pressure of the lumped composition to the full composition using
a multipler on the BI coefficients.
PSAT This is the mutliplier on the Binary Interaction coefficients.
Adjustment -
BIC Multiplier
PSAT Select Yes to use the BIC multiplier or No to ignore it.
Adjustment -
Use

Lumps Data This section contains information on each lump within the selected lumping
rule.
Lumps Data This table contains a list of all of the lumps in the currently selected lumping
Table rule. Each row of the table represents a different lump.
Lumps Data This adds a new lump, which can be edited and modified as required.
Table - Add
Lump
Lumps Data This will delete the currently selected lump from the table.
Table -Delete
Lump
Lumps Data This button will select the lump which is to be analysed further. If the row is
Table -Select selected, it will turn a light blue colour.

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Lumps Data The column gives the name of each lump.

Table -Lump
Name
Lumps Data This column shows which lumping mode was used to create this lump.
Table -Lump
Mode
Lumps Data This column gives a description of the lump.
Table -
Description

Rule Number, Identifiers of the Lumping Rule

Tag and
Description
Name Name of each lump
Lumped by Rule followed to create the lump. Several options are available, which can
be chosen when setting up the Lumping Rule
Description Explicit description of each lump

Lump Name This shows the name of the lump selected from the Lumps Table.
Lumping Mode This shows the different options which can be used for creating a lump.
This are:
- Option not set (initial value and should not be used)
- Combine Components by Name
- Molecular Weight Range
- Pseudo Options
- Single Component
- Single Components Excluded
- All Non Assigned Components

Depending upon the option selected, the additional inputs will change.

Combine Components by Name

This option allows the names of different components to be selected and these will be lumped
into the current group. The names can be either selected from a database of values or
entered directly by the user. Pseudo components can also be added to the group using the
following options:

Last Pseudo This will add only the last pseudo component of the full composition.
Component
Only
All Pseudo This will add all pseudo components from the full composition except for
Components the last.

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Except Last
All Pseudo Thiswill add all the pseudo components from the full composition.
Components

Molecular Weight Range

This option allows a range of molecular weight to be set and all components in the full
composition within that range will be included in this lump. The Set Value button must be
pressed to confirm these limits.

Minimum Mole. Enter the minimum MW value which is to be included in this lump.
Weight
Maximum Mole. Enter the maximum MW value which is to be included in this lump.
Weight

Pseudo Options
This option allows certain pseudo components to be included within the lumps. The pseudo
component options are the same as the Combine Components by Name options mentioned
above. The User must select the option to be used and then the Select button in order to
make the change.

Single Component
This option allows a certain component to be set as the only member of the lump. This can be
done via either; entering a user defined name, selecting a name from the database or
selecting a certain pseudo component option. The pseudo component options are the same
as the Combine Components by Name options mentioned above.
Once selected, the component name will appear in the Selected field.

Single Components Excluded

This option allows a certain component to be selected to not be a member of the lump. All
other components will be included. This can be done via either; entering a user defined name,
selecting a name from the database or selecting a certain pseudo component option. The
pseudo component options are the same as the Combine Components by Name options
mentioned above.
Once selected, the component name will appear in the Selected field.

All Non Assigned Components

This option will allow a lump to collect all components which do not fit into any other category.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

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Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.

OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.3.14.2 Output Fluid

This tab contains all the properties and settings that make up the EOS. It is essentially a read
only of the PVT Fluid object. Therefore for further information please refer to the PVT Fluid
158 section.

2.3.4 Calculation Data Objects

All of the calculation objects that are available within PVTp can be added to model by
choosing the desired one from the Calculation tab in the Main Menu Ribbon 40 and placing it
on the Calculation Window 81 .

These objects can be added at any time and run using any "selected 58 " EOS description in
the Characterisation Window 79 . Shown below:

In the following sections, each of the Calculation Data Objects will be detailed in turn.

2.3.4.1 Phase Envelope

The Phase Envelope object is where the phase envelope for any "Selected" EOS description
can be calculated and plotted.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Phase Envelope object, which can be seen by

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the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is generally from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Phase Envelope Input 242

2. Results Plot 243
3. Results Table 244

2.3.4.1.1 Phase Envelope Input

The display below shows an example of the phase envelope input parameters screen. All
EOS descriptions selected will be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for
further details on how to add EOS descriptions to this calculation.

The display is made up of several sections:

Additional This section controls the calculation of solids. Two calculations are
Calculations available, a Hydrate Formation Pressure 345 and the Wax Appearance
(Solids) Temperature 357 . The calculations are initiated by checking the
appropriate combo box.
Mole Fraction There are 2 modes of entry:

Auto the entry boxes are loaded with values of 0.5, 0.6, 0.7,
0.8, 0.9, and 1.0
Manual entry Eight entry boxes are provided for entering vapour
fractions from 0.1 to 1.0.
The Clear button will remove all entries in Manual Entry
mode

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Calculation Entry boxes are provided to change the following values used to limit the
Options/Limits phase envelope calculation:

Pressure dictates the gap between pressure movements used to

Step detect phase envelope
Min sets the bottom limit of the calculation
Temperature
Max. Pressure sets the upper limit of the calculation
Integration dictates the size of movement of the Integration
Step function
Max. dictates the maximum size of movement of the
Integration Integration function
Step

Lumping Options - If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

Note
Phase envelope calculations are complex and may take some time. If the plot does
not match expectations or is unresolved try adjusting the values of Binary Interaction
Coefficient between C1 and the heaviest component, Acentric Factor of the heaviest
components and the properties of any pseudo components which have been defined

2.3.4.1.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the phase envelope plot.

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Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.1.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

2.3.4.2 Critical Point

The Critical Point object is where the critical pressure and temerature for any "Selected"
EOS description can be calculated.

There is only one sub-section within the Critical Point object, which can be seen by the button
on the left hand side of the object. This sub-section is the Critical Point Results 245 .

2.3.4.2.1 Critical Point Results

Below shows an example of the critical point results. Immediately on opening this object,
press Calculate to display the below:

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.
Lumping If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping rule,

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Options - then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
Calc. Mode descriptions to use.

2.3.4.3 Saturation Pressure

The Saturation Pressure object is where the saturation pressure for any "Selected" EOS
description can be calculated and plotted.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Saturation Pressure object, which can be seen
by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is generally from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Saturation Pressure Input 246

2. Results Plot 247
3. Results Table 248

2.3.4.3.1 Saturation Pressure Input

Below is an example of the saturation pressure calculation input screen. All EOS descriptions
selected will be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further details on how
to add EOS descriptions to this calculation.

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Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.3.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the saturation pressure results plot.

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Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.3.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the saturation pressure results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

2.3.4.4 Compositional Gradient

The Compositional Gradient object is where the compositional differences due to gravity for
any "Selected" EOS description can be calculated and plotted given a particular reference
depth.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Compositional Gradient object, which can be
seen by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be
discussed separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Phase Envelope Input 242

2. Results Plot 252
3. Results Table 252
4. Detailed Results 253

2.3.4.4.1 Compositional Gradient Input

Below is an example of the CVD calculation input screen. All EOS descriptions selected will
be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further details on how to add EOS
descriptions to this calculation.

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Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

Use Relative This option calculates depth with respect to the entered reservoir depth.
Depths Disabling this means the user must specify the actual depths above and
below.

Reservoir The reservoir conditions can either be entered manually here, or by

Conditions checking the option to extract this data from a specified PVT Sample 104
object.

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Temperature Here the temperature gradient can be entered.

Gradient
Path To Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

When multiple samples are being analysed, it may be necessary to have

individual separator settings for each phase stream. In this case, the
"Use Same Path to Surface for All Phases" radio button should be
clicked on.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

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2.3.4.4.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the Compositional Gradient results plot.

Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.4.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the CVD results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

2.3.4.4.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.
Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results at that
condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results at that
re condition.

Flash Results

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Below is an example of the Compositional Gradient detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Path to Surface Results

There are two tabs within the Path to Surface Results tab table view:

1. Oil/Gas Results - this is where the main surface properties such as GOR, API, gas
gravity etc. can be found

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2. Surface Compositions - this is where the compositional split between oil and gas can
be found

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To Stream This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

PTS Object View

Below is an example of the Compositional Gradient detailed results table for path to surface
results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.5 Constant Composition Expansion

The Constant Composition Expansion object is where the CCE experiment for any
"Selected" EOS description can be calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Constant Composition Expansion object, which
can be seen by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will
be discussed separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. CCE Input 259

2. Results Plot 261
3. Results Table 262
4. Detailed Results 263

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Constant Composition Expansion is a flash process where all the products are retained i.e.
the total amount of each component at the initial conditions is the same at all the measured
values, only the phase splits (K values) change as part of the calculation.

2.3.4.5.1 CCE Input

Below is an example of the CCE calculation input screen. All EOS descriptions selected will
be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further details on how to add EOS
descriptions to this calculation.

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Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

Path To Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

When multiple samples are being analysed, it may be necessary to have

individual separator settings for each phase stream. In this case, the
"Use Same Path to Surface for All Phases" radio button should be
clicked on.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train

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Use K values 298

Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.5.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the CCE results plot.

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Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.5.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the CCE results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

Note: table colours refer to the phases detected:

Black - liquid phase only

Red - vapour phase only
Blue - two phases

2.3.4.5.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.
Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a flash

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at that condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results of a
re flash at that condition.

Below is an example of the CCE detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Hoffmann Plot This is a quality checking method. For further information on this, please
refer to the Hoffmann Quality Plot 166 section.

Below is an example of the CCE detailed results table for path to surface results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.6 Constant Volume Depletion

The Constant Volume Depletion object is where the CVD experiment for any "Selected"
EOS description can be calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Constant Volume Depletion object, which can
be seen by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be
discussed separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. CVD Input 267

2. Results Plot 270
3. Results Table 270
4. Detailed Results 271

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Constant Volume Depletion is an isothermal flash process where the volume of the system is
kept equal to the volume at Bubble/Dew Point. At each flash stage volume in excess of this is
removed as excess gas.

The excess gas products, i.e. equal to the increase in volume over the initial value, are
removed at each stage to become the production. The liquid and gas equal to the initial
volume goes on to be flashed at the next set of conditions.

The CVD calculation concentrates on the gas and liquid left in the reservoir, while the
depletion 268 study is used to find the produced gas data. For example, the GOR displayed for
the CVD is that of the oil within the reservoir.

2.3.4.6.1 CVD Input

Below is an example of the CVD calculation input screen. All EOS descriptions selected will
be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further details on how to add EOS
descriptions to this calculation.

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Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

It is important to remember that many of the properties measured during

a CVD are path dependent, and generally it is advised to use the exact
pressure steps reported in the lab report.

CVD Temperature A single temperature can be entered here to run the calculation against.
If multiple temperatures are of interest, this can be done by adding
another CVD object etc.

Depletion Checking the "Include Depletion Calculations" option will allow the
following additional properties to be calculated:

Vapour P\Z Ratio

Produced Mole Percentage (of dry gas recovered)
Cumulative Production of Gas (based on the Gas in Place value

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entered by the user)

A Depletion Study is used where the main product is the gas removed
at each stage. The calculations are designed to provide an insight into
the fluid properties and composition as the reservoir depletes.

The Depletion Study is a flash process where the volume target is kept
constant throughout the stages. The excess gas products, i.e. equal to
the increase in volume over the initial value, are removed at each stage
to become the production.

Path To Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

When multiple samples are being analysed, it may be necessary to have

individual separator settings for each phase stream. In this case, the
"Use Same Path to Surface for All Phases" radio button should be
clicked on.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons

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Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.6.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the CVD results plot.

Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.6.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the CVD results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

Note: table colours refer to the phases detected:

Black - liquid phase only

Red - vapour phase only
Blue - two phases

2.3.4.6.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.

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Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a flash
at that condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results of a
re flash at that condition.

Below is an example of the CVD detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Below is an example of the CVD detailed results table for path to surface results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.7 Differential Liberation

The Differential Liberation object is where the experiment for any "Selected" EOS
description can be calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Differential Liberation object, which can be
seen by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be
discussed separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Differential Liberation Input 275

2. Results Plot 278
3. Results Table 278

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4. Detailed Results 279

Differential Liberation (or Expansion) is an isothermal flash process where all the gas products
are removed at each stage.

The liquid goes on to be flashed at the next set of conditions.

2.3.4.7.1 Differential Liberation Input

Below is an example of the Differential Liberation calculation input screen. All EOS
descriptions selected will be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further
details on how to add EOS descriptions to this calculation.

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Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Temperature A single temperature can be entered here to run the calculation against.
If multiple temperatures are of interest, this can be done by adding
another Differential Liberation object etc.

Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

It is important to remember that many of the properties measured during

a Differential Liberation are path dependent, and generally it is advised
to use the exact pressure steps reported in the lab report.

Composite Unlike the standard differential liberation, when this option is enabled, the
Differential GOR and FVF of the excess vapour is not calculated with respect to the
Liberation residual volume but rather by doing a series of separator flashes back to
stock tank conditions.

This option therefore enables the Path to Surface options, allowing the
desired separation method to be selected.

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This removes the heavy dependence on the number of steps and the
accuracy of estimating the residual oil. It also is closer to what happens
in a reservoir.

Path To Surface This option is only available for the Composite Differential Liberation.

This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

When multiple samples are being analysed, it may be necessary to have

individual separator settings for each phase stream. In this case, the
"Use Same Path to Surface for All Phases" radio button should be
clicked on.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.

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OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.7.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the Differential Liberation results plot.

Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.7.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the Differential Liberation results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

Note: table colours refer to the phases detected:

Black - liquid phase only

Red - vapour phase only
Blue - two phases

2.3.4.7.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results depending on whether a normal or composite
differential liberation was performed.:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.

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Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a flash
at that condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results of a
re flash at that condition.

Below is an example of the Differential Liberation detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. This is the input stream to this calculation.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Below is an example of the Composite Differential Liberation detailed results table for path to
surface results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.8 Oil Depletion

The Oil Depletion object is where the experiment for any "Selected" EOS description can be
calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Oil Depletion object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Oil Depletion Input 283

2. Results Plot 285
3. Results Table 286
4. Detailed Results 287

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The Oil Depletion process is similar to the Constant Volume Depletion 266 . The difference is
that the produced fluid is the oil from the reservoir.

As in the CVD this is a flash process where the volume of the system at Bubble Point is
preserved. At each flash stage volume in excess of this is removed as excess oil. The
excess oil products, i.e. equal to the increase in volume over the initial value, are removed at
each stage to become the production. The liquid and gas equal to the initial volume goes on to
be flashed at the next set of conditions. This process is analogous to that in the depletion of
many oil reservoirs and as such the results calculated can be a useful precursor to the
production of a more advanced model.

2.3.4.8.1 Oil Depletion Input

Below is an example of the Differential Liberation calculation input screen. All EOS
descriptions selected will be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further
details on how to add EOS descriptions to this calculation.

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Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Oil Depl. A single temperature can be entered here to run the calculation against.
Temperature If multiple temperatures are of interest, this can be done by adding
another Oil Depletion object etc.

Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

It is important to remember that many of the properties measured during

a Differential Liberation are path dependent, and generally it is advised
to use the exact pressure steps reported in the lab report.

Path To Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

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Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.8.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the Oil Depletion results plot.

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Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation. See the Select 58 section.
Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.8.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the Oil Depletion results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

Note: table colours refer to the phases detected:

Black - liquid phase only

Red - vapour phase only
Blue - two phases

2.3.4.8.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.
Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a flash

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at that condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results of a
re flash at that condition.

Below is an example of the Oil Depletion detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Below is an example of the Oil Depletion detailed results table for path to surface results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.9 Separator
The Separator object is where the separator train experiment for any "Selected" EOS
description can be calculated and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Separator object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Separator Train Input 291

2. Results Table 292
3. Detailed Results 296

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The separator process flashes the mixture at a fixed set of conditions. The liquid and gas are
split off to go on to the next stage of the process. The gas is assumed to collect together in
an accumulator.

2.3.4.9.1 Separator Train Input

Below is an example of the Separator calculation input screen. All EOS descriptions selected
will be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further details on how to add
EOS descriptions to this calculation.

Lumping Options If one of the EOS descriptions selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Separator Train Here the user can enter all the stages of the separator test. PVTp will

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automatically include a final stage flash to stock tank conditions if it has

not been explicitly entered in this table.

Chiller Train Although the default position is to have no chillers included, it is possible
to send the gas from the separation process through a chain of up to 10
chillers.

The first choice is to select the source of the gas to be chilled. The
options available are:

1. No Chillers
2. Use All Separator Train - uses the accumulated gas from all the
separator stages including stock tank
3. Use Gas to Stage - uses the gas up to a specified stage

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.9.2 Results Table

The Separator results table can be view by selecting the following:

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
View There are three different ways to view the separator results:

1. Surface Results
2. Stage Results
3. Path To Surface Object

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Each of these views will be discussed further below.

Surface Results

There are two/three tabs within the Surface Results tab view depending on if chillers are
present:

1. Oil/Gas Results - this is where the main surface properties such as GOR, API, gas
gravity etc. can be found

2. Surface Compositions - this is where the compositional split between oil and gas (and
if chillers are present LNG) can be found

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To Stream This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

3. LNG Results - this is where the liquid natural gas results can be found. These results
are reported in surface conditions and export (i.e. the chiller) conditions.

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Stage Results

This is where the properties at intermediate stages can be found.

Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

Path to Surface Object

This interface is read only. Hovering over the different streams and separators allows the

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user to see all the properties. For full details on this interface, please refer to the Path to
Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.9.3 Detailed Results

In this tab more details information can be found about the separation.

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
the appropriate.
Select Stage This allows the user to select the stage they wish to see results for.
Export K This allows the user export a *.pks file of the K values that can be imported
Values into a K Values object. This option is only available with chillers are
deactivated.

Below is an example of the Separator detailed results table for flash results.

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Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

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Hoffmann Plot This is a quality checking method. For further information on this, please
refer to the Hoffmann Quality Plot 166 section.

2.3.4.10 K Values
The K Values object is where the K values for any separator train and any "Selected" EOS
description can be calculated and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the object, which can be seen by the buttons down
the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately, though it
should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. K Values Input 299

2. Results Table 300
3. Detailed Results 303

K values are the ratio of the mole fraction of component i in the gas (yi) to the mole fraction of
i in the liquid (xi).

Ki yi / xi

K values are used as an alternative to multiple flashes to calculate the component separation
that occurs by passing a fluid through a separator train. By avoiding the need for a flash they
allow the EOS PVT calculations to proceed faster.

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The values are used to calculate any property that requires a path to surface to be defined
i.e. GOR, CGR, FVF. The GOR etc. calculated using K values will be accurate where the
working composition is closest to the composition used to derive the K Values.

Two types of K Value are available:

K values for each separator stage - this type is slower but more accurate over a
wider range
One set of values that represent the total separator train - this type will calculate
faster but not be as accurate at lower pressures

K Values can be used to represent complex separation processes or surface facilities. They
will however require periodic update as the plant and the feed compositions evolve.

2.3.4.10.1 K Values Input

Below is an example of the K Values calculation input screen.

Master Stream Only EOS descriptions held within PVT Fluid objects can be used within
this calculation.

They do not need to be explicitly selected in the Characterisation

Window, as all PVT Fluid objects will be automatically listed here and the

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user can choose the appropriate one from the drop down menu.

Lumping Options If one of the PVT Fluid objects selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Import/Export K This object can either import existing K Values, by browsing the to
Values appropriate *.pks file, or it can create a *.pks file from manually entered
K values.

If the EOS has a lumping rule then the user can choose to enter K values
for the full of lumped composition.

K Values This table allows the user to manually enter K Values for the desired
number of separators.
Separator Train Here the user can enter all the stages of the separator test. PVTp will
automatically include a final stage flash to stock tank conditions if it has
not been explicitly entered in this table.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.10.2 Results Table

The K Values results table can be view by selecting the following:

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
View There are three different ways to view the separator results:

1. Surface Results
2. Stage Results
3. Path To Surface Object

Each of these views will be discussed further below.

Surface Results

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There are two tabs within the Surface Results tab view:

1. Oil/Gas Results - this is where the main surface properties such as GOR, API, gas
gravity etc. can be found

2. Surface Compositions - this is where the compositional split between oil and gas can
be found

To Stream This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

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It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

Stage Results

This is where the properties at intermediate stages can be found.

Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

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Path to Surface Object

This interface is read only. Hovering over the different streams and separators allows the
user to see all the properties. For full details on this interface, please refer to the Path to
Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.10.3 Detailed Results

In this tab more details information can be found about the separation.

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
the appropriate.
Select Stage This allows the user to select the stage they wish to see results for.
Export K This allows the user export a *.pks file of the K values that can be imported
Values into a K Values object. This option is only available with chillers are
deactivated.

Below is an example of the K Values detailed results table for flash results.

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Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

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Hoffmann Plot This is a quality checking method. For further information on this, please
refer to the Hoffmann Quality Plot 166 section.

2.3.4.11 Split Factors

The Split Factors object is where defined split factors can be entered to split any "Selected"
EOS description can be calculated and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the object, which can be seen by the buttons down
the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately, though it
should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Split Factor Input 307

2. Results Table 311

Surface Split Factors are used as an alternative to multiple flashes to calculate the component
separation that occurs by passing a fluid through a separator train.

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Each split factor represents a fluid stream recovery on a component by component basis.
Three fluids are represented by the split factors OIL, GAS and LNG. If the separator input
feed has a composition given by Fi....n. mole fractions, the molar recoveries for each
component in each fluid stream become:

Zi oil Si oil Fi
Zi gas Si gas Fi
Zi gas Si gas Fi
where Zi is the moles produced of each component in each fluid and Si is the individual
component split factor for that fluid.
Summing the individual Zi values gives the recoveries for fluid .
Since:

RECOVERY(oil) + RECOVERY(gas) + RECOVERY(lng) = 1

then:

Zioil Zi gas Zi LNG 1

i i i

The compositions are then normalised to give the values in the usual form e.g.. for the oil

Zi oil
xi
Zioil
i

If a fluid does not exist the equivalent recovery and split factors will be set to zero.

One set of split factors represents one feed composition. To represent the many variations in
composition that enter the separator train, many sets of split factors are required. The
program will then interpolate between the sets to give a values that better represent the feed
composition. The key to the interpolation is the concentration of a marker component. This is
normally taken as the heaviest component but this can be changed.

A weakness of the interpolation method is that the calculation will not accurately handle a fluid

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which is outside the split factor range that has been generated. If only a gas table is
generated for example the method would give a totally unrealistic result if an oil composition is
interpolated. As such, great care should be taken in the creation of the Surface Split Factor
tables.

2.3.4.11.1 Split Factor Input

There are two tabs within this screen:

1. Split Factor Generation Inputs

2. View Split Factors

Split Factor Generation Inputs

Below is an example of the this input screen.

Master Stream Only EOS descriptions held within PVT Fluid objects will be used in this
calculation.

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They do not need to be explicitly selected in the Characterisation

Window, as all PVT Fluid objects will be automatically listed here and the
user can select the appropriate one from the drop down menu.

Lumping Options If one of the PVT Fluid objects selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Marker Split Factors normally come as a series of tables. Each table

Component represents a different composition which has been used to feed the
separator/chiller train.

The tables are differentiated from each other by the inclusion of the
molar concentration of the selected marker component.

This is normally taken as the heaviest component (default) but can be

changed via this drop down menu.

Calculation There are two methods:

Method
1. Use Single set of values from separator calculation
This method will send the stream through the defined separator/
chiller train and produce a single set of split factors. This option
only has one marker concentration and cannot therefore be
interpolated as the separator feed concentration changes.

As a result the generated split factors will always produce the

same values for the GOR,fluid recoveries and compositions.

As such the method is of limited use

2. Calculate a series of values from mixing gas and oil derived

from a CCE calculation
Split factors work best when they represent the full range of
fluids which might be encountered by the separators. The final
usefulness of the split factors generated are very dependent on
how representative the selected concentrations are.

This option allows the user to generate a range of fluids using a

constant composition expansion (CCE) calculation and some
blending as the basis for the variability.

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The user can select a temperature and a range of pressures for

which the calculations are done. Since the composition is
constant above the saturation pressure it is not necessary to
include values above this. If the user is unsure of what the
saturation pressure is for the specified temperature, simply enter
a high value and PVTp will limit the maximum pressure value.

CCE Inputs If the CCE is being used the user can choose the following:

1. Fluid sent from CCE to Separator Train

i. All
ii. Gas
iii. Oil

2. CCE Temperature

3. Pressure Range
i. As noted above, there is no need to go vastly above the
saturation pressure as the fluid composition will be constant
with a single phase. PVTp will therefore automatically limit
this range to very close to the saturation pressure.

4. Number of concentrations
i. It is possible to generate up to 50 tables of Split Factors
each of which contains a marker concentration and three
split factors for each component.

Path to Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

When multiple samples are being analysed, it may be necessary to have

individual separator settings for each phase stream. In this case, the
"Use Same Path to Surface for All Phases" radio button should be
clicked on.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs

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of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these

objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Calculate Split Selecting this button will calculate the split factors, based on the entered
Factors options, to be viewed in the next View Split Factors tab.

View Split Factors

Below is an example of the this input screen.

Marker This is specified in the Split Factor Generation Inputs tab and is normally
Component taken as the heaviest component (default) but can be changed.

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Marker This list allows the user to choose the concentration of the Marker
Concentrations Component to view.

Import Split The program allows the user to read an eclipse *.inc file in the three
Factors formats VIZ GPTABLE3, GPTANBLEN and GPTABLE. The information
retrieved depends on the format used.

The imported data must match the number of components in the target
stream. The tables imported are automatically ordered to aid in the
interpolation process.

Export Split The generated split factor table can be exported in Eclipse format (VIZ
Factors GPTABLE3, GPTANBLEN or GPTABLE).

The data is exported as an ASCII *.inc file.

Split Factor Table Here the user can view the results of the interpolation of split factors.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.11.2 Results Table

The Split Factor results table can be view by selecting the following:

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.

There are two tabs to view results:

1. Oil/Gas Results - this is where the main surface properties such as GOR, API, gas

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gravity etc. can be found

2. Surface Compositions - this is where the compositional split between oil and gas can
be found

To Stream This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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2.3.4.12 Path To Surface

The Path to Surface object is where any path can be visually defined for any "Selected" EOS
description to calculate stream properties.

There are a number of sub-sections within the object, which can be seen by the buttons down
the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed separately, though it
should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Path to Surface Input 314

2. Path to Surf. Results 319

The Path to Surface Object allows the user to define any imaginable separation process
observed in the field, as illustrated by the example below.

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2.3.4.12.1 Path to Surface Input

Below is an example of the Path to Surface calculation input screen. All EOS descriptions
selected will be used for this calculation. See the Select 58 section for further details on how
to add EOS descriptions to this calculation.

Lumping Options - If one of the PVT Fluid objects selected for calculation has a lumping
Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and
lumped descriptions to use.

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Creates a blank new process and replaces the current process

Can be used to define a standard separator train quickly, by entering a series of
pressures and temperatures:

Selecting OK will create this path. Please note, if the final stage is not at standard
conditions, an additional separator element is added to also flash the fluid to stock
tank.

Can be used to open a previously saved Path to Surface configuration (from a *.prc
file).

Can be used to save a Path to Surface configuration as a *.prc file, so that it can be
imported into the other IPM tools to ensure a consistent Path to Surface

Objec The following elements can be selected:

ts

1. Separator
Represents a separation stage and should be assigned a pressure and
temperature.

The stage pressure and temperature are input by double-clicking on the

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separator icon on the canvas. The 'Liquid Output' option is only available for
chillers.

2. Separator [small icon]

This element is identical to the above, but has a small display icon.

The data input is the same as the Separator

3. Chiller
A chiller is necessary in order to activate the LNG, LPG and Condensate
output streams. It should be assigned a pressure and temperature. The inlet
fluid will be flashed to those conditions, in the same way as for a separator.

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For chillers an additional 'Liquid Output' option is available. This can be set to
Oil, LNG, LPG or Condensate:
If set to Oil: the liquid outlet can be connected to any element or any
liquid export line.
If set to LNG, LPG or Condensate: the liquid outlet can only be
connected to the corresponding liquid export line. The chiller icon will
colour will change to that of the corresponding liquid export line.

4. Joint
Represents a point where streams from different separator stages merge.

Can add the selected object to the canvas.

Can be used to delete elements (separators, chillers, joints and connections) from the
canvas by clicking on the relevant element. Please note, deleting separators, chillers
or joints will automatically delete any connections to/from the relevant element.

Can be used to connect elements on the canvas, creating a connection.

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Can be used to move elements on the canvas. Please note, alternatively, elements
can be moved by holding down Shift and then dragging an element across the canvas.

Can be used to display a grid on the canvas.

Optio There are a number of options that can be selected from this menu:
ns

1. Hide Labels
With this option enabled, the labels on Source, Separator, Chiller and Joint
elements are hidden from view.

2. Icon Scaling
With this option, the zoom of the icons on the canvas can be adjusted. There
are three different levels of zoom:

Large
Medium
Small

3. Low Flow Thresh

4. Colour by Rates
With this option enabled each connection is assigned a colour depending on
the fluid type it is carrying:

Black - Source Fluid

Burgundy - Gas

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Blue - LNG
Purple - LPG
Red - Condensate
Green - Oil

5. Show Fluid Warnings

With this option enabled, fluid warnings are displayed.

These icons signal whether the separator train is valid or not.

When all data has been provided and all connections have been made, the separator
train is automatically validated.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the phase envelope(s) using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.12.2 Path to Surf. Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via a Results Table

2. Via Path to Surface Objects

Regardless of these, the following option are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.

Results Table

There are two tabs to view results:

1. Oil/Gas Results - this is where the main surface properties such as GOR, API, gas
gravity etc. can be found

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2. Surface Compositions - this is where the compositional split between oil and gas can
be found

To Stream This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the oil and gas
compositions. These are the output streams from the calculation.

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It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

PTS Objects

Below is an example of the PTS objects results view.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only by
hovering over the respective icons.

2.3.4.13 Swelling Test

The Swelling Test object is where the experiment for any "Selected" EOS description can be
calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Swelling Test object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Swelling Test Input 322

2. Results Plot 325
3. Results Table 325
4. Detailed Results 326

In this test gas is progressively injected in a cell initially containing oil. The change in cell
volume and saturation pressure is calculated. The mixture is then flashed at the saturation
pressure to get the phase properties.

2.3.4.13.1 Swelling Test Input

Below is an example of the Swelling Test calculation input screen.

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Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

Injection Stream There are two formats to enter this data:

Input
1. Use Mole Percent
2. Use Volume

The input table will update according to the above selection.

Auto Set Mole This will automatically set values between 0 and 90% in 10% increments.
Percents
Injection Stream Only EOS descriptions held within PVT Fluid objects can be used as an
injection fluid.

They do not need to be explicitly selected in the Characterisation

Window, as all PVT Fluid objects will be automatically listed here and the
user can choose the appropriate one from the drop down menu.

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Once PVT Fluid object has been chosen, the calculation will look to inject
this into the "selected" objects fluid description. For more information on
how to "select" objects refer to the Select 58 section.

Lumping Options If one of the PVT Fluid objects selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Path to Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

K Values This table allows the user to manually enter K Values for the desired
number of separators.
Separator Train Here the user can enter all the stages of the separator test. PVTp will
automatically include a final stage flash to stock tank conditions if it has
not been explicitly entered in this table.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

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Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.13.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the Swelling Test results plot.

Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation, i.e. the fluids that have been injected into. See the Select 58 section.

Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

2.3.4.13.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the Swelling Test results table.

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Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

2.3.4.13.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.
Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a flash
at that condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results of a
re flash at that condition.

Flash Results

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Below is an example of the Swelling Test detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Path to Surface Results

There are two tabs within the Path to Surface Results tab table view:

1. Oil/Gas Results - this is where the main surface properties such as GOR, API, gas
gravity etc. can be found

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2. Surface Compositions - this is where the compositional split between oil and gas can
be found

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To Stream This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

PTS Object View

Below is an example of the Swelling Test detailed results table for path to surface results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

2.3.4.14 Slim Tube

The Slim Tube object is where the experiment for any "Selected" EOS description can be
calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Slim Tube object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Slim Tube Input 332

2. Results Plot 338
3. Results Table 339
4. Detailed Results 339

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This cell to cell model simulates gas injection into an oil reservoir. The program sets up a
series of cells as shown in figure below. The cells do not need to be the same size but
usually are. The temperatures of all the cells remain the same at the initial reservoir value. If
the cell orientation is horizontal all the cells start at the designated reservoir pressure. If the
cells are inclined or vertical, the pressures are adjusted for the column of oil above the cell.

In each time step gas is added to the system. The gas injected into Cell 1 is mixed with the
fluid there and the combination is flashed to find the new amount of gas and oil and their
properties. Material Balance calculations and phase mobility criteria are used to calculate
how much of each phase is moved to Cell 2. Again the new mixture is flashed and the excess
is moved to Cell 3 and so on.

This process is repeated until the production cell is reached. At this point the excess volume
and composition appear as production.

Whether multiple contact miscibility is achieved is usually taken from the estimation of the
minimum miscibility pressure (MMP). Definitions of the MMP can vary, but it is usually taken
as the pressure at which the recovery is 90% when 1.2 pore volumes of gas have been
injected. At pressures above MMP the gas is assumed to be miscible.

2.3.4.14.1 Slim Tube Input

There are four tabs within this screen:

1. Slim Tube Conditions

2. Cell Data
3. Relative Permeability
4. Run Control

Slim Tube Conditions

Below is an example of the this input screen.

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Input Mode There are two options for this calculation, which would change the
format of the data required.

1. User Selected
2. Automatic

Slim Tube This is the temperature the calculation should be performed at.
Temperature
Injection Stream Only EOS descriptions held within PVT Fluid objects will be used in this
calculation.

They do not need to be explicitly selected in the Characterisation

Window, as all PVT Fluid objects will be automatically listed here and the
user can select the appropriate one from the drop down menu.

This fluid will be injected into all of the EOS descriptions within objects
"Selected" in the Characterisation Window. See the Select 58 section fro
more information on how to do this.

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Test for MMP This is where the user can change the definition of the minimum miscible
pressure. The default, and generally accepted, definition is pressure at
which the recovery is 90% when 1.2 pore volumes of gas have been
injected.

Slim Tube Here the range of pressures required fro the calculation can be entered.
Pressures
Lumping Options If one of the PVT Fluid objects selected for calculation has a lumping
- Calc. Mode rule, then the user can choose from the full, lumped, or full and lumped
descriptions to use.

Cell Data

Below is an example of the this input screen.

Number of Cells This is where the number of cells is defined.

Production Cell This defines which cell we see production from.
Injection Cell This defined where the fluid in injected.
Slim Tube Depth This depth is purely for reference.
Slim Tube This defines the cell orientation:
Inclination
1. Horizontal - typically cells are horizontal.

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2. Vertical - if cells are vertical, they are at different pressures

depending on the cell height and the oil density

Copy to All Rows Cells can all contain the same data. To populate all cells quickly, the
"Copy to All Rows" can be used.

Relative Permeability

Below is an example of the this input screen.

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The Relative Permeability data can be entered in table form. The exponents are entered as
fractions with respect to the oil saturation. A Capillary Pressure curve can also be entered as
a function of oil saturation.

Run Control

Below is an example of the this input screen.

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Number of Time This is where the number of timesteps is defined.

Steps
Timestep Settings There are two options for timestepping:

1. Fixed Timestep
2. Variable Timestep

Timesteps Depending on the Timestep Setting, the timestep length can be entered.
For fixed steps the units can be changed by right clicking on the input
box.

It should be noted that the program will automatically change the value of
a time step or add more time steps if it is failing to meet its convergence
criteria.

Injection Rate This defined where the fluid in injected. The units can be changed by
right clicking on the input box.

Material Balance This is the convergence tolerance assigned to ensure that material
Tolerance balance is satisfied. There is no real need to change this number.

DV Limit This is the limit to the change in volume during the calculation.
DS Limit This is the limit to the change in saturation during the calculation.
DP Limit This is the limit to the change in pressure during the calculation.

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Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.14.2 Results Plot

Below is an example of the Slim Tube results plot.

Select EOS This window shows the EOS descriptions that have been selected for
calculation, i.e. the fluids that have been injected into. See the Select 58 section.

Zoom In Users can zoom into the plot by clicking and dragging over the desired zoom
area.
Zoom Out Double click on the plot area to zoom out.

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2.3.4.14.3 Results Table

Below is an example of the Slim Tube results table.

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate data.
Select Here the desired pressure can be selected to view the results.
Pressure
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other
Clipboard programs.

Note: table colours refer to the phases detected:

Black - liquid phase only

Red - vapour phase only
Blue - two phases

2.3.4.14.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Cell Results

2. Via Component Material Balance Results

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Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Fluid Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will
display the appropriate.
Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a
flash at that condition.
Copy to This will copy the table data and make it available to paste into other.
Clipboard
View As There are two ways to sort this data:

1. Timestep No.
2. PV Injected

Cell Results

Below is an example of the Slim Tube detailed results table for cell results.

Component Mat. Bal.

Below is an example of the Slim Tube detailed results table for component material balance
results.

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2.3.4.15 Isenthalpic Flash

The Isenthalpic Flash object is where the experiment for any "Selected" EOS description can
be calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Isenthalpic Flash object, which can be seen by
the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Isenthalpic Flash Input 342

2. Results Table 343
3. Detailed Results 344

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2.3.4.15.1 Isenthalpic Flash Input

Below is an example of the Isenthalpic Flash Input screen:

This screen is used to define the conditions at which the isenthalpic flash is to be calculated.
The user can enter the initial conditions (pressure and temperature) of the fluid and also a
range of final pressures. The temperature which the fluid would need to change to to maintain
the same enthalpy will then be calculated. When these inputs have been selected, press
Calculate to complete the calculation.

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of final
User Selected pressure which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow range of final pressures to be entered.
Automatic
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum final pressure ranges need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
final pressure need to be added.
Initial Conditions Enter the initial pressure of the fluid.
-
Initial Pressure
Initial Conditions Enter the initial temperature of the fluid.
-
Initial
Temperature

Command buttons

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Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.15.2 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
choices are:
- End Temperature - plots the temperature of the fluid at the final
pressure
- Liquid Dropout - plots the liquid drop out of the fluid at the final
pressure
- Liquid Enthalpy - plots the enthalpy of the liquid at the final
pressure
- Vapour Enthalpy - plots the enthalpy of the vapour at the final
pressure
- Total Enthalpy - plots the total enthalpy of the fluid. As this is an

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isenthalpic flash, this value should be constant (within a

tolerance) across final pressures.
X-Axis Variable For this screen all of the results are plotted against the final pressure
(i.e. the pressure after the isenthalpic flash).

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.15.3 Detailed Results

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table will show a table of results for each final pressure which has
been calculated. The results are:
- End Temperature - plots the temperature of the fluid at the final
pressure
- Liquid Dropout - plots the liquid drop out of the fluid at the final
pressure

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- Liquid Enthalpy - plots the enthalpy of the liquid at the final

pressure
- Vapour Enthalpy - plots the enthalpy of the vapour at the final
pressure
- Total Enthalpy - plots the total enthalpy of the fluid. As this is an
isenthalpic flash, this value should be constant (within a
tolerance) across final pressures.ed gas
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.16 Hydrate Formation

The Hydrate Formation Pressure object is where the experiment for any "Selected" EOS
description can be calculated, plotted and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Hydrate Formation Pressure object, which can
be seen by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be
discussed separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Hydrate Form. Temp. Input 345

2. Results Table 347
3. Detailed Results 348

2.3.4.16.1 Hydrate Form. Temp. Input

Below is an example of the Hydrate Formation Temperature Input screen:

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Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of
User Selected temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow range of temperatures to be entered and
Automatic then used in the calculations.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum Temperature range need to be entered.
Temperature
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
temperature need to be added.
Hydrate Options - This option will determine which 'type' of hydrate will be used in the
Hydrate Type calculation. The user can choose between Hydrate types I or II or both.
More information on these types (and the impact this has on the
calculation) can be found in the hydrates 444 section of this manual.
Hydrate Options - PVTp has three different hydrate models which can be selected:
Hydrate Model - Munck et al
- Hydrafact Modified Cubic
- Hydrafact CPAs

Fundamentally, all hydrate models work on the principle of finding

whether the formation of hydrates is thermodynamically favourable or
not. The difference between the models lies in the way/thoroughness in
which the chemical potentials are evaluated as part of this
thermodynamic check.
The Hydrafact models are more thorough in formulation than the Munck
model and they have also been extensively tested in the lab. They are
able to account for inhibitors. The Modified Cubic model is the
suggested model to use as it is more comprehensive and stable under a

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variety of conditions.
Thermodynamic inhibitors such as MEG work to break the hydrate
lattice. The Modified Cubic Plus Association Model (Modified CPA)
accounts for the fact that the inhibitors can become less effective as they
have a tendency to self-aggregate rather than break the hydrate lattice.
The CPA model therefore has this additional detail however this can
increase calculation time and also reduces stability.
For more details see the Hydrate 445 modeling section.
Assume Free The normal model assumption within PVTp is that free water exists
Water Phase within the system (see Hydrate Modelling 445 ).
Exists If water is defined within the composition and the composition is a gas at
the calculation pressure and temperature a second model is called. This
calculates the formation pressure required to form hydrates directly
from molecules within the gas phase. The mechanism for this is
described in Hydrates with no water phase 448 . Formation of hydrates
directly from a gas phase containing water is possible and occurs at a
higher pressure than the equivalent when a discrete water phase is
present.
This checkbox, if on, forces the program to assume that a water phase
is present
Use Inhibitors/ This option allows the impact of inhibitors and salts to be modelled when
Salts in calculating the hydrate formation temperature. The inhibitor and salt
Calculation concentrations and options are taken from the Water Composition 165 tab
of the PVT Sample which has been selected for the calculation.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.16.2 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

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Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable This calculation object will calculate and plot the hydrate formation
pressure calculated at different temperatures.
X-Axis Variable For this screen the calculated formation pressure is plotted against the
temperature.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.16.3 Detailed Results

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

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Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table will show hydrate formation curve for the given fluid along with
the type of hydrate which was found to form.
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.17 Hydrate Protection

The Hydrate Inhibitor Concentration object is where the amount of inhibitor required to
remove the risk of hydrate formation can be calculated for any "Selected" EOS description.

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There is only one sub-section within the Critical Point object, which can be seen by the button
on the left hand side of the object. This sub-section is the Hydrate Min. Inhibitor 350 section.

This calculation object works by applying a multiplier to the existing components selected
within the water composition. Therefore, if any components are not included or start with a
zero concentration, they will not be increased by the calculation. For this reason, it is
recommended to set the ratios of each component (in the inhibitor and salt sections) of the
selected PVT Samples Water Composition 165 to the desired ratios before this calculation is
performed.

2.3.4.17.1 Hydrate Min. Inhibitor

Below is an example of the Hydrate Formation Temperature Input screen:

Hydrate Options - This option will determine which 'type' of hydrate will be used in the
Hydrate Type calculation. The user can choose between Hydrate types I or II or both.
More information on these types (and the impact this has on the
calculation) can be found in the hydrates 444 section of this manual.
Hydrate Options - PVTp has three different hydrate models which can be selected:
Hydrate Model - Munck et al
- Hydrafact Modified Cubic
- Hydrafact CPAs

Fundamentally, all hydrate models work on the principle of finding

whether the formation of hydrates is thermodynamically favourable or
not. The difference between the models lies in the way/thoroughness in
which the chemical potentials are evaluated as part of this
thermodynamic check.
The Hydrafact models are more thorough in formulation than the Munck
model and they have also been extensively tested in the lab. They are

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able to account for inhibitors. The Modified Cubic model is the

suggested model to use as it is more comprehensive and stable under a
variety of conditions.
Thermodynamic inhibitors such as MEG work to break the hydrate
lattice. The Modified Cubic Plus Association Model (Modified CPA)
accounts for the fact that the inhibitors can become less effective as they
have a tendency to self-aggregate rather than break the hydrate lattice.
The CPA model therefore has this additional detail however this can
increase calculation time and also reduces stability.
For more details see the Hydrate 445 modelling section.
Adjusted Species Select which of the components in the water can be altered to match the
desired points. We have three options:
- Inhibitors only - This will change the concentration of inhibitor and
keep the salts constant
- Salts only - This will change the concentration of salts and keep the
inhibitors constant
- Inhibitors and Salts - This will change the concentration of inhibitors
and salts by the same multiplier
Assume Free The normal model assumption within PVTp is that free water exists
Water Phase within the system (see Hydrate Modelling 445 ).
Exists If water is defined within the composition and the composition is a gas at
the calculation pressure and temperature a second model is called. This
calculates the formation pressure required to form hydrates directly
from molecules within the gas phase. The mechanism for this is
described in Hydrates with no water phase 448 . Formation of hydrates
directly from a gas phase containing water is possible and occurs at a
higher pressure than the equivalent when a discrete water phase is
present.
This checkbox, if on, forces the program to assume that a water phase
is present
Protection Enter the minimum pressure at which hydrates will be allowed to form
Conditions - Up to for the given temperature entered.
Pressure
Protection Enter the temperature at which the minimum hydrate pressure is to be
Conditions - At set.
Temperature

After the calculation has been completed, the Calculation Results table will be
populated:

Multiplier This is the multiplier applied to the Adjusted Species in order to obtain a
hydrate formation pressure equal to the target at the given temperature.
Depending upon the Adjust Species option selected this could be
applied to the inhibitor, salt or both.

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Hydrate This is the hydrate formation pressure (at the entered temperature)
Formation which was calculated by the regression after the inclusion of the
Pressure inhibitors/salts.
Apply Multi to This will update the inhibitor/salt concentration in the selected PVT
Fluid Samples using the calculated multiplier to match the hydrate formation
pressure.
Cancel Apply Multi If the multiplier has already been applied, it can be removed using this
option.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.18 Water Saturation

The Water Saturation object is where the amount of water vapour that can be carried by any
"Selected" fluid description can be calculated and reviewed.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Water Saturation object, which can be seen by
the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Water Sat. Input 352

2. Results Table 354
3. Detailed Results 356

2.3.4.18.1 Water Sat. Input

Below is an example of the Water Saturation Input screen:

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This screen is used to define the conditions at which the saturated water conditions are to be
calculated. When these inputs have been selected, press Calculate to complete the
calculation.

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of ValuesIf the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.
If the objective is to generate isothermal tables, then the same minimum
and maximum temperature should be entered and the number of values
should be set to 1.
Lumping Options If a composition has been lumped, the user can select to use the lumped
composition for the calculation or the delumped composition.
Path to Surface As the results of this calculation are given relative to standard conditions,
Data the path the fluid takes to get to standard conditions needs to be
defined.

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This is because the processes which are used to return an oil to

standard conditions can significantly change the final oil characteristics
and the amount of gas liberated on the way.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.18.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

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Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
choices are:
- Water Saturation - plots the percentage water saturation in the
resultant stream
- WGR - plots the water to gas ratio (at standard conditions)
- P over Z - Shows the P/Z plot for the saturated gas
X-Axis Variable Allows the input variable (pressure or temperature) which is to be placed
on the X-axis to be selected. Which ever variable is not selected will be
shown as multiple lines instead.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

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2.3.4.18.3 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table will show a table of results for every combination of pressure
and temperature which has been calculated. The results are:
- Water Saturation - plots the percentage water saturation in the
resultant stream
- WGR - plots the water to gas ratio (at standard conditions)
- P over Z - Shows the P/Z plot for the saturated gas
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

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2.3.4.19 Wax Appearance Temperature

The Wax Appearance Temperature object is where the temperature below which wax will
appear for any "Selected" fluid description.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Wax Appearance Temperature object, which
can be seen by the buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will
be discussed separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to
bottom. The sub-sections include:

1. Wax Appear. Temp. Input 357

2. Results Plot 358
3. Results Table 359

Details of the calculations used to determine if wax is likely to appear can be found in the Wax
Modelling 434 section of this user guide.
2.3.4.19.1 Wax Appear. Temp. Input
An example of the Wax Appearance Temperature Input screen is shown below:

This screen is used to define the conditions at which the wax appearance temperture are to

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be calculated. When these inputs have been selected, press Calculate to complete the
calculation.

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures to be entered from
Automatic which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
pressure need to be added.
Wax Calculation Wax deposition is driven mainly by long-chain paraffins. This means that
Options in order to properly characterize waxes it is required to define in detail
the hydrocarbons with high carbon number. This option splits the pseudo
components in its SCN components to more accurately model waxes.
Calculation Limits Some of the limits of the calculation can be adjusted in this section of the
- dialog. The minimum and maximum temperatures dictate the range in
Min/Max which wax will be looked for.
Temperature
Calculation Limits The maximum number of steps sets how many iterations the program
- Maximum allows before it gives up looking for a solution.
Iterations
Calculation Limits The minimum test solid percent is the value used to determine if wax is
- Solid Test just forming i.e. the Wax Appearance Temperature. If the amount of wax
Amount formed is greater than zero but less than this value, then it will be treated
as a negative results. The wax formation temperature will be defined as
the lowest temperature at which this value is exceeded.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.19.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in plot form in the Results
Table screen:

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Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable As the only result is the Wax Formation Temperature, this is the only
variable which can be selected on the Y-axis.
X-Axis Variable The pressure range used for the calculation will be selected as the X-
axis.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.19.3 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

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Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table will show a table of results for pressure versus wax formation
temperature.
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.20 Wax Amount

The Wax Amount object is where the percentage of wax that would drop out of any
"Selected" fluid description at specified conditions.

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There are a number of sub-sections within the Wax Amount object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Wax Amount Input 361

2. Results Plot 362
3. Results Table 363
4. Detailed Results 365

Details of the calculations used to determine if wax is likely to appear can be found in the Wax
Modelling 434 section of this user guide.
2.3.4.20.1 Wax Amount Input
An example of the Wax Amount Input screen is shown below:

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperatures which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure and temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.

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Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
pressure and temperature need to be added.
Wax Calculation Wax deposition is driven mainly by long-chain paraffins. This means that
Options in order to properly characterize waxes it is required to define in detail
the hydrocarbons with high carbon number. This option splits the pseudo
components in its SCN components to more accurately model waxes.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.20.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will

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appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
choices are:

- Solid Phase - This reports the mol% of wax which would be

formed.
- Solid Weight - This reports the weight% of wax which would be
formed
- Liquid Phase - This reports the mol% of liquid.
- Gas Phase - This reports the mol% of gas.

All the mol%/weight% are reported based upon the original process
feed. The liquid and gas mol% are calculated after the solid fraction is
removed (since the solid is no longer in equilibrium with the fluid).
X-Axis Variable Allows the input variable (pressure or temperature) which is to be placed
on the X-axis to be selected. Which ever variable is not selected will be
shown as multiple lines instead.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.20.3 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

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Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table shows the results of each combination of pressure and
temperature which has been calculated. These results are:

- Solid Phase - This reports the mol% of wax which would be

formed.
- Solid Weight - This reports the weight% of wax which would be
formed
- Liquid Phase - This reports the mol% of liquid.
- Gas Phase - This reports the mol% of gas.

All the mol%/weight% are reported based upon the original process
feed. The liquid and gas mol% are calculated after the solid fraction is
removed (since the solid is no longer in equilibrium with the fluid).
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.

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OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.20.4 Detailed Results

Once the calculation has been performed, the different compositions of each phase (liquid,
gas and solid) can be seen in table form in the Detailed Results screen:

Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Pressure This field will show all of the pressures which have been calculated for.
Select the pressure for which the compositions are to be viewed.
Temperature This field will show all of the temperatures which have been calculated
for. Select the temperature for which the compositions are to be viewed.
Tables The table shows the composition of each phase (gas, liquid and solid) at
the given pressure and temperature selected.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.

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OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.21 Salt Map

The Salt Map object is a multiphase flash process with a CCE at the core to determine the
amount of salt produced as a solid for any "Selected" fluid description at specified conditions.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Salt Map object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Salt Map Input 367

2. Results Plot 369
3. Results Table 371

The Salt Map is a multiphase flash process at whose core is a CCE. The aim is to predict the
water composition at any pressure and temperature and then from the water composition a
maximum solubility can be calculated. The amount of salt produced as a solid is presented in
the form of a solid dropout. This value is the percentage of the total salt in the initial
composition that ends up as solid. A map of the pattern of deposition across a range of
temperatures and pressures is produced.

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Effect of Vapour Formation

Salt Solubility varies with temperature and pressure with temperature-dependence being the
stronger effect. It also varies with composition.
Any gas formed in changing P and T will saturate with pure water. This water is removed from
the liquid water, increasing the salt concentration. The salt concentration moves from the
original salinity to a new, higher salinity.
The amount of water required to saturate the evolved gas also changes greatly with P and T.
This can be calculated in PVTp using the Add Water 194 or Saturation with H2O 192 options. In
real systems this effect of gas vaporisation and condensation can be dominant.
A smaller amount of water also dissolves in the oil and while smaller than the impact of
vaporised water in gas, it may be significant at higher temperatures.

The Adjust Values for Water lost to vapour allows the user to switch the calculation of this
effect off and on.

Injection
Where salt precipitation is an acute problem, the injection of pure or low salt water can be
used to reduce or remove the solid salt formation. A facility is available as part of this
calculation to model water injection. Water of a different composition can be added at a mass
rate relative to the initial fluid. Injecting dry gas into the system (eg. to mimic the effects of
gas lift gas) will adversely affect the amount of solid salt produced as pure water will be
vaporised into the gaseous phase. This can also be modelled for a variety of gases and
relative injection rates as part of the Salt Map calculation.

2.3.4.21.1 Salt Map Input

Below is an example of the Salt Map Input screen:

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This screen is used to define the conditions at which the saturated water conditions are to be
calculated. When these inputs have been selected, press Calculate to complete the
calculation.

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.
If the objective is to generate isothermal tables, then the same minimum
and maximum temperature should be entered and the number of values
should be set to 1.
Salt Options Selecting the Adjust values for water lost to vapour option will allow pure
water to be vaporised into the gaseous phase and hence change the
salinity of the water.

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Injection Fluid This section allows different phases to be injected into the calculation to
mimic the mixing of the reservoir fluid with other fluids.
Injection Fluid - Select this option if an additional source of water is to be injected into
Water the calculation.
If this is selected, the Mass Rate Percent of this water needs to be
entered.
When this option is selected, the Water Composition tab will be enabled
to enter the properties of the injected water. More information the inputs
of this tab can be found in the Water Composition 165 section.
Injection Fluid - Select this option if an additional source of gas is to be injected into the
Gas calculation.
If this is selected, the Mass Rate Percent of this gas needs to be
entered.
Injection Fluid - If gas is to be injected, then the composition of the injected gas needs to
Gas Fluid be defined in an existing stream. This field allows the steam which
contains the gas composition to be selected.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.21.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

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Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
choices are:
- Salt Dropout - This is the percentage of the total salt which has
dropped out of solution.
- Salt in Solution - This is the percentage of the total salt which is
dissolved in the water.
X-Axis Variable Allows the input variable (pressure or temperature) which is to be placed
on the X-axis to be selected. Which ever variable is not selected will be
shown as multiple lines instead.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

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2.3.4.21.3 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table will show a table of results for every combination of pressure
and temperature which has been calculated. The results are:
- Salt Dropout - This is the percentage of the total salt which has
dropped out of solution.
- Salt in Solution - This is the percentage of the total salt which is
dissolved in the water
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.

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Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.

OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.22 Salt Solubility

The Salt Solubility object calculates the maximum amount of salt that can dissolve in any
"Selected" fluid description at specified conditions.

There are a number of sub-sections within the Salt Solubility object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Salt Map Input 367

2. Results Plot 369
3. Results Table 371

Note that this calculation object assumes that water is included as a component in the EOS
and therefore if no water is currently in the fluid sample, the Add Water 194 object can be used
to add a fixed amount of water for the calculation.
2.3.4.22.1 Salt Solubility Input
Below is an example of the Salt Solubility Input screen:

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This screen is used to define the conditions at which the saturated water conditions are to be
calculated. When these inputs have been selected, press Calculate to complete the
calculation.

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.
If the objective is to generate isothermal tables, then the same minimum
and maximum temperature should be entered and the number of values
should be set to 1.
Salt Options Selecting the Adjust values for water lost to vapour option will allow pure
water to be vaporised into the gaseous phase and hence change the
salinity of the water.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

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Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.22.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
choices are:
- Salt (g/l) - This is the maximum mass of salt which can be
dissolved in the fluid per litre.
- Salt (ppm) - This is the maximum concentration of salt which can
dissolve in the fluid.
- Salt Weight - This is the weight% of salt in the total composition.
- Sale Mole - This is the mol% of salt in the total composition.
X-Axis Variable Allows the input variable (pressure or temperature) which is to be placed
on the X-axis to be selected. Which ever variable is not selected will be
shown as multiple lines instead.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

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Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.22.3 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
choices are:
- Salt (g/l) - This is the maximum mass of salt which can be
dissolved in the fluid per litre.
- Salt (ppm) - This is the maximum concentration of salt which can
dissolve in the fluid.
- Salt Weight - This is the weight% of salt in the total composition.
- Sale Mole - This is the mol% of salt in the total composition.se.
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

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Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.23 CCE with Salt

The CCE with Salt object allows the CCE to be calculated for any "Selected" fluid description
in the presence of salt.

There are a number of sub-sections within the CCE with Salt object, which can be seen by the
buttons down the left hand side of the object. Each of these sections will be discussed
separately, though it should be noted that the intended workflow is from top to bottom. The
sub-sections include:

1. Salt Map Input 367

2. Results Plot 369
3. Results Table 371

This calculation is a multiphase Constant Composition Expansion (CCE). The initial mixture of
Hydrocarbon, water and salt are split into their respective phases at the entered temperature
and pressure.

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The final aim of this is to calculate the salt concentration (S2) in the liquid water after
equilibrium. From this information and the calculated maximum solubility at this P and T an
estimate of any solid salt can be determined.The amount of salt produced as a solid is
presented in the form of a solid dropout. This value is the percentage of the total salt in the
initial composition that ends up as solid. The difference between this calculation and the Salt
Map 724 is that all the phase and Black Oil properties are calculated for comparison and
analysis.
Salt Solubility varies with temperature and pressure with temperature-dependence being the
stronger effect. It also varies with composition.
Any gas formed in changing P and T will saturate with pure water. This water is removed from
the liquid water, increasing the salt concentration. The salt concentration moves from the
original salinity to a new, higher salinity.
The amount of water required to saturate the evolved gas also changes greatly with P and T.
This can be calculated in PVTp using the Add Water 194 or Saturation with H2O 192 options. In
real systems this effect of gas vaporisation and condensation can be dominant.
A smaller amount of water also dissolves in the oil and while smaller than the impact of
vaporised water in gas, it may be significant at higher temperatures.

The Adjust Values for Water lost to vapour allows the user to switch the calculation of this
effect off and on.
2.3.4.23.1 CCE Input
Below is an example of the Salt CCE Input screen:

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This screen is used to define the conditions at which the saturated water conditions are to be
calculated. When these inputs have been selected, press Calculate to complete the
calculation.

Input Mode - Selecting this option will enable a table into which the values of pressure
User Selected and temperature which are to be calculated can be entered.
Input Mode - Selecting this option will allow ranges of pressures and temperatures to
Automatic be entered from which the calculations will be performed.
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum temperature ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Temperature
Minimum/ If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the minimum and maximum
Maximum pressure ranges to be calculated need to be entered.
Pressure
Number of Values If the Automatic input mode is selected, then the number of values for
both pressure and temperature need to be added.
If the objective is to generate isothermal tables, then the same minimum
and maximum temperature should be entered and the number of values
should be set to 1.
Salt Options Selecting the Adjust values for water lost to vapour option will allow pure
water to be vaporised into the gaseous phase and hence change the
salinity of the water.
Path to Surface This allows the user to define a separation path through which the oil or
Data gas will be flashed to correct the Oil FVF, GOR and CGR.

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The processes which are used to return an oil to standard conditions can
significantly change the final oil characteristics and the amount of gas
liberated on the way.

When multiple samples are being analysed, it may be necessary to have

individual separator settings for each phase stream. In this case, the
"Use Same Path to Surface for All Phases" radio button should be
clicked on.

The following separation methods are available.

Flash straight to stock tank

Use Separator 290 train
Use K values 298
Use Split Factors 305
Use Path to Surface 313

With the exception to the flash straight to stock tank, all of these options
require the respective calculation object to the present so that the inputs
of those objects can be used respectively. If more than one of these
objects is available, the drop down boxes can be used to select the
correct one.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.23.2 Results Plot

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in graph form in the Results
Plot screen:

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Select EOS If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the right of the screen. Select the EOS which is to
be plotted.
Y-Axis Variable A different result can be plotted on both the left and right Y-axis. The
includes both the normal CCE results and the results of the salt
calculations.
X-Axis Variable Allows the input variable (pressure or temperature) which is to be placed
on the X-axis to be selected. Which ever variable is not selected will be
shown as multiple lines instead.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.23.3 Results Table

Once the calculation has been performed, the results can be seen in table form in the Results
Table screen:

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Select Fluid If multiple PVT Fluids have been selected and calculated, then they will
appear in the list on the left of the screen. Select the EOS which is to be
shown in the tables.
Tables The table will show a table of results for every combination of pressure
and temperature which has been calculated. The includes both the
normal CCE results and the results of the salt calculations.
Copy to Clipboard Select Copy to Clipboard to copy all of the data in the current table to
the clipboard in tab delimited format. This can then be pasted into
another program such as EXCEL.

Command buttons
Included in this area are a series of control button which have the following functions:

Help This opens the online help.

Calculate This option calculates the object using the latest inputs.
Cancel This rejects all changes and closes the window.
OK This accepts all changes and closes the window.

2.3.4.23.4 Detailed Results

There are two ways to view these results:

1. Via Flash Results

2. Via Path to Surface Results

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Regardless of these, the following options are always available.

Select Depending on which fluid is selected form this list, the results table will display
Fluid the appropriate.
Pressure This allows the user to select a specific pressure and view the results of a flash
at that condition.
Temperatu This allows the user to select a specific temperature and view the results of a
re flash at that condition.

Below is an example of the CCE with Salt detailed results table for flash results.

Compositions This allows the user to view the composition distributing in the liquid, vapour
and total streams. The K value is also reported for each component.

It is possible to send one of these compositions to a separate stream. this

can be done by selecting one of the "To Stream" buttons above the
composition. This allows a new characterisation pathway to be started from
this composition, or for subsequent calculations to be performed on these
compositions. An example of what these streams could look like is below:

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Phase This allows the user to view the below properties for the liquid and vapour
Properties phases.

Below is an example of the CCE with Salt detailed results table for path to surface results.

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Note that besides changing the views and phases selected, this interface is read only. For full
details on this interface, please refer to the Path to Surface 313 section.

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2.4 Engineering Theory and Calculations

This chapter briefly describes the background equations and inputs to the models available
within the PVT package.

The Equation Of State Model

In addition the following topics are also covered:

Acentric factors
Binary Interaction Parameters
Volume Shift
Hydrate modelling
Wax modelling
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity modelling
Water Eos modelling
Salt modelling
Separation and the Path to Surface

2.4.1 The Equation of State Model

Equations of State were developed to give a mathematical relationship between pressure,
volume and temperature. They were originally put forward as a method of interpreting the non-
ideal nature of many pure substances. With time, this role has been extended successfully to
predicting the properties of simple and complex mixtures.

The equations used in PVT are derived from Van der Waals Equation and in common with it
represent the total pressure as a summation of an attractive and a repulsive element:

P total = P repulsive - P attractive

The classic Van der Waals equation describes this relationship as:

RT a
P
v b v2
where b represents the hard-sphere volume of the molecules and a the intermolecular
attraction.

The two cubic Equations of State which are available within the PVT package are:

Peng-Robinson (PR) EoS

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Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) RT a (T )
EoS P
v b v (v b )

In addition in IPM there is a feature within the program which allows the user to customise
the general equation to suit a specific need.
The attractive term is defined as:

and the a(Tc) function at the critical point is given by the empirical relationship:

The constant 0.45724 is referred to as Omega A and is specific of the EOS model (in this
case, Peng-Robinson).

α(TR, ω ) is a function of the reduced temperature T/Tc and the acentric factor as shown
below:

m is an empirical quadratic or cubic of the acentric factor:

for < 0.49 m = 0.37464 + 1.54226 - 0.2699 ^2

for > 0.49 m = 0.379642 + 1.485030 - 0.164423 ^2 + 0.016666 ^3

In addition the repulsive factor b within PR is given by:

The constant 0.0778 is referred to as Omega B and is specific of the EOS model (in this
case, Peng-Robinson).

All cubic Equations of State can be rewritten as a function of the compressibility factor Z e.g.
the Peng Robinson equation becomes

Z3 (1 B) Z 2 (A 3B 2 2 B) Z ( AB B2 B3 ) 0

and the SRK

Z3 Z2 (A B B 2 )Z AB 0

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where

a (T ) P
A
( RT ) 2

bP
B
RT
and

Pv
Z
RT
See also
The Acentric Factor 387
The Binary Interaction Coefficient 391
Volume Shift 393

2.4.1.1 The Acentric Factor

The acentric factor was put forward as a means of representing the non-sphericity and
polarity of many compounds. The original Equation of State 385 PV=nRT was based on a
model of hard spheres which behaved in a classical and predictable fashion. The vast majority
of compounds are, unfortunately, far from ideal and far from spherical. The acentric factor
provides a number which can be used in the equation of state to match predicted PVT
behaviour with reality.

To quote the authors in Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria by J Prausnitz

and R. D. Lichtenthaler.
"Acentric Factors are arbitrary and chosen for convenience"

There was originally an empirical basis for the value of the acentric value. Based on the
observed deviation of some fluids from that predicted for simple fluids, Pitzer proposed an
experimental method for determining the acentric factor.

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It had been observed that for simple fluids the following relationship held i.e. as the
Temperature (T) approached 7/10 of the critical temperature (Tc) the measured saturation
pressure(Ps) approached 1/10 of the critical pressure(Pc).

Ps 1
Pc 10
when
T 7
( )
Tc 10

Pitzer's proposal was to use the logarithmic deviation from this relationship as a measure of
the acentric factor

Ps
log 10 ( ) T / Tc 0.7 1.0
Pc
The graph above displays a relationship traditionally assumed to be able to approximate the
acentric factor given knowledge of the boiling point (Teb) at atmospheric conditions (Patm).
This relationship implies that knowledge of the boiling point can be used to determine the
acentric factor and vice-versa.

The acentric factor enters the equation of state as a variable which describes the change in
the intermolecular attraction experienced by a component with temperature a(T) .
The Peng Robinson Equation is
RT a (T )
P
v b v (v b ) b (v b)
with

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a (T ) a (Tc ) (TR , )

where the a(T) function at the critical point is given by the empirical relationship

R 2TC2
a (Tc ) 0.45724 ( )
PC
and
(TR , )
is a function of the reduced temperature T/Tc and the acentric factor as follows

(1 (1 TR0.5 ) 2
β is an empirical quadratic or cubic of the acentric factor
At values of
less than 0.49 the equation is quadratic:
2
0.37464 1.54226 0.2699

The estimation changes to a cubic at other values of :

2 3
0.379642 1.485030 0.164423 0.016666

In addition the repulsive factor b within PR is given by:

RT C
b 0.0778 ( )
PC
Soave Redlich Kwong varies from PR in the constants within the empirical functions i.e.
R 2TC2
a (Tc ) 0.427 ( )
PC
2
0.480 1.54 0.176
and
RT C
b 0.08664 ( )
PC

The table below shows some typical acentric factors. Note that the value increases with the
size of the molecule and its polarity.
Table 1 Common Acentric Factors

Compound Acentric
Factor
Nitrogen N2 0.039
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.239
Methane C1 0.011
Ethane C2 0.099

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Butane nC4 0.199

Hexane C6 0.299
Octane C8 0.398
Decane C10 0.489

Acentric factors are available from the database supplied with the PVT package. The values
in table 1 are taken from the Petroleum Experts database.The acentric factors for all
components can be viewed and adjusted within the PVT Sample 104 object.

It is particularly important to select the right acentric factor for pseudo components. This value
can be calculated automatically or input manually within the Composition Input display. This
display is selected within the PVT Sample 104 object:

See also
Equation of State Model 385
Binary Interaction Coefficient 391
Volume Shift 393

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2.4.1.2 The Binary Interaction Coefficient

The cubic equations of state were originally developed for pure substances. With time their
use was extended to mixtures. This extension required some method of introducing a measure
of the polar and other interactions between pairs of dissimilar molecules. The binary
interaction coefficient was put forward. This variable enters the calculation as a component in
the inter-molecular attraction a.

For mixtures:
N N
a xi x j a ij
i 1 j 1

where
xi and
xj are mole fractions of components i and j, respectively and:

a ai a j (1 k ij )

kij is the binary interaction coefficient.

The attraction functions
ai and aj represent the a(T) functions for each individual component. (see acentric factor 387
help)

Binary Interaction Coefficients represent a flexible way of moulding the ideal Equation of State
385 to match the non-ideal reality of many mixtures. The program offers the user a variety of

correlations for Binary Interaction Coefficients as well as the opportunity to enter values
manually. This flexibility, however, brings with it the problem of where to start when
characterizing a mixture. Hint on Binary Interaction Coefficients puts forward a possible
approach.
The manipulations of kij are carried out within the BI Coefficient dialog 161 .

This can be found within the PVT Sample object.

The Binary Interaction Coefficients Display contains combo boxes which allow the user to
select between the correlations available for kij .

These correlations are a mixture of literature methods suggested by prominent authors of the
primary equations of state and empirical methods that are based on the molecular weight and
relative size of the different components. The empirical nature of the correlations means that
each method is largely similar to the other; however since they are considered to be match
parameters, the broad consensus is that the absolute value of the binary interaction coefficient
is not as important as the distribution with respect to the other components. This is discussed
below:

Choice of BI Coefficient

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Authors disagree on the values of binary interaction coefficients for hydrocarbon mixtures.
Some suggest that kij should be set at zero for hydrocarbon hydrocarbon interactions, and
given a value for hydrocarbon non-hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon non-hydrocarbon
pairs .
The approach of using BI coefficients is suitable for systems modeled using the Soave-
Redlich-Kwong(SRK) Equation Of State.

With the Peng-Robinson(PR) Equation Of State the following general approach was found
successful in many cases:

For Volatile Oils or try the correlations:

CoCondensates A. N. Other Correlation for Boiling Point
Bergman(PNA) and Cavett/Edmister for Acentric
Factor
No Binary Interaction Coefficients or a small value
e.g. 0.05 between the C1 and heaviest component
For Heavy Oils try the correlations:
Petroleum Experts Correlation for Boiling Point
TWU/Edmister for Acentric Factor
Binary Interaction Coefficients for all components

The program offers the user a variety of correlations for binary interaction coefficients as well
as the opportunity to enter values manually. The primary screen where BICs are defined is
within the BIC Input Data 136 tab of Pseudo Properties 119 object, as shown below:

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2.4.1.3 Volume Shift

Volume Shift arises from an inherent weakness in the 2 parameter (a and b) Equations of
State in estimating liquid densities.
The Peng Robinson 385 equation of state can be written as:

RT a (T )
P
v b v (v b ) b (v b)

In the 3 parameter version ν is replaced by a corrected version Vs where

Vs = V + cV
c is the third parameter and is the sum of the individual xi ci . This third parameter volume
shifts the equation.
Since this correction is done after the flash equilibrium calculations, the component K values,
saturation pressure and phase envelope are not affected. What is changed is the
compressibility Z and anything derived from it i.e. Density, GOR, FVF, Relative Volume etc.
The use of Volume Shift seems to be very attractive, since it corrects a known problem.

However there are potentially significant problems in using this method e.g.:

1) The Equation of State is non-predictive model. Matching must be carried out in order to

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model real fluid behaviour. Volume Shift can be used to make up for bad data or
inadequacies in the matching methods.
However, large Volume Shift corrections can lead to incorrect results (for example,
unphysical profiles of densities or FVF).
That is why when matching on Volume Shift it is necessary to make sure the EOS gives
consistent results for a wide range of pressures and temperatures and this can be achieved
by running sensitivity calculations in PVTp, for example CCE, CVD, separator, etc.
This potentially negative effect of the Volume Shift can be mitigated by introducing the
Volume Shift at the end of the final EOS matching process.

2) The Volume Shift approach is a correction factor which solves the difficulty of matching
density. It does, however, introduce other problems with regards to the continuity of the
original equation. It is not a temperature dependent function. Matching a c at one elevated
temperature may cause difficulties with matching and the material balance at another lower
temperature. This can potentially introduce mass imbalance when going from high to low
temperatures, which may significantly affect calculations like pressure drop estimation in the
wellbore.

Temperature dependant Volume shift

In IPM 8.0 temperature dependant volume shift has been included to eliminate one of the
major issues associated with volume shift in general, as discussed in point 2 above.

Volume shift usually takes the form of a multiplier that essentially adds/subtracts a percentage
of the volume of a component to the equation. Traditionally this parameter 'c' is expanded to
contain two parameters, Si and bi; this is known as the Jhaveri and Youngeren formulation.

Vs = V + cV
where c is the sum of the individual component volume shift parameters; the individual
component volume shift parameters are typically generated from the Jhaveri and Youngeren
formulation (SPE 13118,1988):

ci = Si.bi
Where Si comes from either:

a database or calculated from the molecular weight of the component by

Si = (1-(d / MWti**e))

or
A correlation that determines the Si on the basis of the components' specific gravities

The temperature dependant volume shift term adds a temperature dependant term to the Si
parameter in this formulation:

Si = Si + ki.T

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Where ki is the temperature coefficient and T is the temperature in Kelvin.

Warning: - The temperature dependant volume shift has been implemented in PVTP only and
should be used only as a match parameter if necessary. If it is used as a match parameter
then its use will be limited to PVTP for calculation. To generate properties for other
applications then tables or properties and match parameters will have to be used to transfer
the data to black oil correlations in other tools.

The IPM Suite contains corrections to reduce the errors in mass balance that volume shift
produces. This correction consists of using the Oil FVF coming from a mass balance:

(where the density of oil and gas at Standard Conditions are measured properties, see
related topic 411 )
rather than purely from the EOS. The correction above forces the mass balance in the EOS,
which has been found to counteract the negative effect of the Volume Shift and makes the
Volume Shift a viable solution to achieve reliable EOS matching.

However, when generating EOS to be exported to third party software, it is important to make
sure that those software use the same correction by mass balance as in IPM.

The volume shift parameter Si can be regressed upon if required (see Regression Inputs 142 )

2.4.2 Characterisation Process

The process of creating a validated EOS model for a reservoir fluid that can be used to
accurately predict the fluid behaviour from the reservoir, through the well and surface network,
to the processing plant, combines a number of different disciplines. A typical workflow for
such a process is shown below:

The reservoir fluid (oil, gas, gas condensate) is sampled (downhole or separator) and then
sent to a laboratory for analysis. There the samples composition is determined and industry
standard tests (CCE, CVD, DIFF, SEP, etc.) are conducted to gain knowledge about the
fluid’s behaviour in various processes.

The lab data is then used to build an EOS model with a preliminary definition of the pseudo

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component properties. Regression analysis is then used to fine tune the EOS to reproduce
known fluid properties at various pressures and temperatures such as liquid density, GOR,
saturation pressure, etc. Should no satisfactory match be achieved, then the definition of
pseudo component properties requires revision.

Once the regression has been completed, the EOS model needs to be validated, for example
against the laboratory experiments or perhaps a well test. The lab experiments can be
simulated using the EOS and the results compared to the measurements taken in the
laboratory. Should the EOS not satisfactorily reproduce the lab experiments, then the
definition of pseudo component properties and regression require revision. For step by step
examples of the EOS characterisation process for different fluid types, please refer to the
Examples 458 .

With the EOS validated against the laboratory experiments and field data such as a well test,
it can be used for modelling various fluid behaviour and also Flow assurance such as Wax,
Hydrats or Salt formation, please refer to the Examples 458 .

2.4.2.1 Characterisation Challenges

The main challenge of the characterisation process described above is the question of how to
manage the process if any of the measurements are inaccurate. Inaccuracies can be
introduced at various stages of the process beginning with the fluid sampling. Potential
sources for inaccuracies are described below:

• Downhole Sample
The collection valve on the sampling cylinder may be leaky, causing gas to escape as it is
raised to the surface. This causes the surface and downhole composition to be inconsistent.

• Separator Sample
The measured GOR at the separator may fluctuate, for example due to well instability,
meaning that the gas and liquid samples may be recombined to an incorrect GOR. This
causes the surface and downhole compositions to be inconsistent.

• Laboratory Experiments
For a condensate, due to the similarities between gas and liquid phase, it can be difficult to
distinguish between the two phases and therefore to accurately determine point at which the
first drop of liquid is formed, i.e. the dew point.

For a heavy oil, it can be difficult to accurately measure the evolution of gas as the pressure is
reduced. This is a result of the high viscosity of the oil, preventing small gas bubbles from
escaping the oil in a reasonable amount of time.

As each fluid has its own challenges, there is not recipe for characterising any fluid but rather
engineering judgement needs to be applied and the lab report, where necessary, be

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interpreted.

Possible strategies depending on quality of sampling and experiments

1. Good Sampling but poor experiments
Use engineering judgement to challenge lab measurements, i.e. factor quality of results into
regression strategy by assigning lower weightings.

2. Good Experiments but poor Sampling

Characterise the EOS based on experiments first, then using the Target Psat/GOR feature in
PVTp to recombine the fluid to a Psat/GOR, see the Recombination Example 650 for further
information.

3. Good Sampling and experiments but difficult to match

Special consideration could be given to the regression strategy, e.g. volume shift affects Bo,
GOR and API gravity but has no effect on the saturation pressure or phase envelope.

2.4.2.2 Definition of Pseudo Component/s

The characterisation process is primarily driven by defining the pseudo component properties,
i.e. its molecular weight, specific gravity, boiling point, splitting profile, number of pseudo
splits, binary interaction coefficients, etc. This is possible, because the precise composition of
the pseudo component and thus its properties represents the largest uncertainty.

For higher carbon numbers, it becomes exceedingly difficult to identify and separate individual
components. This is a result of the exponentially increasing number of isomers, see table
below, and the physical properties beginning to overlap with other components.

Component Name Carbon Number of

Number Isomers
Pentane 5 3
Octane 8 18
Decane 10 75
Dodecane 12 355

Consequently, components heavier than heptane are typically lumped together as a pseudo
component of inaccurately known composition and properties. This provides the rationale for
adjusting the pseudo component properties, molecular weight, specific gravity, etc., and to
split the pseudo component to achieve a better match.
2.4.2.3 Properties of Pseudo Components
When a pseudo component is created, we need to be able to calculate critical properties of
the components. This is traditionally done in a two stage process:

1. Use a correlation to calculate the boiling point of the pseudo based upon the MW and

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Specific Gravity
2. Use an additional correlation to calculate the critical properties from the boiling point

In PVTp there are three different models for the calculation of Boiling Point:

1. Petroleum Experts
2. A.N. Other Correlation
3. Standing and Katz

For the critical properties PVTp has nine correlations:

1. TWU/Edmister
2. Bergman(PNA) and Cavett
3. Bergman(PNA) and Cavett/Edmister
4. Cavett/Edmister
5. Mathew, Roland and Katz/Edmister
6. Robinson and Peng(PNA)
7. Lee and Kessler/Edmister
8. Riazi and Daubert/Edmister
9. Pedersen

Where two corrleations are defined, the first (before the forward slash) is used to calculate
the critical pressure and temperature and the second is used to calculate the acentric factor.

Please note that while the majority of these correlations use the boiling point to correlate the
critical properties, the Pedersen correlation (added in IPM 12) uses the MW and SG
directly. As the Automatch 121 functionality uses the boiling point to tune the density, this
means that if the Pedersen model is selected the Automatch functionality will not be used.

1. Pedersen et al, PVT calculations on petroleum reservoir fluids using measured and
estimated compositional data for the plus fraction, I&EC Research, May 1992
2. Pedersen et al, Cubic equations of state applied to HT/HP and highly aromatic fluids,
SPE Journal 9(2), June 2004
3. Cavett RH, Physical data for distillation calculations, API Proc. Sec III, 1962
4. Kesler MG Lee BI, Improve prediction of enthalpy of fractions, Hydrocarbon
Processing, 1976
5. Riazi MR Daubert TE, Simplify property predictions, Hydrocarbon Processing, 1980
6. Twu CH, An internally consistent correlation for predicting the critical properties and
molecular weights of petroleum and coal-tar liquids, Fluid Phase Equilibria 16(2),
1984
7. Riazi MR, Daubert TE, Characterisation parameters for petroleum fractions, IE&C
Research 26 (24), 1987
8. Edmister WC, Applied hydrocarbon thermodynamics part 4, Petroleum Refinery 37,

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1958
2.4.2.4 Impact of Pseudo Component Properties
As the characterisation process is mainly driven by defining the properties of the pseudo
component, it is important to gain an appreciation for the properties that can be adjusted and
the effect this will have on the calculated fluid properties and phase behaviour.
2.4.2.4.1 Molecular Weight
The input molecular weight, MW, is used to calculate the liquid phase density and GOR.

Increasing the Molecular Weight is expected to increase the GOR since the interactions
between light and heavy components are weaker, meaning more of the lighter components
escape into the gas phase.

2.4.2.4.2 Specific Gravity

The input specific gravity, SG, is used to estimate the pseudo component boiling point
temperature, critical properties and acentric factor. As such, increasing the SG, increases the
critical temperature, but decreases the critical pressure, critical volume and acentric factor.

These in turn are used to determine the saturation pressure, phase envelope, GOR, liquid
drop out, viscosity, etc. please see below for further information.

2.4.2.4.3 Boiling Point Temperature

The input/calculated boiling point temperature, BPT, is used to estimate the pseudo
component boiling point temperature, critical properties and acentric factor. As such,
increasing the BPT, increases the critical temperature, critical volume and acentric factor, but
decreases the critical pressure.

These in turn are used to determine the phase behaviour, saturation pressure, phase

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envelope, GOR, liquid drop out, viscosity, etc. please refer to the Engineering Theory 385
section for further information.

2.4.2.4.4 Critical Temperature and Pressure

The critical temperature, Tc, and pressure, Pc, are used to calculate Omega A and Omega B,
see formulae below. Heavy components (i.e. High MW, SG and BPT) also tend to have large
Tc’s and Pc’s and therefore large values for Omega A and Omega B, stretching the phase
envelope, see image below.

As such, Tc and Pc affect the following:

Saturation Pressure and Phase envelope:

o Increasing Tc and/or decreasing Pc, increases the size of the phase envelope, and
therefore the saturation pressure. This is because heavy and light components
interact weakly with each other and meaning that the first bubble of gas or drop of
liquid forms at a higher pressure for a given temperature.

Liquid density:

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o Increasing Tc and/or decreasing Pc, increases the liquid density. This is due to the
interactions between heavy and light components being weaker such that heavier
components drop out more readily/ remain in the liquid phase as the pressure is
reduced. Consequently, the liquid phase is richer in heavier components resulting in
a higher liquid density.

GOR:
o Increasing Tc and/or decreasing Pc, increases the GOR. This is because as the
liquid density increases and therefore the liquid volume decreases, the GOR must
consequentially increase, see MW above.

Liquid drop out:

o Increasing Tc and/or decreasing Pc, increases the liquid dropout in a condensate
because as the phase envelope is stretched, the critical point is also shifted closer
to the dew point at the reservoir temperature. As such, when the pressure is
reduced, the fluid crosses many quality lines, causing a steep increase in liquid
volume.

2.4.2.4.5 Acentric Factor

The acentric factor could be seen as a measure of a components sphericity, as it increases
with carbon number, however more fundamentally, it can be thought of as the curvature of the
pure component vapour pressure curve. Increasing the acentric factor, increases the
calculated value of Omega A, which affects the phase behaviour as described in the Critical
Temperature and Pressure 400 section. As such the following are affected by the acentric
factor:

Saturation Pressure, Phase Envelope

Liquid density
GOR
Liquid dropout

2.4.2.4.6 Split Profile

The split profile is used to estimate the composition of the pseudo component, whilst ensuring
that mass balance is met (the combined MW of the constituent components is equal to the
MW of the pseudo). Using this profile, the pseudo can then be split into a number of pseudo
components.

The shape of the profile determines the proportion of high molecular weight components. For
example, a longer profile has a higher proportion of high molecular weight components. Since
these components tend to have high critical temperatures but low critical pressures, this tends
to increase the saturation pressure and size of the phase envelope. As such, the split profile
affects the following (detailed description above):

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Saturation Pressure, Phase Envelope

Liquid density
GOR
Liquid dropout

2.4.2.4.7 Binary Interaction Coefficients

Binary Interaction Coefficients, BICs, are a mathematical tool used to weight the averaging of
“pure” component Omega A values to obtain the fluid Omega A. They do not hold a real
physical meaning but can be seen as a measure of how dissimilar interactions are between
two components. Using positive values for BICs, reduces Omega A, i.e. the attractive term,
which can be interpreted as weaker interactions between components. As such, the use of
BICs affects the following (see detailed description in the Critical Temperature and Pressure
400 section)

Psat, Phase Envelope

Liquid density
GOR
Liquid dropout (spread out horizontally, movement of critical point)

2.4.2.4.8 Volume Shift

The volume shift is used to overcome the inherent weakness of any EOS model to predict
liquid phase densities, without affecting the phase equilibrium calculations. The use of volume
shift does NOT affect the calculated saturation pressure and phase envelope. As such the use
of volume shift only affects the following:

2.4.3 Splitting Pseudo Components

All fluids require the matching of measured lab data before the Equation of State Method can
then be used to predict non-measured fluid properties. Much of the matching effort focuses
on the pseudo components. The recommended approach is to start with one pseudo which
represents the plus fraction (heavy components). This may be C7+ C10+, C20+ etc. Oils can
usually be matched with only one pseudo component but there may be good reasons to
create more. The Splitting operation is used to create these additional pseudos. Any single
pseudo represents hundreds of components with a wide variety of properties; the critical
properties of the pseudo that are calculated can be thought of as an average of all of the
constituent compounds properties. During the splitting process the pseudo is broken down or

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de-lumped into many components. The amount of each component is determined by a

continuous distribution which varies with the splitting method. The components are then
recombined or lumped to give the desired number of splits.

See Worked Examples 459

Pseudo splitting can be very beneficial in:

Dealing with difficult fluids

Providing a better match when use of pure component properties for matching is
restricted
Operating with multiple samples at varying depths
Decontaminating samples
Creating multiple pseudos to help in surface separation calculation

Several Splitting method are available in PVTp. Each method corresponds to a different way
of describing the components' distribution within the defined pseudo component.
The splitting methods available are:

Original Method This was the first method to be used within PVTp.
The distribution of components is made up of a combination of rising and
falling exponential functions which meet at the input average molecular
weight of the pseudo.
Figure 1 gives an example of this type of distribution. This method was
found to be reasonable for oils, since some oils have been found to have a
slight increase in the C12-16 range brought on by microbial activity; but did
not produce the large pseudos required to model higher saturation
condensates. A single falling distribution as in Petroleum Experts 2 was
found to be better for this application.

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Figure 1

Petroleum This method is an upgrade of the Original Method to give more consistent
Experts 1 results. Method 1 was retained for backwards compatibility

Petroleum The distribution of components is made up of a single falling exponential

Experts 2 function.
Figure 2 gives an example of this type of distribution. This method was
found to be better for modeling higher saturation pressure condensates.
As the last pseudo is split into 2 several times a much larger pseudo is
produced than with methods 1 or 2. The interaction of this large
component with methane tends to drive up the fluid saturation pressure.
Matching a higher dewpoint is normally the key to modeling this type of
fluid (see Worked Examples 459 )

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Figure 2

Follow Profile This feature allows the user to determine all or part of the component
distribution. this can be extremely helpful in dealing with contamination or
fluids with distinctive distributions e.g. biodegraded fluids. A profile can be
setup in the Split Pseudo 126 screen of the Pseudo Properties data object
via the Follow Split Profile option. When the distribution is recalculated the
split algorithm will give the components the values defined and follow a
declining distribution for the rest.
This methodology is key to the decontamination 625 procedure. Figure 3
gives an example of this type of distribution.

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Figure 3

Whitson Method A gamma function is used to produce a distribution which an vary

considerably in shape. Proper use of the gamma parameter can
reproduce most of the distributions of the above model and therefore can
be used on most fluids.

In this method a three parameter gamma probability function is used to

generate a series of distributions for the plus fraction. Unlike the previous
methods a series of possible distributions can be calculated for the same
fluid by changing the main parameter alpha. Figure 4 shows a typical set
of curves.

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Figure 4

For molecular weight x the probability density function, p(x) is given by

.............................(1)

is the gamma function.

The three parameters used within the Whitson gamma distribution are
alpha, beta and eta. The main shape function is alpha and this is always a
user input in the program.

Beta is normally a calculated value the formula for which is

....................(2)

M+n is the average molecular weight, alpha and eta are the other two
distribution parameters.
Eta is the start molecular weight and is normally estimated from

............................(3)

where n is the plus fraction number.

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By default, beta and eta are calculated using equations 2 and 3

respectively. The user can however override this and enter the values
instead.

Ref: Curtis H. Whitson : "Characterizing Hydrocarbon Plus Fractions"

,Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal , August 1983,683-693

A facility is provided within the program which helps the user to find the
best combination of alpha and number of pseudos for the fluid being
matched.

2.4.4 Density Calculation

The calculation screens within PVTp show two oil densities for comparison purposes. The
EOS value is determined directly from the equation of state calculation of liquid compressibility
Z. This value is used to derive all the related properties i.e. Oil Gravity, Oil FVF and GOR.

The second value is taken from the correlation put forward by Standing and Katz or an
alternative Costald method. The non-predictive nature of the Equation of State method 385 and
its weakness in calculating liquid properties makes the value of Oil Density particularly suspect
in non-matched systems. The EOS Density is, however, sensitive to composition and property
changes, making it a suitable value for matching and regression.

The Standing-Katz value is empirically derived and in our experience predicts the density of
most fluids to within a good degree of accuracy at certain conditions.The correlation is only
accurate at low temperatures and pressures i.e separator or stock tank conditions. The
average nature of the properties used and its lack of sensitivity make Standing-Katz unsuitable
for regression.

The Costald method is a corresponding states model which uses critical properties to
estimate density. It is extensively used in surface facility modelling. Since this model shares
properties with those used to model the fluid, the values for density will change as the
matching process proceeds. In common with the practise in surface modelling, two variables
have been created specifically for this method; the Costald Acentric Factor and Costald
Volume. See the model description for more details.

It is possible to swap between the alternative density models at various places within the
program.

2.4.4.1 Standing Katz Density

The Standing-Katz procedure for estimating Oil Densities was originally developed as a
graphical method in 1941.
As computers evolved, the graphical method was adapted as a series of analytical

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expressions.
The method involves a series of discrete steps:

1) Estimate the H2S and C3+ density

2) Correct for ethane concentration
3) Correct for CO2 concentration
4) Correct for methane and N2 concentration
5) Pressure correction
6) Temperature correction

In general, the Standing-Katz method gives accurate densities for liquid phases with high
concentrations of heavy components. It is less accurate for light oils and unsuitable for vapour
phases.
Within PVTp this density is displayed as a guide to the matched accuracy of the Equation of
State equivalent.

See also
Density Calculation 408
Costald Density 409
Automatch Densities 121

2.4.4.2 Costald Density

One of the most successful and extensively used saturated liquid density models is the
Hankinson-Thomson (HT) model, often called COSTALD. It is used extensively in surface
facility modeling as an alternative to the density derived from the Equation of State 385 .

The Hankinson-Thomson model is reported to be one of the most accurate and most general
models for saturated liquid density prediction. This method is used extensively in the chemical
and petrochemical industries for compressed liquid density calculation. The saturated liquid
density is obtained first and then the effect of pressure is taken into account. The COSTALD
model requires two additional component properties, the COSTALD Critical Volume and
COSTALD Acentric Factor.

These additional parameters can be viewed and adjusted in the Pseudo Properties 119 object.

The saturated liquid molar volume Vs is given by:

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For equations (2) - (3) the parameters have the following values:
a = -1.52816 b = 1.43907 c = -0.81446 d = 0.190454
e = -0.296123 f = 0.386914 g = -0.0427258 h = -0.0480645

The pure-component parameters used within the equations are the characteristic volume V*, a
slightly adjusted critical
temperature Tc,HBT and the SRK-acentric factor ω SRK. These are tabulated for many
compounds in Reid et al.
[3]. Reid et al. recommended the use of these special parameters to get best accuracy.
Hankinson and
Thomson [9] also gave their original parameter collection.

In this program the Tc used is the standard one. The V* has a similar value to the standard Vc
and is called the COSTALD Critical Volume within the program. The density calculated is very
sensitive to the values given to the individual COSTALD Critical Volumes. ω SRK becomes the
COSTALD Accentric Factor property.

Mixture properties are calculated by a series of mixing rules which are detailed in reference 2.

References

1. Hankinson, R.W., Thomson, G.H., AIChE J. 25 (1979) 653-663

2. Thomson, G.H., Brobst, K.R., Hankinson, R.W., AIChE J. 28 (1982) 671-676
3. Reid, R.C., Prausnitz, J.M., Poling, B.E., The Properties of Gases and Liquids, 4th
edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1987

See also
Density Calculation 408
Standing Katz Density 408
Automatch Densities 121
2.4.4.3 Carbon dioxide properties
IPM 8.0 includes a modified technique to match the properties of CO2.

Equation of state models are known to have significant weaknesses when used to generate

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properties of non-hydrocarbon molecules like CO2 and H2O. These molecules have high
degrees of interactions between molecules leading to complex associations and quasi-phase
changes that mean the properties deviate significantly from the ideal gas assumptions that are
needed for equation of state models to be valid.

Properties of CO2 calculated by traditional equations of state used in oil field applications (i.e.
Peng Robinson and Soave Redlich and Kwong) typically have significant errors for density
calculations. In IPM 7.5 it was possible to retain a good match for fluid properties using the
Black oil model, however the thermal properties for the fluid, such as heat capacity and
enthalpy still had significant errors.

It is possible to match the properties of these compounds with specialised equation of states
such as the Span & Wagner model, however these models cannot account for the mixtures of
fluids that are commonly found in the industry.

IPM 8.0 includes modified volume shift parameters that match CO2 density and also
polynomials for enthalpy that allow the thermal properties of CO2 to be calculated to a high
degree of accuracy over a wide range of temperatures and pressures.

2.4.5 Oil FVF Calculation

The Oil FVF or Bo of oil going to reservoir conditions is defined as:

where is the volume of oil at reservoir conditions and is the resultant volume in
the stock tank. Since depends on the path to surface, Bo is also path dependent. The
volumes included in this formula could be calculated in a variety of ways. Within the PVTp
program the calculation is done on the basis that mass balance should be conserved.

The mass of oil in the reservoir is given by:

where o ilre s is the density of the oil at reservoir conditions:

The mass of fluid produced at surface is given by the mass of oil in the stock tank plus the
mass of gas produced.
The mass of oil in the stock tank is given by:

The mass of gas produced from the oil is:

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where GOR is the solution GOR of the oil and gas is the density of the gas produced at
surface conditions.
If mass is to be conserved:

giving

As the Bo is determined from a mass balance, that means that mass balance is forced
in the EOS. This honouring of mass balance has allowed to safely use methods like
Volume Shift, which as methodology would cause the mass to change in the path from
downhole to surface.

see also
Mass Balance Calculator 117

2.4.6 Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity Models

Various viscosity models have been introduced into the PVTp program. Only one model, per
phase, is active for a stream at any one time. The active model is selected via the combo box
which appears on all the calculation input and regression selection displays.

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The models available are listed below. To obtain details of any model click on the name.

Lohrenz, Bray Clark 413 based on Jossi et al with reduced density written in terms of Vcs
Pedersen et al 415 corresponding states model with methane as the reference
substance
Zhou et al 416 corresponding states model with nC14 as the reference substance
Little and Kennedy 418 correlation based on oil density molecular weight, specific gravity
and weight fraction of C7+
Black oil viscosity Black oil viscosity models can be used to model the viscosity of the
models:Bael, relevant phases. These models are based on the empirical models
Beggs,Petrosky, that are traditionally used in flow calculations.
Bergman, Egbogah, These models have been shown to give a high degree of accuracy
[Lee, and Carr for gas] for most oils and gases and are deemed to be more predictive in
419 nature than the correlations based on the equation of state models.

With unmatched fluids the Pedersen model tends to give the best results. Lohrenz Bray Clark
is the most commonly used model but it gives high errors for liquids if the viscosity is not
matched, when matched the LBC model gives the best match. In most cases LBC is the only
practical options as export formats to other packages are written in terms of LBC inputs. The
Little and Kennedy correlation is very good at predicting the viscosity of oils above bubble
point. Below saturation pressure results are mixed with some fluid values being totally
unsatisfactory.

The LBC viscosity model can now be matched using regression on either the critical
properties, which form the independent variables in the polynomial that determines the
viscosity; or the coefficients, which is similar to the method that is used in some 3rd party
applications.

The thermal conductivity 420 model that is included within PVTp is very similar in derivation to
the viscosity model from Pedersen et al

See also
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity References 422
2.4.6.1 Lohrenz,Bray,ClarkViscosity Model
Various viscosity models have been introduced into the PVTp program. The Lohrenz-Bray-
Clark model (ref 5 422 ) is probably the most commonly used for hydrocarbon mixtures.
It is an adaptation of a model proposed by Jossi et al (ref 11 422 ).

At the core of this model is a fourth-degree polynomial in reduced density.

4 1/ 4 2 3 4
[( *) 10 ] a1 a2 r a3 r a4 r a5 r

where a1 = 0.10230
a2 = 0.023364
a3 = 0.05833

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a4 = -0.040758
a5 = 0.0093324

η* is the low-pressure gas mixture viscosity and is determined by the method proposed by
Herning and Zippener (ref 12 422 )
N N
*
* zi i MW i1 / 2 / z i MW i1 / 2
i 1 i 1

the individual component viscosities are given by the following expressions

* 5 1
i 34 x10 Tri0.94
i for
Tri 1.5

* 5 1
i 17 .78 x10 ( 4.58Tri 1.67 ) 5 / 8
i for
Tri 1.5
ξ i is the component viscosity-reducing parameter.
For a mixture this variable is determined as follows:
N 1/ 6 N 1/ 2 N 2/3

z i Tci z i MW i z i Pci
i 1 i 1 i 1

ρr in equation 1 is the mixture density divided by the critical density of the mixture.

r
c

The variation introduced by Lohrenz et al was in the calculation of the critical density.
This variable was rewritten in terms of the critical volumes of the mixture components.
1
N
1
c ( z iVci ) z c 7 VcC 7
Vc i 1
i C7

The origins of the LBC model lies in gases rather than liquids. Its dependence on the density
term causes inaccuracies with viscous fluids.

NOTES on REGRESSION
Without matching, the LBC model cannot reliably reproduce the viscosity of oils. The
introduction of Viscosity Automatching into the PVTp program was designed to help address
this weakness.

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In regression, unless otherwise indicated, the program uses the component critical volumes to
match lab data. Since the Vc values are not used anywhere else within the EoS models, this
matching can be done in isolation.

See Example 1 475 for more details on the procedure used.

2.4.6.2 Pedersen et al Viscosity Model

In this model viscosity is calculated using a corresponding states model. This method is very
similar to the corresponding states thermal conductivity model. The basic model is described
in reference 1 422 . The corresponding states theory suggests the reduced conductivity
ηr is a function of reduced pressure and temperature

r f ( Pr , Tr )

and the reduced viscosity is given by

r 1/ 6
(Tc ) ( Pc ) 2 / 3 ( MW )1 / 2

The basic premise of the corresponding states theory is that the function
f is the same for all the similar substances within the group.

Pedersen et al (refs 1, 3, 4) have proposed the following relationship for the viscosity of
mixtures.
1/ 6
mix ( P, T ) (Tc , mix / Tco ) ( Pc , mix / Pco ) 2 / 3 ( MW mix / MW o ) 1 / 2 ( mix 0 )( o ( Po , To ))
...........1)

where
Tc , mix mix
To T /( )
Tco o and
Pc , mix mix
Po P /( )
Pco o

The subscript o indicates the reference substance methane.

The critical temperature of the mixture is given by:

Tci 1 / 3 Tcj
z i z j [( ) ( )1 / 3 ]3 [Tci Tcj ]1 / 2
i j Pci Pcj
Tc , mix ( )
Tci 1 / 3 Tcj
z i z j [( ) ( )1 / 3 ]3
i j Pci Pcj

with the critical pressure being given by:

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Tci 1 / 3 Tcj
8 z i z j [( ) ( )1 / 3 ]3 [Tci Tcj ]1 / 2
i j Pci Pcj
Pc , mix ( )
Tci 1 / 3 Tcj
( z i z j [( ) ( )1 / 3 ]3 ) 2
i j Pci Pcj

The molecular weight is calculated using the expression

2.303 2.303
4
MW mix 1.304 x10 ( MW w MW n ) MW n

In function 1) the important elements still to be found are

a) The viscosity of the reference substance, methane
b) The correction factor, α x for the mixture and the reference substance

The model for the viscosity of the reference substance is based on the work of Hanley et al
(reference 9 422 ).
This has been extended by Pedersen and Fredenslund (ref 1, 3 422 ) to become:

( ,T ) o (T ) 1 (T ) F1 ' ( ,T ) F2 "( ,T )

Each element is a polynomial in temperature and methane density. See reference 1 and 4 422
for details.
The methane density comes in the form of a modified BWR EoS. Details of this polynomial are
given in reference 10 422 .
Pedersen et al have suggested that the correction factors should take the following form:
3 1.847 0.5173
1 7.378 x10 MW mix
mix ri
and
1.847
o 1 0.031 ri

NOTES on REGRESSION
In general, without matching the Pedersen model gets closer to the range of petroleum
mixture viscosities. There are still inaccuracies, however, particularly with viscous oils. In an
effort to reduce this error a matching facility has been added to this model. Unfortunately, the
main variables within the model are the component Tcs and Pcs. Since these values are set
by PSAT matching etc. it is not practical to use them again for viscosity matching. As an
alternative, a shift and multiplier option has been added to match viscosity with this model i.e.
Visc = Visc*Multiplier + Shift
2.4.6.3 Zhou et al Viscosity Model
This viscosity model is similar to the model proposed by Pedersen et al. it is also a
corresponding states model.
The function is less complex than that applied by Pedersen. The other significant difference is
that nC14 rather than methane is used as the reference substance.
The corresponding states theory suggests the reduced conductivity
r is a function of reduced pressure and temperature
r f ( Pr , Tr )

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and the reduced viscosity is given by

r 1/ 6
(Tc ) ( Pc ) 2 / 3 ( MW )1 / 2
The basic premise of the corresponding states theory is that the function
f is the same for all the similar substances within the group.

Zhou et al (ref 6) have proposed the following relationship for the viscosity of mixtures.

mix ( P, T ) (Tc , mix / Tco ) 1.3845374 ( Pc , mix / Pco ) 0.756972

( MW mix / MW o ) 0.532041
o ( Po , To )
...........1)

where
Tc , mix
To T /( )
Tco and
Tc , mix
To T /( )
Tco

The subscript o indicates the reference substance nC14.

The viscosity of the reference substances given by the expression:

dP 4 eP 3 fP 2 gP h
o (T , P ) exp aP 2 bP 2
T (iP jP k)
where P is the pressure in bars and T is the temperature in °C.

The constants used in the formula have the following values:

a = -4.868729x10-6
b = 6.162691x10-3
c = -3.461585
d = 1.545022x10-9
e = -3.443880x10-6
f = 4.187426x10-3
g = -2.527380
h = 874.0397
i = -2.985316x10-4
j = 0.3435125
k = -182.6151

NOTES on REGRESSION
In general, the Zhou model does not get as good an initial value as that of Pedersen et al.
There are significant inaccuracies, particularly with viscous oils. In an effort to reduce this
error a matching facility has been added to this model. Unfortunately as with Pedersen, the
main variables within the model are the component Tcs and Pcs. Since these values are set
by PSAT matching etc. it is not practical to use them again for viscosity matching.
As an alternative, a shift and multiplier option has been added to match viscosity with this
model i.e..

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Visc = Visc*Multiplier + Shift

See also
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity References 422

2.4.6.4 Little and Kennedy Viscosity Model

This viscosity model has been derived empirically from measurements of pure component and
petroleum mixture viscosities(ref 7) 422 .
The equation is a cubic in viscosity:
4 4
1 1 3 4 M
B B0 B1 B2 B3 c7 B4 c7 B5 c7
T T
4

B6 m
B7 ( M ) B8 ( M m ) B9 ( M m )4 B10 ( m )3 B11 ( m )4
T

where
B is the viscosity, T is the temperature in °R and P is the pressure in psia.

The values of
am and
bm are given by the following functions:
am exp log e A
bm exp log e B
A and B in turn are given by polynomial expansions:

1 M m
A A0 A1 A2 ( M ) c 7 A3 A4
T c7
T
2

A5 m
A6 ( M ) A7 ( M ) 3 A8 ( M m ) A9 ( M m )3 A10 ( m )2
T
and
4 4
1 1 3 4 M
B B0 B1 B2 B3 c7 B4 c7 B5 c7
T T
4

B6 m
B7 ( M ) B8 ( M m ) B9 ( M m )4 B10 ( m )3 B11 ( m )4
T
with
M c7
the molecular weight of the C7+ fraction
c7
the specific gravity of the C7+ fraction
M the average molecular weight of the mixture
ρm the density of the mixture at reservoir conditions

The value of the A and B constants are given in the table below:

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A Value B Value
0 21.918581 -2.6941621
1 -16815.621 3757.4919
2 0.023315983 -0.31409829x10(12)
3 -0.019218951 -33.744827
4 29938.501 31.333913
5 -2802762.9 0.24400196x10(-10)
6 -0.096858449 0.700237064x10(12)
7 0.54324554x10(-5) -0.037022195
8 0.13129082 0.070811794
9 -0.10526154x10(-5) -0.83033554x10(-9)
10 -31.680427 21.710610
11 -31.083554

See also
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity References 422

2.4.6.5 Black oil viscosity models

Black oil viscosity modelling
IPM 8.0 includes an updated viscosity modelling technique based on the black oil viscosity
correlations.Black oil viscosity models are known to be highly effective at matching viscosities
over wide ranges of temperatures and pressures. Unlike the EOS-specific viscosity models,
that were predominantly developed for gases, these visocity models were developed and
tuned for petroleum fluids.

Oil viscosity is a critical parameter in integrated models since it affects both flow through
porous media and pressure drop calculations in pipelines and equipment. Oil viscosities are
known to have an extremely wide range, from close to 0.1 cp for critical systems to hundreds
or even thousands for heavy bituminous oils.

Oil viscosity is a function of temperature, pressure, oil and gas density, and gas solubility (or,
Rs); black oil correlation viscosity models are based on these parameters.

BO viscosity models all follow a similar 3 step methodology:

Step 1: A dead oil viscosity at reservoir temperature and atmospheric pressure is calculated
for an Rs of 0.

Step 2: The dead oil viscosity is corrected to bubble point according to the gas solubility.

Step 3: Undersaturated oil viscosity is adjusted to account for the compressibility of the oil
above the bubble point.

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Viscosity options are selected in the File | Preferences.. Calculation options dialogue.

Viscosity correlations Beal, Beggs, Petrosky, Bergman & Sutton and Egbogah are available
for oils. Shift and multiplier parameters are used to generate a match, as they are used in
black oil matching sections in PROSPER and MBAL.

Important note (!!!Warning!!!)

A match oil API, bubble point and solution gas solubility are needed for this model, these
points are used as reference points for the 3 steps described above. Since these models are
based on black oil correlations they have an inherent path to surface. Once a black oil
viscosity model is matched then the path to surface must be honoured by the model otherwise
the match parameters will not be valid.

Carr and Lee are available for gases.

2.4.6.6 Thermal Conductivity Model

Thermal conductivity is calculated using a corresponding states model. This method is very
similar to the corresponding states viscosity models . The basic model is described in
reference 1 422 . The corresponding states theory suggests the reduced conductivity
λr is a function of reduced pressure and temperature
r f ( Pr , Tr )
and the reduced conductivity is given by
r 1/ 6 2/3
(Tc ) ( Pc ) ( MW )1 / 2
The basic premise of the corresponding states theory is that the function
ƒ is the same for all the similar substances within the group.
Pedersen et al (refs 1,3,4) have proposed the following relationship for the thermal
conductivity of mixtures.

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1/ 6
mix ( P, T ) (Tc , mix / Tco ) ( Pc , mix / Pco ) 2 / 3 ( MW mix / MW o ) 1/ 2

x( ix 0 )( o ( Po , To ) int, o ( Po ))int, mix (T )

………………………1)

where
Tc , mix mix
To T /( )
Tco o and
Pc , mix mix
Po P /( )
Pco o

The subscript o indicates the reference substance methane.

The critical temperature of the mixture is given by:

Tci 1 / 3 Tcj
z i z j [( ) ( )1 / 3 ]3 [Tci Tcj ]1 / 2
i j Pci Pcj
Tc , mix ( )
T Tcj
z i z j [( ci )1 / 3 ( ) 1/ 3 3
]
i j Pci Pcj
with the critical pressure being given by:

Tci 1 / 3 Tcj
8 z i z j [( ) ( )1 / 3 ]3 [Tci Tcj ]1 / 2
i j Pci Pcj
Pc , mix ( )
T Tcj
( z i z j [( ci )1 / 3 ( ) 1/ 3 3
] ) 2

i j Pci Pcj
The molecular weight is calculated using an expression put forward by Mo and Gubbins (ref. 8
422 )

1 Tci 1 / 3 Tcj 1/ 3 4/3

MW mix [ ( z i z j (1 / MW i 1 / MW j )1 / 2 (Tci / Tcj )1 / 4 ) /[( ) ( )1 / 3 ] 2 ] 2 Tc , mix Pc , mix
8 i j Pci Pcj
In function 1) the important elements still to be found are
a) The thermal conductivity of the reference substance, methane
b) The correction factor
α x for the mixture and the reference substance
Most workers suggest that the thermal conductivity can be separated into two contributions
i.e. the internal and the translational:
tr int

The internal part is given by the following functions:

int 1.18653 1 (Cp id 2.5 R ) f ( r ) / MW
2 3
f( r ) 1 0.053432 r 0.030182 r 0.029725 r

where
ηl is the gas viscosity is the gas viscosity at temperature T and 1 atm.
id
Cp is the Ideal Gas Heat Capacity at temperature T. R is the gas constant.

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ρr is the reduced density.

The model for the thermal conductivity of the reference substance is based on the work of
Hanley et al (reference 9 422 ).
This has been extended by Pedersen and Fredenslund (ref 1,4) to become:
( ,T ) o (T ) 1 (T ) F1 , ( , T ) F2 ,,
( ,T ) c ( ,T )

Each element is a polynomial in temperature and methane density. See reference 1 and 4 for
details.
The methane density comes in the form of a modified BWR EoS. Details of this polynomial are
given in reference 10 422 .
Tham and Gubbins reported
α x values for the smaller molecules found in hydrocarbon mixtures(ref 11 422 ).
Pedersen and Fredenslund (ref 3) extended this past C7 using the function:
2.043
i 1 0.0006004 ri MW i1.086
with the value for mixtures given by:
TCO P
O (T , P CO )
TCi PCi
ri
CO
..................2)
This expression was modified by Pedersen and Fredenslund (ref 3 422 ) to be:
mix 1 ( r / 2.6605 ) 2.4049 ( 1)
where
ρr is equal to the
ρri value in equation 2)

2.4.6.7 Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity References

1. Properties of Oils and Natural Gases by K.S.Pedersen,A.Fredenslund and
P.Thomassen :- Gulf Publishing Company.Houston
2. Pedersen K.S. et al ,"Viscosity of Crude Oil", Chem. Eng.Sci.,39,1984,pp 1011-1016
3. Pedersen, K.S. and Fredenslund,Aa.,"An Improved Corresponding States Model for
the Prediction of Oil and Gas Viscosities and Thermal Conductivities",Chem.
Eng.Sci.,42,1987,pp 182-186
4. Christensen, P.L. and Fredenslund,Aa.,"A Corresponding States Model for the
Thermal Conductivity of Gases and Liquids",Chem. Eng.Sci.,35,1980,pp 871-875
5. Lohrenz,J.,Bray,B.G., and Clark, C. R.," Calculating Viscosities of Reservoir Fluids
from Their Compositions",J.Pet.Technol.,Oct.1964,pp 1171-1176
6. Ducoulombier,D.,Zhou H.,Boned,C.,Peyrelasse,J.,Saint-Guirons,H., and Xans P.,J.
Phys.Chem. 1986,90,pp 1692-1700
7. Little,Kennedy,Soc.Pet.Eng. J.,June 1968 ,pp 157
8. Mo,K.C. and Gubbins,K.E., "Conformal Solution Theory for Viscosity and Thermal
Conductivity of Mixtures",Mol.Phys.,31,1976,pp 825-847
9. Hanley H.J.M.,McCarty,R.D. and Haynes,N.M.,"Equation for the Viscosity and
Thermal Conductivity of Methane",Cryogenics,15,1975,pp 413-417

1990-2020 Petroleum Experts Limited

 423 PVTP

10. McCarty,R.D.,"A Modified Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State for Methane Using

Recent Experimental Data",Cryogenics,14,1974,pp 276-280
11. Jossi,J.A.,Stiel,L.I.,and Thodos,G.,"The Viscosity of Pure Substances in the Dense
Gaseous and Liquid Phases",AIChE J.,8,1962,pp 59-63
12. Herning,F.and Zippener, L.,"Calculation of the Viscosity ofTecnical Gas Mixtures from
the Viscosity of Individual Gases"Gasu. Wasserfach,79,1936,pp 69-73

2.4.7 Interfacial Tension Calculation

The interfacial tension of a pure substance is given by the equation:

where is the interfacial tension , P is the parachor and M is the molecular weight of the
substance. l and g are the densities of the liquid and gas.
This equation can be extended to mixtures of hydrocarbons and becomes:

Ml and Mg are the molecular weight of the gas and liquid at equilibrium. P x and y are the
component parachors, liquid and gas mole fractions respectively.

Reference:
Weinaug, C.F. and Katz,D.L "Surface Tension of Methane-Propane Mixtures" Ind. Eng. Chem.
(1943) 35,239-242

2.4.8 Enthalpy and Specific Heat Capacity

The enthalpy, H of a mixture of components can be calculated as a sum of ideal and residual
enthalpy for each component:

The residual enthalpy is derived from Equation of State (EOS) using the following relation:

where is fugacity coefficient.

Two models are available for ideal enthalpy calculation. The Original model calculates

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enthalpy using Cavett model, which evaluates it using correlation from the component MW,
SG and BPt.

The Cavett model tend to overestimate enthalpy for heavy oils. As such, another method was
put forward to capture fluid enthalpy more accurately – Lee and Kesler. The method evaluates
ideal enthalpy as:

where is specific heat capacity of the component, which is approximated with a third
degree polynomial:

Coefficients for lighter components are given by Reid et al. (1977). For heavier components,
the coefficients are evaluated using Lee and Kesler method (1976):

where K is Watson characterisation factor.

Once the total enthalpy is calculated (as explained above) it is used to evaluate the specific
heat capacity of the fluid as:

In addition to the above models PVTp provide functionality to match specific heat capacity to
the lab data (if available). Shift and Multiplier parameters for the ideal specific heat capacity
are adjusted during regression:

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The above Shift and Multiplier parameters are adjusted for Ideal Specific Heat in order that
the Total Specific Heat matches the actual value measured during experiment (Lab data). The
Shift and Multiplier are applied to ideal specific heat capacity of pseudo components (not pure
components) and it is the same Shift and Multiplier for all of them.

2.4.9 Compositional Gradient

The compositional gradient function calculates the effect of gravity on the distribution of
components within the reservoir. Under the influence of gravity light components will tend to
move towards the top of the structure with the heaviest having a greater abundance towards
the bottom.

Fig 1
fi(T,P,ni) f1i(T1,P1,ni)

With no gravity effect the fugacity of a component is a function of the temperature, pressure
and composition.

Fig 2
f1i(T1,P1,ni,dz)

} dz

fi(T,P,ni)

With the gravity effect introduced the fugacity also becomes a function of the change in height
dz.
The change in the component fugacities over the height change is given by the following
equation (full derivation in ref 1.):

f 1i
exp[ ( Mw i / RT ) gdz
fi ..................... Eqn 1
The fugacity of a component at reference ƒi changes to ƒ1i. The size of the change depends
on the temperature T, dz, and importantly the component molecular weight Mwi.
When the component molecular weights are very different e.g. methane (18) and asphaltene
(2000-20000), the gradient is at its most extreme with the composition and consequently the
saturation pressure varying relatively quickly with depth.

Fig 3

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P1,T1,n1
dz
Pref,Tref,nref

The procedure the program follows to solve the gradient is as follows:

1. The vertical heights selected are resolved as a set of stages (see fig. 3).
2. The starting point is the matched PVT sample; which has a composition (nref), a
reference pressure (Pref) and a reference temperature (Tref) associated with it.
3. From P,T and n the equation of state can calculate z-factor and density of the fluid and
the component fugacities
ƒi at this point.
4. From the fluid density and the change in height the program can estimate P1. The
implication being that the composition is constant over dz.
5. T1 is calculated from the user-entered temperature gradient.
6. From P1 estimate, T1 and nref, the component fugacities
f 1i
can be calculated as in figure 1 i.e. no composition change due to gravity.
7. Equation 1 is the used to adjust the
f 1i
value and take account of the size segregation.
8. The adjusted fugacity ratio is directly related to the composition, so a new estimate of
composition at 1(n1) can be calculated.
9. The pressure adjustment required at 1 is directly related to the change in composition so
a new P1 can be estimated.
10. With the new P1 and n1 , steps 6-9 are repeated until the values converge i.e. the
fugacity change calculated for P,T and n changing equals that predicted by equation 1.
11. The reference conditions now become P1, T1 and n2 and the second stage is
calculated.
12. When all upward stages have been calculated, the program returns to Tref and Pref and
does the downward stages in exactly the same way

The result of this calculation is a series of pressures temperatures and compositions and
depths for each of the selected depths. If one is starting from an oil and travel up the
structure, the fluid will get lighter and lighter, containing more and more methane. At the some
stage the composition calculated will be a gas. This is the GOC. With the Ps, Ts and
compositions the equation of state can be used to calculate the properties of the fluid at each
depth including saturation pressure density GOR etc.

The results are normally projected graphically with the change in reservoir pressure and
saturation pressure shown versus depth.

Fig. 4

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The abrupt change in slope of the pressure line reflects the change in density from gas to oil.
With this type of system there is one point where the saturation pressures of the gas and oil
are equal and also equal the reservoir pressure at the GOC. Figure 5 shows the phase
envelopes of the gas and oil compositions just above and below the GOC.

Fig. 5

From this diagram it can be seen that the fluids are very different. They do however share a

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common point that is equal to the temperature and pressure at the GOC.

2.4.9.1 Compositional Gradient References

1. Thermodynamics of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs by A. Firoozabadi :-McGraw-Hill (ISBN:

0-07-022071-9)
2. Prediction of compositional grading in a reservoir fluid column - Montel F. and Gouel
P.L. SPE 14410
3. Compositional variations within a hydrocarbon column due to gravity - Schulte A. 55th
Techn. Conf. Soc. of Petr. Eng. AIMF,Texas,Sept. 21-24,1980 SPE 9235
4. Role of Asphaltenes in Compositional Grading of a reservoir's Fluid Column -
Hirschberg A. SPE 13171

2.4.10 Water Modeling

The presence of water in most reservoirs and surface networks creates the requirement to
model the multiphase mixtures produced. The conventional equations of state such as Peng
Robinson (PR) or Soave Redlich Kwong(SRK) are not adequate for reproducing the special
interaction of the aqueous phase.

Most research in this area (refs 1 and 2), has concentrated on modifying the attractive
function a(T) of water and providing binary interaction coefficients between water and the
other species within the mixture. Some work has also been done in collaboration with efforts
to model the formation of Hydrates 444 which has led to more complex formulations of the
equations of state, that attempt to model the behaviour of polar species.

See Saturate with H2O 192 or Add Water 194 objects for more information on how streams can
be set to contain water.

2.4.10.1 Multiphase flash options

Water modeling in IPM 8.0
A number of different options have been added to the water modeling options in IPM 8.0. The
presence of water in IPM 7.5 was modeled using the Soreide and Whitson 428 .

Pseudo Multiphase flash

A pseudo multiphase flash is an approximate method to overcome the difficulty in multiphase
flashes with water where speed and the properties of the water mean that inaccuracies are
common.

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The pseudo multiphase flash in PVTp performs a standard flash for the hydrocarbon phase
and separates the water. The next step is to saturate the gas that is present with water. The
pseudo multiphase flash makes the assumption that oil and water are totally immiscible and
therefore there will be no water present in the oil phase and no oil present in the water phase.
The assumption that the gas and water are in equilibrium and that the gas will be totally
saturated with water at the prevailing temperature and pressure is also made.

This calculation is much more stable since it can use the minimum energy solution to perform
the equation of state calculations. A comparison between this and the other methods of
calculating water properties in IPM 8.0 can give drastically different results for fluids that are
near critical since the stability of the minimum energy solution is much better at handling these
types of fluid.

Current benchmarking has shown the pseudo multiphase flash method to be the most stable
and reliable method for the widest range of fluids.

Modified cubics
In addition to the Soreide and Whitson model implemented in PVTP a new modified cubic
equation of state has been implemented in IPM 8.0, the Hydrafact cubic (which can be
activated in either Peng Robinson or SRK) can be used to perform calculations with water
present.

These models are derived in a similar manner; modified temperature dependant and phase
dependant binary interaction coefficients are used for water-hydrocarbon interactions as well
as modified mixing rules for the attraction parameter, α(T).

The effects of inhibitor solubility and salts are calculated with these methods. These
calculations use either the minimum energy solution or the Cole and Goodwin Flash calculation
routine to generate a solution.

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- Soreide and Whitson Model

This model is outlined within reference 1. The main element is the introduction of a
temperature dependent binary interaction coefficient(BIC), the magnitude of which depend
both on the species involved and the type of phase i.e. aqueous or non-aqueous.

Aqueous In general the value of the BIC in this phase is given by:
Phase

where j represents water, csw is the salinity of the water and Tri is the reduced
temperature of component i.
The constants in the equation have the following values:

In addition the authors proposed specific correlations for N2,CO2 and H2S

N2

CO2

H2

Non-aqueous In the non-aqueous phase only H2S is given a temperature dependent BIC:
Phase
k ij 0.19031 0.05965 Tri

Some of the lighter components are given the values shown below , the rest
are given a value of 0.5
C1 = 0.485
C2 = 0.492
C3 = 0.5525
nC4 = 0.5091
N2 = 0.4778
CO2 = 0.1896

In addition , the normal a(T) function is replaced for water with the equation :

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The fact that the BICs are temperature and phase dependent means that they
cannot be manually set by the user.

- Hydrafact Cubic
More detailed description of this model can be found in reference 6 and 7 433 . The Hydrafact
model has made the following modifications to the equation of state to account for water.

Temperature The temperature dependant function has been modified as suggested by

dependant Tohidi-Kalorazi:
parameter
for water
This modification relaxes the alpha function for water and methanol. This
modification was generated from extensive laboratory to model the vapour
pressure of water and methanol and improve the predicted fugacity.
Modified A non-density dependant mixing rule is applied to the a-parameter of the
mixing rule equation of state. This rule splits the contribution from the classical mixing rule
where a is the sum of the products of the mole fraction and the temperature
dependant attraction parameter for all components, and an attraction
parameter that corrects for asymmetric interactions. These were suggested
by Avlonitis.

,
Where i and j represent the traditional manner of describing the different
hydrocarbon components. p represents a polar compound and I represents the
asymmetric binary interaction parameter.

Activity models
Two additional activity models have also been included in IPM 8.0, these models account for
the association that occurs between polar molecules in solution. These models are the GE
model (known as the SRK + Huron Vidal, only available with the SRK equation of state) and
the CPA model (Hydrafact Cubic Plus Association).

- Hydrafact Cubic Plus Association (or, CPA)

The cubic plus association model accounts for the interactions between polar molecules that
effectively 'stick' together. This methodology was initially proposed by Kontogeorgis et al in
1996. The model generates a compressibility factor that can be split into 2 parts, a cubic (or

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classical) contribution and an association contribution.

This model has the advantage that it considers the presence of species that have strong
associations. The disadvantage with this approach is that it requires an additional iteration on
the calculated volume of the system in the flash calculation and as such is significantly slower.

More detail on the derivation of this model can be found in references 8 and 9 433 .

Cubic plus The cubic plus association is an extension of the standard equation of state
association with the addition of a statistically derived association contribution, suggested
general by Huang and Radosz.
fomulation
Defined for the pressure of the system it takes the form:

The additional term that accounts for the association is derived from the SAFT-
EoS formulation, where XAi represents the mole fraction of molecule i that is
not bonded to site A and xi is the mole fraction of component i

Association The XAi term can be rigorously defined as:

parameter

This term is related to the association strength between the site A and site B
on the molecule. This association term is the key quantity in the CPA-EoS
model. These terms are highly dependant on the structure of the molecules.
This relationship is determined from a radial distribution function that was
suggested by Kontogeorgis, which is determined from a relationship for the
reduced fluid density.

- Huron-Vidal (only available with SRK)

The Huron-Vidal addition to the equation of state is applied according to the corrections
suggested by M. Huron and J. Vidal in 1979. (ref 10 433 )

This model makes the assumption that the excess Gibbs energy at infinite pressure will have a
finite limit. The model makes the standard assumption that the volume factor 'b' has a linear
dependence on composition and therefore takes the standard mole fraction weighted average
form.

The attractive parameter is modified according to an attraction parameter

Huron-Vidal The attractive parameter is modified according to the form:

attractive

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parameter

Where,

The excess Gibbs energy at infinite pressure is expressed according to a

method that is similar to that found in the UNIFAC method, suggested by
Wilson (using the UNIQUAC formulation). (ref 11 & 12 433 )

Modified The modified mixing rules above mean that the expression that is used for the
fugacity fugacity coefficient can be simplified to the following:
coefficient
expression
for Huron- The above expression can be reduced to give the standard for of the cubic Z
Vidal factor and the association Z factor (in the middle brackets). Which is in line
with the standard cubic plus association formulation.

2.4.10.2 Water Modeling References

1. Peng-Robinson predictions for hydrocarbons,CO2,N2 and H2S with pure water and
NaCl brine ,I. Soreide and C.H. Whitson, Fluid Phase Equilibria,77:217-290

2. EoS Predictions of Compressibility and Phase Behaviour in Systems Containing

Water, Hydrocarbons and CO2, A.Firoozabadi,R.Nutakki,T.W. Wong and K.Aziz.SPE
15674
3. Multicomponent CO2/Water/Hydrocarbon Phase Behaviour modeling: A
Comprehensive Study,D.Y. Kuan,P.K. Kilpatrick,M.Sahimi,L.E. Scriven and H.T.Davis,
SPE 11961
4. Predicting Phase Behaviour of Water/Reservoir-Crude Systems Using the Association
Concept,A.A. Shinta and A.Firoozabadi , SPE 27872
5. Flash calculations for gas hydrates: A rigorous approach, W. A. Cole and S. P.
Goodwin, Chemical Engineering Science, 45(3): 569-573
6. Gas hydrate equilibria in the presence of electrolyte solutions, B. Tohidi-Kalorazi, PhD
thesis, 1995.
7. Prediction of VL and VLL equilibria of mixtures containing petroleum reservoir fluids
and methanol with a cubic EOS, D. Avlontis, A. Danesh and A. C. Todd, Fluid Phase
Equilibr, 94: 181-216.
8. Multicomponent phase equilibrium calculations for water-methanol-alkane mixtures, G.
M. Kontogeorgis, I. V. Yakoumis, H. Meijer, E. M. Hendriks and T. Moorwood, Fluid
Phase Equilibr., 158: 201-209.
9. Equation of state for small, large, polydisperse and associating molecules, S. H.

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Huang and M. Radosz, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29: 2284-2294.

10. New mixing rules in simple equations of state for representing vapour-liquid equilibria
of strongly non-ideal mixtures, M. Huron and J. Vidal, Fluid Phase Equilibr, 3: 255-271.
11. Group-contribution estimation of activity coefficients in nonideal liquid mixtures, A.
Fredenslund, R. L. Jones and J. M. Prausnitz, AIChE J., 21: 1086-1099.
12. Activity Coefficients and Molecular Structure, G. M. Wilson and C. H. Deal, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Fundam., 1: 20-23.

2.4.11 Wax Modelling

Won (ref 1 438 ) originally proposed a model for wax formation based on an ideal solution. The
derivation of the basic equation is as follows:
The problem is analysed in terms of a subcooled liquid and a thermodynamic cycle (see
diagrams below). This analysis is outlined more fully in Prausnitz (ref.2 438 ).
The fugacity of the solid is equal to that of the solute in liquid and for the system at position 2
is given by:

f solid 2 x2 f 20
................eqn. 1
where
x2 is the mole % solute in the solvent or solubility,
2 is the liquid-phase activity coefficient and
f 20 is the standard state fugacity.
if it is assumed that the solvent and solute are very similar making
1
2 and equation 1 becomes
P1( pure _ solid )
x2
P2 ( subcooled _ liquid )

with P being the vapour pressure and

x2 now referred to as the ideal solubility

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Pressure/Temperature Diagram for Pure Material

Pressure

LIQUID Critical
Point
SOLID

Triple
Point
P2

VAPOUR
P1

T Temperature

The problem can be more generally solved using the thermodynamic cycle shown in figure
below.
Fig 2 Thermodynamic Cycle

Triple Point

b c

a d
T
SOLID LIQUID

ASSUMPTION 1 Assuming negligible solubility of the solvent in the solid then

equation 1 can be written as:

f 2s
x2L
2 f2
ASSUMPTION 2 It is assumed that the fugacities depend only on the solid
forming component and are independent of the nature of the
solvent.
The thermodynamic cycle allows the ratio of the two
fugacities to be calculated. The change in Gibbs free energy
going from a to d is given by:
f 2L
G RT ln( S )
a d f 2 ...............eqn2
In addition the energy change can be written as:

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G H T S
a d a d a d

Using the thermodynamic cycle a->d is replaced by a->b->c-

>d . enthalpy becomes:

H H H H
a d a b b c c d

This can be rewritten in terms of the Heat of Fusion(Melting)

and the specific heats in going from temperature T to the
triple point.
T Pt Pt
d v
H hf C p dT T ( ) dP vdP
a d
Tt P
dT P

ASSUMPTION 3 The volume change at the melting point is assumed to be

negligible and these terms are ignored, giving:
T
H hf C p dT
a d
Tt

The entropy cycle can be written as:

S S S S
a d a b b c c d

which in a similar way to enthalpy becomes

T Pt
Cp d v
S Sf dT dP
a d
Tt
T P
dT
ASSUMPTION 4 again the volume change is assumed to be negligible giving
T
Cp
S Sf dT
a d
Tt
T
The entropy change at fusion is defined as:
Hf
Sf
Tt
Substituting the results of the cycle in eqn 2 and rearranging
gives the equation which acts as the fundamental for many
wax models:

f 2L H f Tt c p Tt cp T
ln( S
) ( 1) ( 1) ln( t )
f2 RT t T R T R T
ASSUMPTION 5 for most materials the melting point line is nearly parallel with
the Pressure axis allowing the triple point temperature to be
replaced with the melting point.

f 2L Hf Tmelt c p Tmelt cp Tmelt

ln( ) ( 1) ( 1) ln( )
f 2S RT t T R T R T
.................eqn 3

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ASSUMPTION 6 Implicit in the use of this equation is that the thermodynamics

of a pure substance in an ideal solution can be extended to a
mixture where the solvent is non-ideal and the solid is neither
ideal nor a pure single species
Some points to note about this equation is that it is dominated
by the Melting Point value. In essence this value determines
when the solid may start to form. The other important term is
the Heat of Melting which plays a role both in the formation
temperature and the amount of solid formed. In its simplified
form, this equation as used by Won overestimates both the
Wax Appearance Temperature and the amount of wax
formed. The various models question the assumptions built
into this model extending the equation in various ways to
remove these errors.
How this equation is used is given in Model Details section 437

Wax Modeling 434 .

Wax Model References 438
Wax Model Details 437
Wax Appearance Temperature 357
Wax Amount Calculation 360
2.4.11.1 Wax Model Details

This is the list of the models available:

PEDERSEN This model is outlined in reference 3 438 .

WAX The model is derived from the simplified version of equation 3 (Wax
modeling 434 ) used by Won i.e.
f 2L Hf Tmelt
ln( ) (1 )
f 2S RTt T
Substituting fugacity coefficients for fugacities,this equation becomes:
Hf T
fi xi i p exp[ (1 )]
RT t Tmelt
where
ƒi is the fugacity of component i in the solid phase
L
i
is the liquid fugacity coefficient of component i
xi
is the solid phase mole fraction of component i
and
p is the pressure

The basis for the model is the presumption that not all the high
molecular weight material can form waxes.
The fraction which is allowed to do so within the model comes from an

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empirical relationship :
p pip
z iS z itotal [1 ( A B Mi ).( )C ]
pip
where
z iS
is the fraction of
z itotal
allowed to become wax,
Mi is the C7+ molecular weight
is the SG of component i
2

and
L
i
is the SG of an equivalent paraffin given by:
p
i 0.3915 0.0675 ln( M i )

A B and C are constants with the following values

A = 0.8824 , B= 0.0005354 and C=0.1144

The component melting points and heats of melting are calculated using
correlations proposed by Won(ref 1 433 )

20172
Ti m 374 .5 0.02617 .M i
Mi
and
H im 0.1426 .M iTi m

See also
Wax Modeling 434
Wax Model References 438
Wax Appearance Temperature 357
Wax Amount Calculation 360
2.4.11.2 Wax Model References

1. Continuous Thermodynamics for Solid-Liquid Equilibria: Wax Formation from Heavy

Hydrocarbon Mixtures by K.W. Won March 26 1985. , Paper 27A presented at AIChE
Spring National Meeting. Houston, TX
2. J.M. Prausnitz , R.N. Lichtenthaler,E. Gomesde Azevedo :- Molecular Thermodynamics
of Fluid-Phase Equilibria 2nd Ed. ,Prentice-Hall ,New Jersey (ISBN: 0-13-599564-7)
3. Prediction of Cloud Point Temperatures and Amount of Wax Formation by K.S.
Pedersen SPE Production & Facilities Feb. 1995 ,46-49

See also
Wax Modeling 434 .
Wax Model Details 437

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Wax Appearance Temperature 357

Wax Amount Calculation 360

2.4.12 Salt Modeling

The modeling of salts as part of hydrate and water flash calculations is particularly strong
within the Hydrafact models incorporated within PVTp.When salt is present, the fugacity of
non-electrolyte compound in the aqueous phase is calculated by combining the EoS with the
modified version of Debye-Hückel electrostatic contribution term (Aasberg-Petersen et al.,
1991(ref 1) 443 and Tohidi-Kalorazi, 1995 (ref 2) 443 ).
The effect of electrolytes on the fugacity of non-electrolyte compound in the aqueous phase is
calculated by combining the equation of state with the modified version of Debye-Hückel
electrostatic contribution for taking into the account the effect of salt (Aasberg-Petersen et al.,
1991 (ref 1) 443 ):
EoS EL
ln i ln i ln i i 1, 2, ..., N
..................(1)
where N is the number of non-electrolyte components, i is the fugacity coefficient of
EoS
component i, i is the fugacity coefficient of component i calculated by an EoS, neglecting
EL
the electrostatic effect, and i is the contribution of the electrostatic term. Using the
Debye-Hückel activity coefficient, the final form of the second term on the right hand side in
Equation 1 becomes:

DH 2 AM m his
ln f BI 1 / 2
i
B 3 ...............................(2)

where Mm is the salt-free mixture molecular weight determined as a molar average, and his
is the interaction coefficient between the dissolved salt and a non-electrolytic compound. The
1/ 2
function f BI is obtained from:

1
f BI 1 / 2 1 BI 1 / 2 2 ln 1 BI 1 / 2
1 BI 1 / 2 ...................(3)

where I is the ionic strength. The parameters A and B are given by:

1.327757 10 5 d m1 / 2
A 3/ 2
m T

6.359696 d m1 / 2
B 1/ 2
mT
...............................(4)
where is the density of the salt-free mixture and is the salt-free mixture dielectric
constant which can be calculated from:

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xw
m w
...............................(5)

xw and w
are the salt-free mole fraction and dielectric constant of water, respectively. The
dielectric constants of dissolved non-electrolyte compounds have been neglected, relative to
that of water.

The binary interaction parameter, hws, between water and dissolved salt for nine electrolytes
has been re-optimized by expressing hws as a function of salt concentration and temperature
by using experimental freezing point depression and boiling point elevation data of aqueous
solutions in the presence of salt, by optimizing constants A-E in the binary interaction
parameter relation. The numerical expression developed and used in this software to achieve
the best match between the experimental data and predictions can be found somewhere else
(Tohidi-Kalorazi 1995 (ref 2) 443 , Haghighi et al., 2008 (ref 3) 443 ).

The change in gas solubility due to the presence of salts has been taken into account using
the method introduced by Tohidi-Kalorazi 1995 (ref 2) 443 in which the gas-salt interaction
parameters expressed as functions of temperature and salt concentration.

The Patwardhan and Kumar’s approach 1986 (ref 4) 443 was employed (as detailed by Tohidi-
Kalorazi, 1995 (ref 2 443 ) to extend the model to mixed electrolyte solutions instead of finding a
mixing rule to relate the interaction coefficients of mixed electrolyte solutions to those of single
electrolyte solutions. Activity coefficient of mixed electrolyte solutions from activity coefficient
of single electrolyte solutions has been calculated in this work based on the relationship
comes as follow (Patwardhan and Kumar, 1986 (ref 4) 443 ):
ns
0
log a w yi log a w i
i ............................(6)

aw is the activity of water in a solution of mixed electrolytes, aw,io represents the activity of
water in a single electrolyte solution of the same ionic strength as that of mixed electrolyte
solution. i and yi represent electrolyte, and ionic strength fraction of electrolyte I,
respectively. More details on the modeling of Electrolyte Solutions can be found elsewhere
(Tohidi-Kalorazi, 1995 (ref 2) 443 , Haghighi et al., 2008 (ref 3) 443 ).

Salt Solubility
Salt Solubility varies with temperature and pressure. The pressure effect is much smaller than
that for temperature.

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The solubility is modeled by equating the fugacities in the solid salt and the solute. All
calculations derive from a knowledge of the total composition of any liquid water at any T and
P. From this information a maximum solubility and the amount of solid salt can be calculated. If
there is no liquid water, all salt in the system will be solid.

The plot below shows solubility limit curves calculated for NaCl at a four temperatures and a
range of pressures

As this analysis takes into account the liquid water and salt amounts, it is not dependent on
the hydrocarbon present.

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in real systems Salt Solubility also varies with hydrocarbon composition at a given pressure
and temperature.
Any gas formed in changing P and T will saturate with pure water. This water is removed from
the liquid water, increasing the salt concentration. The salt concentration moves from S to S2
.The amount of water required to saturate the evolved gas also changes greatly with P and T.
A smaller amount of water dissolves in the oil. This may be significant at higher temperatures.
The critical part of the model is to calculate the salt concentration in any liquid water which
may be present after the hydrocarbon phase equilibria has been reached. As it depends so
much on the amount of vapour, the solubility curve will follow the liquid dropout curve of a
condensate. As liquid is dropped out the vapor volume decreases putting vapourised water
back into the liquid water phase. As the retrograde condensate vapourises, water is removed
form the liquid phase to saturate it, increasing the amount of solid salt formed.
The plot below shows the effective solubility limit of the same range of T and P while in
contact with a medium dropout condensate. This vapour correction can be switched on and off
within each salt calculation. If all the initial water is vapourised, the effective solubility limit is
zero as any salt entering the system will be solid at P and T.

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See also:
Salt Calculations Salt Solubility,Salt Map and CCE with Salt
722

Water Modeling The various models used to describe Water.

428

Hydrate Much of the salt model used is shared by the Hydrate models
Modeling 445

2.4.12.1 Salt Modeling References

1. Aasberg-Petersen K., Stenby E., Fredenslund A., 1991, Prediction of high-pressure

gas solubilities in aqueous mixtures of electrolytes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30,
2180-2185

2. Tohidi-Kalorazi B., 1995, Gas hydrate equilibria in the presence of electrolyte

solutions, Ph.D. thesis, Heriot-Watt University

3. Haghighi H., Chapoy A., Tohidi B., 2008, Freezing point depression of common
electrolyte solutions: experimental and prediction using the CPA equation of state,
J. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 47, 3983-3989

4. Patwardhan V.S., Kumar A., 1986, A unified approach for the prediction of
thermodynamic properties of aqueous mixed electrolyte solutions, part I: vapour
pressure and heat of vaporisation, AIChE J., 32, 1419-1428

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See also Salt Modeling 439 and Hydrate Modeling 445 .

2.4.13 Hydrates
This section is a brief introduction to hydrates and their modeling. It includes:
Background to hydrates 444
Hydrate Modeling 445
Hydrate Inhibition 449
Hydrate Model References 450
2.4.13.1 Background to Hydrates
This document is not intended to be a comprehensive guide to the subject of hydrates.

A detailed explanation of hydrates is available in references 1-4 of the Hydrate Reference List
450 .

Gas Hydrates are solid meta-stable compounds which form at higher temperatures than that
expected for pure water ice.

Gas hydrates can be referred to as compounds because they have a fixed composition.

However, a hydrate is a particular type of compound which derives its formation not from
covalent bonds but from weak van der Waals attraction forces.
Within a hydrate, water molecules form a cage with spaces(cavities). If a gas molecule is of
the right size it can occupy a cavity and weakly bond to the surrounding water molecules.
This bonding makes the overall energy of the hydrate lower than that for the molecules in non-
hydrate form and acts as the thermodynamic driving force for hydrate formation.

The compounds that contain this arrangement of cage-structure and guest molecule are
termed Clathrates.
Water has been identified as forming three types of hydrates I ,II and H (ref.1,2)

For the purposes of this program we will consider only the more common I and II forms.

The differences between the two structures derive from the number of molecules which make
up a single unit.
Both types of hydrate contain a variety of small and large cavities.

The number and size distribution of the cavities within a hydrate determines the types and
amount of gas molecules which can be held.
Not all cavities need to be filled to form a stable hydrate.

Typical of the data supplied for the two hydrate types:

Property Hydrate I Hydrate II

Number of water molecules 46 136
per unit cell

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No. of small cavities 2 16

No of large cavities 6 8
Small diameter Angstrom 7.95 7.82
Small diameter Angstrom 8.6 9.46
Potential guest molecules- C1 C1
small cavity CO2 C2
N2 CO2
H2S N2
H2S
Potential guest molecules- C1 C1
large cavity CO2 C2
N2 C3
H2S C4
iC4
CO2
N2
H2S

With a small number of potential guests and two possible structures, the calculation of hydrate
formation can be dealt with by the application of statistical mechanics (van der Waals and
Platteeuw ref. 5 450 )
Estimating hydrate formation is explained in more detail in Hydrate modeling.

Inhibitors
Since hydrate formation can be an expensive issue to deal with in modern production systems
a great deal of work has been carried out to determine ways of either preventing or limiting its
formation.
The most common methods involve any or all of the following:

a) Keeping the temperature higher than the hydrate formation temperature.

b) Adding bulk inhibitors such as methanol or sodium chloride which will shift the hydration
curve downwards to lower temperatures and

c) Adding "kinetic" inhibitors which act to slow down the formation of hydrate crystals

The modeling of inhibitors is dealt with in the Hydrate Inhibition section of this manual.

A more in-depth view of this subject can be found in references 450 1 or 2.

2.4.13.2 Hydrate Modeling

See also Background to Hydrates 444 .

It has been assumed in the model below that a discrete water phase is present. It is also

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possible to form hydrates directly from gas water molecules. This mechanism is described in
Hydrates with no water phase 448 .

The thermodynamic modeling of gas hydrates is normally considered to consist of 2 steps.

pure water (state 1) -> empty hydrate lattice(state 2) -> filled hydrate lattice(state H)

State 2 is hypothetical, only being used to make the calculation practical.

Written in terms of chemical potentials the transition becomes.

The [µ H - µ 1] term represents the gain from adsorption of the gas molecules.
It is this difference that is a measure of the weak van der Waals forces which are giving the
energy advantage to forming the structure hence making a stable compound.
The estimation of this term is treated as a statistical gas adsorption problem and the varying
approaches to its solution make up the majority of the differences between the model options
(see Hydrate Formation Pressure and Minimum Inhibitor Concentration).

The difference between the chemical potential of pure water and the filled hydrate is given by

where nci is the number of cavities of type i

and yji is the probability that cavity of type i is occupied by gas molecule of type j (see table in
Background to Hydrates).

The important term yji is calculated from Langmuir adsorption theory and is given by:

where, ƒj and ƒk are the fugacities for gas molecule j and k calculated by the Equation of
State Model.
Cki is a temperature-dependent Langmuir adsorption constant.
The Cki term is commonly determined using the Lennard-Jones-Devonshire spherical cell
model.(ref 1 450 ).
This model requires an estimation of the potential function describing the interaction of guest
molecules and the water molecules at any distance r within the cage.

The lower the potential , the higher is the probability of finding a guest gas molecule at this
position. Of the alternative methods for calculating potential the most commonly used is the
Kihara (see ref 1 450 and 6 for more details).
In the Sloan option (ref 1) within the program the adsorption constant Cji is derived as
follows:

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where R is the cavity radius and r is the distance from the cavity centre.
The experimentally fitted Kihara cell potential
(r ) is calculated from :

........eqn 1
and

where N = 4,5,10 or 11 as in eqn 1

z = the coordination number of the cavity
R = the free cavity radius
r = distance from the cavity centre

the parameters ε, ?, and σ are experimentally derived parameters which are unique to every
guest molecule.

The Munck et al model from reference 3 450 is used in PVTp. This uses a function for [µ H - µ 1]
which is similar to the model shown above, but with different values for [µ H - µ 2] and [µ 2 - µ 1].

The hydrafact models are more thorough in formulation than the Munck model and they have
also been extensively tested in the lab. They are able to account for inhibitors. The Modified
Cubic model is the suggested model to use as it is more comprehensive and stable under a
variety of conditions.
Thermodynamic inhibitors such as MEG work to break the hydrate lattice. The Modified
Cubic Plus Association Model (Modified CPA) accounts for the fact that the inhibitors can
become less effective as they have a tendency to self-aggregate rather than break the
hydrate lattice. The CPA model therefore has this additional detail however this can increase
calculation time and also reduces stability.

The total chemical potential equation takes the form:

where, ∆µ w(T0,P0) is the chemical potential at the chosen reference state with temperature
T0 and pressure P0

∆hw is the specific enthalpy difference and ∆ν w is the specific volume difference going from

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T0 to T.

a is the activity of water within the system. The value of pure water is taken as 1. When an
inhibitor is used the value of a is adjusted to include the inhibition effect.
See Hydrate Inhibition 449 for more details.

2.4.13.3 Hydrates with no water phase

See also Background to Hydrates 444 .

The normal mechanism for hydrate formation assumes the presence of a water phase as
described in Hydrate Modeling 445 .
Formation of hydrates directly from a gas phase containing water is possible and occurs at a
higher pressure than the equivalent when a discrete water phase is present.

This calculation path is only followed if water is present in the composition and the Assume
free water phase exists option is set off (see Hydrate Formation Pressure Dialog 345 )

The thermodynamic modeling of gas hydrates is normally considered to consist of 3

steps(see ref 3 450 ).

water in gaseous form(G)->condensed water (state 1) -> empty hydrate lattice(state 2) ->
filled hydrate lattice(state H)

Written in terms of chemical potentials the transition becomes.

The difference between the chemical potential of gaseous water and the condensed water is
given by

where ƒW G is the fugacity of water in the gas phase which is given by:

where PW sat is the saturation pressure of water and Vα is the molar volume of water.

Combining the above equations with those already outlined in Hydrate Modeling 445 gives:

...................................................................(h.1)

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The difference between the chemical potential of pure water and the filled hydrate is given by

...................................................................(h.2)

where nci is the number of cavities of type i, and yji is the probability that cavity of type i is
occupied by gas molecule of type j (see table in Background to Hydrates).

The combination of equations h.1 and h.2 allows the possibility of evaluating whether the
hydrate formation from gas is thermodynamically favored or not.

2.4.13.4 Hydrate Inhibition

See also Background to Hydrates 444 and Hydrate Modeling 445 .
There are 2 types of hydrate inhibitor i.e. kinetic and thermodynamic.

Kinetic These are designed to slow down the rate of hydrate formation by
inhibitors blocking or stopping crystal growth.
These agents, fatty acids, amines and fatty alcohols do not stop
hydrate formation, they only shift it to a different time and place.
Kinetic inhibition is outwith the scope of the PVT program at present
Thermodynamic These disrupt the order within water produced by its hydrogen
inhibitors bonding.
This disruption reduces the activity of the water, making it less likely
to form hydrates.
There are two main types of thermodynamic inhibitor, alcohols
(methanol, glycol) and electrolytes (NaCl,ZnCl etc.).
The chemical potential of the system in the presence of alcohols
decreases because hydrogen bonds form between the water
molecules and alcohols.
H2O + CH3OH H O ….H O CH3

With electrolytes the water molecules form a coat of many layers

around the ions in solution.
This destroys the normal liquid crystal structure of water making it
more difficult for the ordered hydrate structure to form.
Both mechanisms result in a lowering of the water activity term a in
the hydrate modeling equation.

Activity correlations are found in references 1,2 and 7 450 for the inhibitors supported

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2.4.13.5 Hydrate Model References

1. Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases by D.S.Sloan :-Marcel Dekker Inc., New York
(ISBN: 0827 99372)
2. Hydrates of Hydrocarbons by Yuri F. Makogon :- PennWell Publishing Company,
Tulsa,Oklahoma
3. Properties of Oils and Natural Gases by K.S.Pedersen,A.Fredenslund and
P.Thomassen :- Gulf Publishing Company.Houston
4. Petroleum Engineers Handbook :- Society of Petroleum Engineers ,Richardson,Texas
5. Platteeuw. J.C. and van der Waals. J.H. : Thermodynamic Properties of Gas
Hydrates II. Phase Equilibrium in the System, Rec. Trav. Chem.(1959),78,126-133
6. J.M. Prausnitz , R.N. Lichtenthaler,E. Gomesde Azevedo :- Molecular
Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria 2nd Ed. ,Prentice-Hall ,New Jersey (ISBN:
0-13-599564-7)

See also Hydrate Modeling 445 .

2.4.14 General Information
Note on CGR Definitions in IPM

In condensate models, PVTp reports the reservoir CGR, vapourised CGR and gas oil ratio.
The following picture illustrates these definitions which are standard for all IPM tools:

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Let us assume we have a gas condensate at reservoir conditions. A flash calculation is

performed to a pressure and temperature (e.g. calculation step in CCE or CVD). The ratio of
the resulting gas and oil volumes (referenced to standard conditions) is the reservoir CGR.
The reservoir CGR represents the condensate that has dropped out in the resercoir (in-situ).

The gas is flashed to standard conditions (straight flash or through a separator train). the ratio
of the resulting oil and gas volumes is the vapourised or surface CGR: this represents the
condensate that is present in the well-stream.

Finally, the oil that has dropped out in the reservoir contains some dissolved gas. the ratio of
the gas to oil volumes for this oil is the gas oil ratio.

Note on Oil Density

The calculation screen shows two Oil Densities 408 for comparison purposes. The EOS value is
determined directly from the equation of state calculation of liquid compressibility Z. This value
is used to derive all the related properties i.e. Oil Gravity, Oil FVF and GOR. The second
value is taken from the correlation put forward by Standing and Katz or Costald. The non-
predictive nature of the Equation of State method and its weakness in calculating liquid
properties makes the value of Oil Density particularly suspect in non-matched systems. The
EOS Density is, however, sensitive to composition and property changes, making it a suitable
value for matching and regression.The Standing-Katz or Costald value is empirically derived
and in our experience predicts well the density of most fluids. Matching the EOS density to
good experimental data usually results in the two densities having very similar values.
Conversely, if the values are very dissimilar, it usually means that good matching has not been
achieved. See Density Modeling 408 for more information on oil density options.
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2.5 Appendix

2.5.1 CCE vs. DiffLib?

A frequent topic for debate is whether the data obtained from the CCE or DiffLib provides a
more contextual description of the fluid over the conditions encountered in the field and which
should be used for the matching process. Using our characterised EOS model we can
demonstrate that both experiments in fact deliver comparable results at medium to high
pressures. Before we demonstrate this in full, let us briefly consider how the two experiments
are performed and the measurements made.

The CCE experiment represents the fluid behaviour as the pressure in the cell is reduced and
the gas coming out of solution is left in equilibrium with the oil. The volume of oil at the final
stage, which is at standard conditions, is used to calculate the formation volume factor at the
preceding stages.

The DiffLib experiment represents the fluid behaviour as the pressure in the cell is reduced
and the gas coming out of solution is removed from the cell. The volume of oil at the final
stage, which is at standard conditions, is used to calculate the formation volume factor at the
preceding stages.

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Now assuming that in both experiments we start with the same initial volume of oil (Vo0) what
is the difference in volume at a given stage between the two experiments? We can calculate
this by "changing" the reference volume from the oil volume at standard conditions to the initial
oil volume (or any other oil volume for that matter) by dividing the Bo at each stage by the Bo
at the initial stage (this should be at saturation). Please note, the difference in Bo for the initial
stage is clearly a result of the difference in the oil volume at standard conditions, which of
course is a result of compositional changes in the oil phase at low pressures between the two
experiments.

In the table below, please find the Bo from a simulation of the CCE and DiffLib experiment
using our characterised EOS and the Relative Oil volume as calculated from the ratio of the
Bos
Pressure Bo Bo DiffLib Relative CCE Relative Differenc
, (psia) DiffLib, CCE, Volume, Volume, e,
(rb/stb) (rb/stb) (Vo/Vo0) (Vo/Vo0) %
2091** 1.46 1.56 1.00 1.00 0
2000 1.44 1.54 0.99 0.99 0.1
1900 1.43 1.52 0.98 0.97 0.2
1800 1.41 1.49 0.96 0.96 0.4
1700 1.39 1.47 0.95 0.95 0.6
1600 1.38 1.45 0.94 0.93 0.8
1500 1.36 1.43 0.93 0.92 1.0

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1400 1.34 1.41 0.92 0.91 1.3

1300 1.33 1.39 0.91 0.89 1.6
1200 1.31 1.37 0.90 0.88 2.0
1100 1.30 1.35 0.89 0.87 2.4
1000 1.28 1.33 0.88 0.85 2.9
900 1.27 1.30 0.87 0.84 3.4
800 1.25 1.28 0.86 0.82 4.1
700 1.23 1.25 0.85 0.80 4.8
600 1.22 1.22 0.83 0.79 5.7
500 1.20 1.19 0.82 0.77 6.7

Plotting the Bos from the CCE and DiffLib as a function of pressure, it can be seen that there
is a clear difference in the Bos, however when separately plotting the relative volume as a
function of pressure, it can be seen that the two experiments deliver very comparable results
even for pressures as low as 1000psia where the error is still less than 3%.

With this in mind, we can conclude that either the CCE or DiffLib experiment can be used to
calculate the change in volume as they provide near identical results. At the point where the
two begin to diverge, the reservoir will be filled with gas, as we are far below the bubble point
and therefore an experiment, where the gas remains in the reservoir (i.e. CCE), provides a
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more representative description of the fluid's behaviour. So if the CCE experiment provides a
fuller picture of the fluids behaviour, why do we perform DiffLib rather than CCE experiments
in the laboratory?

In a laboratory the DiffLib experiment is simply far more practical than the CCE experiment as
the CCE experiment would require a significantly larger PVT cell to perform the same
pressure steps as in a DiffLib. Furthermore, in the DiffLib, fluids are extracted at every stage,
meaning that they can be analysed for their properties. Luckily, however as demonstrated
above, the two experiments provide near identical results at medium to high pressures and
given enough measurements, it is possible to convert the results from one experiment to that
of the other, see method above.

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Worked Examples
 Worked Examples 458

3 Worked Examples

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3.1 Examples Index

The following table can be used as reference for the example included in this Guide.

Note that this is only one of the possible routes followed, as in PVTp several other paths
can be followed by more experienced users.

Application area Topic Examples Guide section

Opening Legacy Files Understanding the how the new Data
Object Approach as of IPM12 Example 0 - Importing
impacts on legacy files (i.e. files Legacy Files 461
created pre-IPM12)
Development of PVT Building an EOS model for an oil fluid
model for a fluid sample sample, quality checking the lab data,
defining pseudo component Example 1 - Oil
properties, pseudo splitting, Characterisation 475
regression, validation against lab
data
Development of PVT Building an EOS model for a
model for a fluid sample retrograde condensate fluid
sample, quality checking the lab data, Example 2 - Retrograde
defining pseudo component Condensate 556
properties, pseudo splitting,
regression, validation against lab
data
Development of PVT Building an EOS model for a
model for a contaminated contaminated oil fluid sample,
fluid sample quality checking the lab data, defining Example 3 -
pseudo component properties,
Decontamination 625
pseudo splitting, regression,
validation against lab data,
decontamination procedure
Real life validation of PVT Additional validation tests for example Example 4 - Additional
model using well test data EOS Validation 643
Recombination of Building an EOS model for an
characterised EOS incorrectly recombined fluid sample:
characterisation procedure, Example 5 -
recombination of characterised EOS Recombination 650
using Target PSAT and Target GOR
procedure
Development of PVT Creating an equivalent lumped Example 6- Lumping/
model for integrated composition
Delumping 672
production models

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Flow Assurance: Using a characterised EOS to

Investigating Risk of Wax calculate wax appearance Example 7.1 - Wax 698
appearance temperature curve, estimate amount
of wax produced
Flow Assurance: Using a characterised EOS to
Investigating Risk of calculate hydrate formation pressure
Hydrate Formation curve, investigate effect of water
composition (salinity, inhibitor), Example 7.2 - Hydrates 705
determine minimum inhibitor
composition required to prevent
hydrate formation below a target
pressure.
Flow Assurance: Using a characterised EOS to
Investigating Risk of Salt calculate salt map and thus salt Example 7.3 - Salt 722
Formation formation P T curve, estimate amount
of wax produced

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3.2 Example 0 - Importing Legacy Files

This example is designed to help users understand what happens when an old PVTp file
(created pre-IPM12) is opened within PVTp IPM 12 or above.

Particular objectives are:

To highlight some of the key differences between using PVTp IPM12 or above versus
previous versions of PVTp
To understand how old PVTp file look when opened within PVTp IPM 12 or above
(i.e. using a series of data objects 36 )
To understand how these files may be used going forward

3.2.1 Context
As of IPM12, PVTp has moved towards a data object approach 36 resulting in a significant
overhaul of the user interface. Not only is the interface different, but also the whole approach
to characterisation has changed. Without going into too much detail, as there are sections
within this manual discussing further, now when a fluid is characterised a record of the path
taken is made. This means that a model can be:

Viewed to understand the whole characterisation strategy used

Different characterisation options can be easily tested without committing to that
course of action
Calculations can be repeated allowing the fluid characterisation process to be
reproduced (which is arguably the most key)

This naturally raises the question of how to maintain backwards compatibility with existing
PVTp files created and saved in previous versions of the tools. Previously only the final result
of the characterisation was retained (as the EOS description was continually overwritten),
meaning the user would have little to no idea of the path taken to create that fluid description.

Before looking at a pre-IPM12 PVTp file within IPM12, it will first be useful to refresh our
memories of how files could be created in PVTp pre-IPM12 so that a clearer understanding of
how these files are treated in IPM12 can be achieved.

3.2.2 Notes on Files Pre-IPM12

As mentioned previously, the classical approach to characterisation was to continually
overwrite the EOS description as changes were made (i.e. during splitting and regression
etc.). This resulted in only the final fluid description being saved, with no clear understanding
of the path taken to get there.

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In previous versions of PVTp (pre-IPM12 versions) various features were added that could
allow users to try and overcome this. These include:

Saving pseudos to a "store" to allow split pseudos to be easily recombined and for
automatching purposes:

Note: the screenshot above is taken from the Pseudo Properties dialog in IPM11

Creating "streams" to record the general steps performed during a characterisation.

This allows the path to be generally recorded and for users to revert to an earlier
stage if the characterisation does not progress in the right direction.

Note: the screenshot above is taken from the main screen in IPM11

These options of course required the user to actively save files/streams before each step, so
in order to truly be able to reproduce a characterisation, great care would have to be taken
along with detailed notes. This is particularly the case when regressing, as this step would
overwrite the EOS providing a different starting point for the next regression etc.

In addition, a user could see which calculations had been performed within a file from the
check box list shown in the main screen:

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Note: the screenshot above is taken from the main screen in IPM11

The file that we will use in this example makes use of these features and can be considered a
fairly typical characterisation. This file was created in IPM11, with the following:

Three saved streams:

o Initial - this is the starting point of the characterisation, where only the pure and
single pseudo component has been defined.
o Final - this is the end point of the characterisation, where the pseudo has been
split and regression(s) performed to match lab data.
o GOR 1000 scf/STB - this stream is the result of a Target GOR 170 being performed
on the Final EOS to create a fluid with a GOR of 1000 scf/STB.
Original pseudo properties saved to a "store"

Now we will open this file in PVTp IPM12 and discuss the differences and how the file can be
used.

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Note: the screenshot above is the main screen for this example file in IPM11

3.2.3 Opening Pre-IPM12 files in IPM12

To open the file go to

The sample file can be accessed via Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.5 Samples | PVTP |
Example 0 Backwards Compatibility and open the file.

Immediately the user will see the following screen:

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It is clear to see that the three streams saved in IPM11 have resulted in three different
pathways being defined.

Each pathway is named according to the name of the stream it represents. Likewise an
individual calculation object for each calculation performed for each stream is named
accordingly. For example:

There are a number of important things to consider:

Recalculating Stream Objects 465

Different Stream Data
Recalculating Calculation Objects 467
Object Settings 468
Additional Objects 471

3.2.3.1 Recalculating Stream Objects

Each object will display the final status of the stream from the pre-IPM12 file. What this
means is that within a single stream, all of the Output Fluid 158 and PVT Fluid 158 descriptions will

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be the same (whereas we would expect these to be different in a file created in IPM12). This
relates back to the idea of the EOS model being continually overwritten, so the only
description available for that stream is the final saved version.

This is illustrated below:

This means that recalculating an object may not give the same result as originally achieved. It
is for this reason that a warning appears on the some characterisation objects, letting the user
know:

3.2.3.2 Different Stream Data

Unlike the objects within the same stream, objects from different streams will show different
data and therefore different EOS descriptions will exist (assuming that the streams were
originally different that is).

If we compare the PSEUDO_PROPS Initial and PSEUDO_PROPS Final objects to illustrate

this, we will see that the EOS is different between these objects reflecting the process that
was performed in each stream in IPM11.

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If we compare the first interface, it is clear that different EOS models are held in each object:

Note that it is still possible to revert back to stored pseudo properties by copying data from
the Pseudo Props Store that is now displayed.

3.2.3.3 Recalculating Calculation Objects

Any Characterisation Object can be selected 58 to pass its EOS description into a Calculation
Object so that an experiment can be simulated using that EOS. Generally in files created in
IPM12, it would be expected to observe a difference in the results when comparing different
objects in a single stream, as the EOS description is developing as we move along the
pathway. When a file created in a version pre-IPM12 is opened, all EOS descriptions in a
stream are the same, therefore we would not be able to see any difference.

For example, we would normally expect to see a difference in the phase envelope (or any
other calculation) for the Pseudo Properties 119 and Regression 137 objects, however this is not
the case here:

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3.2.3.4 Object Settings

It is also important to note that an object will simply display the last settings saved for a given
step in the characterisation process. This may or may not reflect what was actually done
during the characterisation.

To provide an example, let us look at REGRESSION Final object.

Lab Data Weightings

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This object clearly contains all the lab data for the fluid and the a record of the data included
and weighted for regression, however there is no guarantee that these data points and
weights were the ones used to perform the regression, as:

Data points could be changed after the regression and the file saved
Different regression variables could have been selected

Regression Inputs

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Only the last regression inputs set up in the file will be retained. As can be seen above, this
was for the oil viscosity in this case. This is typically done after the phase and volume
properties have been regressed. As in this case there is now no record of phase and volume
regression. Other things to consider here is:

Multiple regressions could have been performed

Different match variables could have been selected than those shown in the final state

Regression Variables

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As with the other interfaces, only the last selected variables will be shown here and there is
no guarantee that these reflect what was actually done.

Multiple regressions could have been performed

Different match variables could have been selected than those shown in the final state
Regressions could have been stopped early.

3.2.3.5 Additional Objects

In addition to the expected objects for each stream, different files may call for additional
objects to be created to retain previous functionality or procedural steps.

In this example, a Mass Balance quality check has clearly been performed in IPM11. In
IPM12 this quality check can be performed as the last step in a PVT Sample 104 object,
whereas within IPM11 the Mass Balance calculation was performed independently of the fluid
sample (i.e. it is not associated with any particular fluid sample or lab data).

This means that when a pre-IPM12 file is opened in IPM12, PVTp does not know which
stream to associate the Mass Balance calculation with, and so creates a separate PVT
Sample object called "Mass Balance Calc Data" where only the Mass Balance tab data is
entered:

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3.2.4 Moving Forward

It is of course possible for a user to continue to characterise a fluid that was started in a
version of PVTp pre-IPM12. If this is done however, it is important to remember that the
characterisation process may not be repeatable, and all steps may not have been recorded.

That said, it is possible for a new branch in the characterisation pathway to be created from
an existing stream, which if the branch begins early enough, a fully repeatable pathway may
be possible.

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There is of course no requirement to revisit a characterisation if the resulting EOS adequately

reproduced the lab data (which is of course the ultimate objective of the characterisation
process after all). So it is also possible to use an existing EOS for further calculations (e.g.
flow assurance studies etc.) or for the creation of a lumping rule and ultimate export:

3.2.5 Summary
In summary, this example will allow the user to better understand and interpret an existing file
(pre-IPM12) newly opened in IPM12 PVTp.

There are a number of consideration to keep in mind, including the fact that only a static view
of the file is seen, which is different from the new approach of IPM12.

That said, the user should now have a better understanding of the expectations for
recalculating objects and simulating experiments and have an understanding of what can be
done with existing files moving forward in IPM12.

It is recommended that the following sections are referred to for further information:

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Characterisation Examples for Oil 475 and Retrograde Condensate 556

The Data Object Approach 36 used in IPM12
Characterisation Objects 101
Calculation Objects 241

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3.3 Example 1 - Oil

This guide is intended to demonstrate the thinking process behind characterising a fluid in
PVTp - in this case an oil.

It should be noted that this is not a guide of the essential steps for matching any fluid - this is
because every fluid is different, has its own challenges and by definition there are multiple
solutions as well as pathways to a particular solution.

In order to begin this example, open an instance of PVTp and Create a New File:

3.3.1 Scenario
An oil reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated model
is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model is to be
comprised of a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated and therefore the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather
than a Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

A fluid sample was taken and analysed in a laboratory. The engineer has been tasked with
using the lab data to develop an EOS description of the reservoir fluid using PVTp.

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3.3.2 Workflow Summary

QC Lab Report:
The first step in building an EOS description of a fluid is to quality check the laboratory results.
This can be done by establishing whether the data available is sufficient to describe the fluid’s
behaviour over the range of conditions it will be exposed to over the field’s life time. With this
in place, for example plotting the composition as a function of carbon number can show
whether the determined composition is physical.

Lab Data Entry:

In order to continually quality check the validity of the EOS, we will want to be able to
reproduce the laboratory experiments, hence the lab data needs to be entered.

Define Pure Components:

With the Lab Report quality checked, the engineer then needs to decide which components to
model explicitly as pure components and which components to lump together as a pseudo
component. Once this has been completed, the fluid composition can be entered.

Define Pseudo Components:

To start performing flash calculations with the EOS at this stage, the critical properties of the
pseudo component need to be defined. Correlations may be used to estimate these
properties from the pseudo’s molecular weight (MW), specific gravity (SG) and boiling point
temperature (BPT).

The aim at this stage is to get the EOS to roughly reproduce the liquid phase density and
GOR at standard conditions as well as the saturation pressure at reservoir conditions.
Splitting pseudo and introducing binary interaction coefficients (BICs) can also be used to
achieve this.

Regression:
The EOS can then be fine-tuned in an attempt to reproduce the lab experiments by regressing
on the critical properties, acentric factor, volume shift and BICs. Multiple regressions can be
performed in series, but the results must always be validated against simulated lab
experiments and possess a natural distribution of critical properties etc. Weightings can be
applied to the entered data in order to steer the regression towards more important
parameters and to reflect uncertainties associated with some lab measurements. Some data
can also be excluded from the regression, to simplify the regression.

If an unnatural distribution is determined, or the EoS insufficiently describes the fluid

behaviour, then the user should return to their pseudo split definition and regression strategy
and repeat the process.

Validation:

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Once the EOS reproduces the lab experiments and the critical properties exhibit natural
trends, additional validation against real-life process data is required. The reason for this is
that the fluid used to perform the experiments in the laboratory may in fact not be fully
representative of the actual reservoir fluid. To understand whether the fluid sample was
representative of the reservoir fluid a more "holistic" approach needs to be takes a wider
range of data into consideration, for example:

Historical Well Tests

Repeat Formation Tests (RFTs)

EOS Application:
The validated EOS model can then be used for flow assurance calculations, e.g. hydrate and
wax formation, to build the integrated production model, i.e. deriving a lumping/delumping rule
to meet the requirements of the various models within the integrated model (simulator, well,
surface network and process model).

The general workflow is summarised in the graphic below.

For the purposes of this example, we will use the Characterisation Wizard 76 to help guide us
through this workflow.

3.3.3 Data Available

The following data is at the engineer’s disposal:

Fluid composition
Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment
Differential Liberation (DiffLib) experiment
Separator (SEP) experiment

Please note, all of this data can be found below and in the Excel spreadsheet provided within
the PVTp sample files.

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3.3.3.1 Reservoir Conditions

Units
Reservoir Pressure 2339 psia
Reservoir 185 °F
Temperature
Reservoir Depth 5949 ft

3.3.3.2 Recombined Composition

Component Mol%
N2 0
CO2 0.8
C1 36.22
C2 8.65
C3 7.78
iC4 1.94
nC4 4.58
iC5 2.26
nC5 2.42
C6 3.25
C7 2.96
C8 2.69
C9 2.44
C10 2.22
C11 2.02
C12 1.84
C13 1.67
C14 1.52
C15 1.38
C16 1.26
C17 1.14
C18 1.04
C19 0.95
C20+ 8.96

Mean Molecular Weight of C7+ fraction = 220 g/mol

Mean Specific Gravity of C7+ fraction = 0.87

3.3.3.3 CCE Experiment

Pressure Relative Oil Oil
, (psia) Volume, (V/ Density, Viscosity,
Vsat) (kg/m3) (cp)
4000 0.97 661 0.49
3600 0.976 657 0.48

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3200 0.982 653 0.47

2800 0.987 649 0.46
2339* 0.994 644 0.44
2200 0.997 643 0.43
2091** 1 641 0.42
2000 1.021 - 0.43
1750 1.093 - 0.44
1500 1.199 - 0.45
1250 1.36 - 0.46
1000 1.621 - 0.47
750 2.084 - 0.48
500 2.92 - 0.51
200 7.691 - 0.61

* Reservoir Pressure
** Saturation Pressure

3.3.3.4 DiffLib Experiment

Pressure Oil Solution GOR, Oil FVF,
, (psia) Density, (scf/bblresidual) (bbl/
(kg/m3) bblresidual)
4000 661 996 1.636
3600 657 996 1.638
3200 653 996 1.655
2800 649 996 1.665
2339* 644 996 1.677
2200 643 996 1.680
2091** 641 996 1.686
1757 655 842 1.611
1408 669 700 1.538
1067 681 571 1.477
711 696 445 1.412
370 707 311 1.310
15 789 1.057

* Reservoir Pressure
** Saturation Pressure

3.3.3.5 SEP Experiment

SEP Experiment 1:

Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)

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80 75 661 1.088 0.842

0 75 110 1.007 1.33

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.8145 or 42.2°API

SEP Experiment 2:

Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)
40 75 735 1.088 0.888
0 75 29 1.007 1.447

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.8140 or 42.3°API

SEP Experiment 3:

Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)
0 75 754 1.007 0.961

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.8139 or 42.35°API

3.3.4 Import the Lab Report

This step is optional and can only be performed if the lab report is available in an Excel
format.

As in this case we do have an Excel file available we will import this into the PVTp file. This
step serves to keep all the necessary data together in one location and allows us to quality
check the data in one location.

Double click on Add PVT Report in the Characterisation Wizard window.

This will place a PVT Report 101 object onto the Characterisation Window.

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Double click on the PVT Report object and select Browse to navigate to the required PVT
report. In this can be found in the sample directory under ...Samples\pvtp\Example 1 Oil\Lab
Data.xlsx.

Selecting Open will import the report into the object in the same format and tab structure as
the original Excel file.

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Data in this screen can be modified if necessary without affecting the original Excel sheet. In
this instance some data formats cannot be automatically interpreted so need to be manually
modified.

Go to the CCE tab and modify the pressures to remove the * and ** signifying the reservoir
and saturation pressure respectively.

Once this has been done, press OK to close the window.

3.3.5 Lab Report Quality Check

The assumption taken in most companies is that the individual Equation of State (EOS)
descriptions are accurate and matched to good measurements from lab reports. However the
measurements themselves may carry experimental errors that engineers need to be aware of

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before forcing the EOS to reproduce them.

There are various challenges associated with the fluid sampling and the lab measurements
themselves. The fluid samples can be collected either:

1. Downhole
2. At Surface

Downhole samples run the risk of gas escaping through the seals of the sampling tool as the
sample is brought to surface. When the sample is then taken to the lab and restored to
reservoir conditions, by elevating the sample to the reservoir temperature and pressure, the
gas that escaped on the way to surface will not be re-dissolved back into the oil, which will
impact the measurements of the volumetric properties (i.e. GOR and Formation Volume
Factor). For this reason the measured saturation pressure should be checked with the
reservoir pressure or an RFT measurement as this could lead to the conclusion that there is a
problem with the sample taken.

A surface sample is created by taking a separate sample of gas and oil at the separator
during a well test. The separator pressure and temperature are noted along with the in-situ
GOR. To recreate the reservoir fluid in the lab, the oil and gas samples are re-combined in a
common sample with the same GOR in the field and then the temperature and pressure are
elevated to reservoir conditions. If the GOR reading during the rest was wrong (e.g. unstable
flow from well, liquid carry over, etc.) then the re-combined fluid will not represent the
reservoir fluid either. Therefore it is good practice to have the well test report to hand to
validate this

There are various checks that can be performed before progressing with the characterisation:

If there are multiple samples in the report, identify which sample was used to perform
the experiments
Check the sample was given sufficient time to stabilise at reservoir conditions
Perform a mass balance check
Check for inconsistencies in the measurements (i.e. Oil Formation Volume Factor,
Density, GORs, etc.)
Check for contamination
Check Hoffmann Plot for K values
Check Saturation pressure vs Reservoir Pressure
etc.

3.3.5.1 Review of Available Data

The laboratory experiments intend to describe different aspects of the fluid’s behaviour but
only when combined they can give a full picture of the fluid’s behaviour. For further details on
how these experiments are performed and what they aim to simulate, please refer to Lab

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Experiments 241 .

For example, the Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment is analogous to the
expansion of the fluid in the reservoir as the pressure is reduced at a constant temperature.
The SEP experiments captures the fluid path from the reservoir through the well, surface
network and separator stages to standard conditions.

The Differential Liberation (DiffLib) experiment describes how the composition in the reservoir
can change over time as the pressure reduces and gas starts evolving from the oil, whilst the
temperature is kept constant. For a discussion on the differences between the results of the
CCE and DiffLib experiments, please refer to the Appendix 453 .

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With the above in mind, in principle only two experiments, including the separator experiment
are required to perform a characterisation. With additional experiments, the fluid’s behaviour is
better understood and therefore more confidence can be placed in a characterised EOS to be
representative of the fluid’s behaviour over the field’s life time.

The data available should then be quality checked to ensure that measurements of the
following have been performed:

Saturation Pressure at Reservoir Conditions

Reservoir or Saturation Liquid density
Surface Liquid density
GOR

3.3.5.2 Compositional Gradient Check

A compositional profile check tests whether whether the composition follows a natural trend or
whether there are erratic spikes. Such spikes could be an indicator of the sample having been
contaminated, with for example drilling mud, or the sample having been improperly
recombined. A plot of the fluid composition as a function of carbon number is shown below for
illustrative purposes.

As the trend is smooth and natural in appearance, it can be assumed that the sample was not
contaminated and properly recombined.
3.3.5.3 Saturation Pressure
If the measured saturation pressure in the laboratory is greater than the measured reservoir
pressure at the point of sampling (in the case of a separator sample, this would be assumed
to be the top of perforations), then this indicates an inconsistency between the sample and
reservoir fluid. This is because the saturation pressure at the point of sampling must me less
than or equal to the reservoir pressure at the point of sampling.

The most extreme case, i.e. saturation pressure is equal to reservoir pressure, occurs at the

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Gas-Oil-Contact (GOC), where the gas and oil phase are in equilibrium such that the gas and
oil phase pressure must be the same. If we go beyond this limit, i.e. saturation pressure is
greater than reservoir pressure at the point of sampling, then this would suggest that the
reservoir is not in equilibrium and that mass transfer occurs between the gas and oil phase.
This would typically not be the case, especially not at the start of the reservoir’s life time, as
the reservoir would have equilibrated over the past millennia.

As such, if the saturation pressure is reported as being larger than the reservoir pressure,
then this could indicate inaccuracies in the lab, e.g. recombination to an incorrect GOR. Since
the lab experiments have been conducted with this recombined fluid, the procedure in this
case would be to progress with the characterisation as usual and once complete perform a
recombination to a known measurement of Psat or GOR.

3.3.6 Choice of EOS Model

Lab Report quality checked and no inconsistencies found, the characterisation process in
PVTp can be started. The first step of the process is the decision on which formulation of the
EOS should be used, Peng-Robinson (PR) or Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK). The choice
between either formulations has to be made by the engineer, however neither formulation
holds significant advantages over the other and a similar quality of characterised EOS can be
achieved with either. That being said, an important consideration in integrated modelling is that
the same EOS model should be used for all underlying models (i.e. you cannot mix and match
EOS models of a different type).

Please refer to EOS Models 385 for further information on the PR and SRK equation.

The PR EOS is used by default, but the chosen EOS model can be changed to SRK from the
Main Menu Ribbon via Home | Calculation Options.

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3.3.7 Defining the Sample

With the EOS model selected the next step is to decide which components from the lab report
are to be modelled explicitly as pure components and which ones are to be lumped together
as a pseudo component. The reasoning for lumping higher carbon number components (C7+)
together is that due to the exponentially growing number of isomers, it becomes exceedingly
difficult to identify pure components to a high degree of accuracy. The cut-off point for pure
components is somewhat arbitrary and down to the engineer’s discretion, however as a
general guide, components higher than C6 are typically lumped into a pseudo component.

With this in mind, the laboratory composition is recalculated by lumping C7 and higher into a
pseudo component (C7+) as below.

Component Mole % Molecular Weight

(g/mol)
N2 0
CO2 0.8
C1 36.22
C2 8.65 Default
C3 7.78 Database
iC4 1.94 Values
nC4 4.58
iC5 2.26
nC5 2.42
C6 3.25
C7+ 32.1 220

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Please note, N2 will be omitted from the composition as it has a zero Mol % and therefore
does not contribute to the phase behaviour.

This composition, along with other information relating to the sample will be entered into the
PVT Sample 104 data object. To add this data follow the steps below.

Double click on Add PVT Sample in the Characterisation Wizard window.

This will place a PVT Sample 104 object onto the Characterisation Window.

Double click on the PVT Sample object to open the interface. Once opened we can begin
populating some of fields with known data in the Sample Information tab. In particular the
Reservoir Conditions and Reference Conditions can be defined:

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Moving down the tabs on the left hand side, next the Select Components tab can be filled in.
This is where the pure and pseudo components can be selected as per the composition.
Select the required components, which will highlight them as shown below, and enter the
number of pseudos required.

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Once this is done press Apply. This will transfer the selection to the following tabs.

In the Enter Composition tab, enter the component mole percentages and the molecular
weight of the pseudo component. Molecular weights of the pure components will
automatically be entered best of database values.

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Moving to the Enter Lab Data tab allows us to define all the lab experiments and enter data.
To begin press Add Experiment and select the required experiments from the pop-up menu.
The following experiments need to be added:

1. Saturation Pressure
2. Constant Composition Expansion
3. Differential Liberation
4. Separator

This information can either be added manually or using the Importer. The following steps will
illustrate both methods.

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Select the Saturation Pressure experiment and enter the data shown above manually.
Ensure that care is taken with the units. This data can be found within the CCE experiment,
however entering it here identifies the saturation point explicitly allowing it to be specifically
used in the file.

Select the Constant Composition Expansion experiment and press Import From PVT
Report. Select the CCE data tab (highlighted below), highlight the cells that contain the
required data, press Set Selection as Data Table.

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Once the data is selected, press Auto-Map Remaining to automatically populate the
available data into the lab data table on the right hand side.

This transfer will try and identify the variables based on the table name (e.g. pressure can be
"pressure", "pres", "P" etc.) and identify the units. If data cannot be picked up automatically,
the it can be modified or entered manually, as is the case for the temperature.

Enter the temperature manually as below. Only one cell in the temperature column needs to
be entered, and the program will assume that the rows below are for the same temperature
until otherwise specified.

Once all the data has been imported, press OK (next to Cancel Import) to complete the
import. See screen-shot below for the clarification.

Repeat the import process for the Differential Liberation experiment.

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Select the Separator experiment and press Import From PVT Report. Select the SEP data
tab (highlighted below), highlight the cells that contain the required data, press Set Selection
as Data Table. In this case the first separator train will be used.

Once the data is selected, press Auto-Map Remaining to automatically populate the
available data into the lab data table on the right hand side. Note that the pressure units have
been automatically changed to psig.

Lastly we will want to add stock tank conditions manually, as due to the format of the stock
tank data it will not be recognised in the import.

Add to following data for stock tank conditions:

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Press OK (next to Cancel Import) to accept the imported data.

Quality Check

A mass balance can be conducted to assess whether the measured fluid properties are
consistent. The mass of a unit volume of oil and associated gas is calculated at both surface
and reservoir conditions. This can result in one of three scenarios:

Surface and Reservoir mass are consistent

o Generally good as it means that the reported properties are consistent, however
too small differences can suggest that the measurements were adjusted to ensure
mass balance.
o 0% difference is a clear sign of the lab report being modified to satisfy mass
balance, and so should not be trusted.

Small difference in the calculated Surface and Reservoir mass

o Differences are most likely due to inaccuracies in the laboratory procedures. As
such the engineer must decide which measurements carry the largest experimental
error and take this into consideration when determining a regression strategy.

Large difference in the calculated Surface and Reservoir mass

o This should be cause for concern as this suggests that the reported measurements
are not consistent. As such, the reason for this discrepancy should be investigated
before continuing with the characterisation process.

To perform this quality check, select the Mass Balance Calculator tab. Enter the required
data from the lab report, in this case data from the first separator train.

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Once all the required data has been entered press Calculate Mass Balance to perform the
calculation.

As can be seen, the mass imbalance is quite small (0.11%), which suggests that the collected
data is consistent. If the error is larger, then possible inaccuracies in the measurements
should be investigated further and also taken into consideration when developing a regression
strategy.

Now that all required data has been entered in the the sample has been defined and some
initial quality checks have been carried out. To close the PVT Sample data object, press OK.

3.3.8 Define Pseudo Component

In the PVT Sample object, a single pseudo component was defined. This component is
designed to represent all the components from C7 onwards, and as such needs to be tuned in
order to accurately do this.

Double click on Add Pseudo Properties in the Characterisation Wizard. Ensure that the

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"PVT Sample" is highlighted in the Navigation Tree 75 before doing this.

This will place a new Pseudo Properties 119 and PVT Fluid 158 object on the Characterisation
Window, connected to the PVT Sample 104 that has just been defined.

Double click on the Pseudo Properties object.

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In the window that opens, the Pseudo components' critical properties are estimated from
correlations using an input of the pseudo's molecular weight (MW), specific gravity (SG) and
boiling point temperature (BPT). The critical properties are required such that the EOS can
perform any calculations.

The MW entered in the PVT Sample 104 object has already been carried over so that only a SG
and BPT are required for the critical properties to be estimated (as the boiling temperature
mode if selected as default). If one of the three inputs is not reported in the lab data, then it
can be estimated from a correlation.

In our case, the BPT is not reported and will have to be estimated from the provided MW and
SG.

Enter the SG from the lab report and press Calculate to estimate the BPT and in turn the
critical properties.

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Note: the options for AutoMatch of Densities via BPts are selected as default, which was
specifically developed by Petroleum Experts.. This means that when the object is calculated,
the AutoMatch process will be performed unless the user decides otherwise.

The Standing Katz method for calculating liquid phase densities is known to provide accurate
results near standard conditions. As part of the AutoMatch, PVTp performs two calculations
of the liquid phase density in parallel. On the one hand, the EOS is used to calculate the K-
values for a flash to standard conditions, from which the individual phase compositions and in
turn the density can be calculated. On the other hand, the fluid is flashed to standard
conditions using K values from the Hoffmann plot, which are in turn used to determine the
phase compositions. With the composition of the liquid phase known, the Standing-Katz
method can be used to calculate the liquid phase density.

Please note that the use of K-values from the Hoffman plot, unlike the EOS, ensures that
mass balance is met, however their use is somewhat limited to ambient conditions, where the
tie lines are straight.

When AutoMatch is used, PVTp regresses on the pseudo’s critical properties to match the
liquid density predicted by the EOS to that predicted by Standing-Katz by adjusting the
pseudo's boiling point temperature. Changing the BPT, changes the value of the characteristic
function (or b-function), such that a different K-value is determined from the Hoffmann plot
(example shown below), which alters the phase composition and therefore the calculated
liquid density from Standing Katz. However, changing the BPT also changes the calculated
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critical properties (via the chosen correlations) such that different K-values and therefore
phase compositions and liquid densities are calculated. This process is repeated until either
the two methods converge, or the maximum number of iterations is exceeded. For further
information on the AutoMatch methodology, please refer to Automatch 121 .

With the pseudo properties defined, the EOS can technically be used to perform flash
calculations, however since the correlations predict generic values, the calculated fluid
behaviour may be quite different to what is observed in the lab and thus the EOS CANNOT be
used for predictive modelling. This is therefore a good point to perform a quality check on
the EOS.

Without needing to close any open windows, navigate to the Calculation tab in the Main
Menu Ribbon.

Select the Separator object and click on the Calculation Window where the object is to be
placed.

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Once the Separator 290 object is placed on the window, double click on it to open the screen.
Note that object screens will open directly on top of the object icon though can be moved
around to the users preference.

In the window that opens enter the temperature and pressure of each separator stage. This
can be done manually by either referring to the lab report itself, or the PVT Sample 104 object
can be opened and the information copied and pasted as required.

Before the separator train can be calculated, the fluid to be used must first be selected. I.e.
each of the Characterisation Objects has an "output" fluid description or EOS within it, any of
which can be used to perform a flash calculation. Therefore PVTp needs to know which of

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the EOS descriptions is to be used for this calculation.

Do one of the following:

1. Right click on the Pseudo Properties object and choose Select

2. Choose Select from the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon, then click on
the Pseudo Properties object.

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3. As the Pseudo Properties and PVT Fluid objects contain the same EOS, one of the
above option can also be done choosing the PVT Fluid object.

Once the desired object has been selected, it will appear as below:

Now the Separator object can be calculated. To do this Press Calculate within the object.

Choose the Results Table tab and select the Stage Results view.

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The calculated liquid density at standard conditions using the EOS of 835.8 kg/m3 compares
well with the reported liquid density of 814.5 kg/m3
calculated first stage GOR of 708 scf/STB and the reported GOR of 661 scf/STB in the lab
report, although seemingly very different are in fact within 10%, which is arguably an
acceptable match. This good agreement is a result of AutoMatch feature being used, and if
the user were to repeat the above process again without AutoMatch enabled, the difference
would be much larger.

At this stage we will also want to access the saturation pressure. To do this a Phase
Envelope 241 calculation object is needed.

Without needing to close any open windows, navigate to the Calculation tab in the Main
Menu Ribbon.

Select the Phase Envelope object and click on the Calculation Window where the object is
to be placed.

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Once the Phase Envelope 241 object is placed on the window, double click on it to open the
screen. Note that object screens will open directly on top of the object icon though can be
moved around to the users preference.

As the EOS within the Psuedo Properties 119 object has already been selected, the Phase
Envelope 241 object simply needs to be calculated.

Press Calculate and go to the Results Plot tab to view the phase envelope.

Note: any relevant experimental data previously entered in the PVT Sample 104 object will
automatically appear on plots, as can be seen above for the saturation pressure.

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In this case we can see that there is reasonably good agreement with the saturation pressure,
as the calculated line is within 2.7% of the lab data point.

That said, from these quality checks the following can be concluded:

Liquid density is realistic but requires further tuning to reproduce lab data
GOR requires further tuning to reproduce lab data
Psat requires further tuning to reproduce lab data

As the pseudo’s physical properties are typically determined with a large margin of error (±
10%) a match can be better achieved by changing the MW, SG and BPT.

For example, increasing the MW increases the calculate liquid density, GOR and Psat.

For now, we will focus on reproducing the liquid density and the GOR first, bearing in mind
that the GOR carries the greater margin of error, because Psat can be adjusted at a later
stage through splitting of the pseudo and introducing binary interaction coefficients.

To get a feel for how the MW, SG and BPT affect the separator and phase envelope
calculation we will want to:

1. Change one parameter at a time

2. Re-calculate the Pseudo Properties 119 data object
3. Re-calculate all of the calculation objects

Please note, this time the Automatch is not performed as this breaks the dependency of the
calculated critical properties on the entered MW, SG and BPT and therefore the impact of
changing a parameter might be lost in the automatching process.

With the above analysis complete, try to achieve as close a match between the measured and
calculated liquid phase density and GOR by changing the MW and SG only. For this the
following steps could be used.

1. Change a parameter in the Pseudo Properties object

2. Press Calculate to estimate the BPT and critical properties, ensuring that the
AutoMatch options are selected to ensure the calculated liquid phase density is
realistic
3. Press Calculate Objects to re-calculate all the calculation objects at once for quality
checking, i.e. Separator 290 and Phase Envelope 241 objects to compare calculated to
measured results

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4. Repeat if necessary

One possible combination that fits the data well is shown below, though it should be noted that
there are multiple solutions that could work equally well. To ensure comparable results are
achieved please enter a MW of 230 g/mol and a SG of 0.85, as otherwise the results of all
subsequent steps will be different from this guide.

3.3.8.1 Pseudo Splitting

The EOS now reproduces the liquid density within about 0.7% and the first stage GOR within
about 0.6%. This is sufficiently close that the remainder can be achieved via the regression
by adjusting for example the volume shift. The Psat however is only around 1987 psig
compared to 2076 psig in the lab report and requires further tuning. As such the aim for the
next step will be to expand the phase envelope, whilst maintaining the match on the liquid
density and GOR.

Before introducing Binary Interaction Coefficients (BICs), we will first attempt to expand the
phase envelope and increase Psat by splitting the pseudo into smaller constituent pseudo
components. For this, we will first use correlations to estimate a composition profile and then
lump these constituent pseudo components together into a number of pseudo components.

Introducing additional pseudo components, increases the granularity, i.e. increasing the phase
envelope as there are now components with higher Tcs and lower Pcs than before, and also
the degrees of freedom giving the regression more flexibility to perform the matching.

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Open the Pseudo Properties object by double clicking on it. Go to the Split Pseudo tab.

Note that pseudo splitting is initially disabled, so in order to evaluate splitting options this will
need to be enabled.

To get a feel for how the shape of the composition and the number of constituent pseudo
components affect the phase envelope, and separator calculation

1. Set the split to Last Pseudo

2. Change one parameter at a time (Method/Alpha factor)
3. Choose the preferred profile
4. Move to the Split tab
5. Try different Split Numbers
6. Recalculate the Pseudo Properties 119 object.
7. Recalculate all the calculation objects to quality check the split (Separator 290 and
Phase Envelope 241 objects)

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Initially, the aim will be to try and reproduce the compositional profile from the lab report, as
this will ensure that the composition is consistent, which is especially important when
performing compositional tracking. However, it has to be remembered at the components do
not represent any real-life counter parts, as they rather represent a group of components, and
as such it is possible to divert from the reported profile. That said, the original profile, is
usually a good starting point.

In our case however, the composition is only reported up until C6 and all subsequent
components are lumped into the C7+ component. This gives us relative freedom with the
choice of profile that we can follow, but we should aim to have a C7 composition that is just
below the reported composition of C6.

Through this investigation, it can be found that with the Whitson method it is possible to
produce more complex profile shapes, however in this case the most natural seeming trend is
produced using the Petroleum Experts 2 method.

Therefore, select Petroleum Experts 2 as the profile method in the Profile tab.

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Next split the original Pseudo into 6 constituent pseudo components.

Go to the Split tab, enter a Split Number of 6. Check AutoMatch to adjust the critical
properties such that the calculated liquid density is the same as that calculated with the
original pseudo component only. Press Calculate.

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Press Calculate Objects.

Review the Phase Envelope 241 and Separator 290 calculation object results.

3.3.8.1.1 Pseudo Split Quality Check

As an additional quality check, the degree of normalisation applied to the split profile should
be verified before accepting the pseudo split. The reason for this is that the calculated MW
and SG of the constituent components may not add up to that of the original pseudo
component, so that scaling is applied when they do not. This is particularly problematic when
using the Whitson method. Excessive normalisation is not desirable as it can result in the
natural MW and SG trends from the correlations not being maintained.

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To check the degree of normalisation applied, the normalisation first needs to be disabled. In
the Split Pseudo tab select the No Values Adjusted mode for MW and SG normalisation
respectively. In the table at the bottom of the screen, it can now be seen that the entered
pseudo properties and the calculated totals are not in perfect agreement.

Since in this case the differences themselves are small, the degree of normalisation is
acceptable. That said, if the differences were significant then the user may wish to review the
splitting method.

The Select Best function can be used to try and automatically reduce the differences by
automatically selecting the best split settings.

For the example, switch the Properties Normalisation modes back to the default of All
Values Adjusted.

3.3.8.2 Binary Interaction Coefficients

With the chosen Pseudo split, the EOS now reproduces the reported liquid density, GOR and
Psat at reservoir conditions. In fact, the calculated Psat actually slightly exceeds the reported,
such that additional stretching of the phase envelope is not a requirement.

With this in mind, there is no direct need for the use of binary interaction coefficients (BICs),
however they could still be included, albeit small values, to provide the regression with
additional flexibility.

Go to the BIC Input Data tab in the Pseudo Properties object.

Check Add Binary Interaction Coefficients and press Calculate. This will populate the
table as per the chosen correlation as below:

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Calculate the Phase Envelope object to check is the envelope is physical, and it should be
noted that it is now too large, as expected.

In our case, it was decided to progress with BICs (though not exactly required) and limiting
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the maximum value of BICs to 0.01. To do this:

Check Set Max Value To and enter 0.005. Press Calculate.

This results in the following Phase Envelope, and although the calculated saturation pressure
is higher than desired, we know that this can be corrected during the Regression 516 stage.

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3.3.8.3 Pseudo Output Fluid

This final tab of the Pseudo Properties object is the Output Fluid tab. This tab is continually
being updated as pseudo component is defined. As can be seen below, this tab will show all
the EOS properties that have been set/defined. An important thing to note here is that this
particular interface is read only. While the user can view all the properties, they cannot be
modified. If any variables need to be modified, this can be done within a PVT Fluid 158 object.

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In this particular example, the fluid does not require any manual overriding.

3.3.9 Regression
The regression is the penultimate step of the characterisation process, in which the EOS is
fine-tuned to the laboratory experiments. The fine-tuning is performed by adjusting the critical
properties, volume shifts and BICs, such that the difference between the reported and
calculated parameters is minimised.

The overall objective for the regression stage is to not only reproduce the liquid density and
GOR but also to tune the EOS, such that the saturation pressure, at reference conditions and
the remaining data generated during the lab experiments, i.e. CCE, separator test, etc, can
be reproduced. The current EOS already gives a relatively close match on the stock tank
liquid density, GOR and Psat, however the liquid density at reservoir conditions is currently not
being reproduced and requires further refining.

As such the objectives for the regression are as follows:

1. Match liquid density

2. Match GOR
3. Match Psat
4. Reproduce laboratory experiments

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3.3.9.1 Strategy
To achieve the objectives above, the pseudo properties, i.e. Tc, Pc, BICs and Volume Shifts
will be adjusted to minimise the error between the lab and calculated data. However, since
the regression is merely a mathematical tool it is important to first develop a regression
strategy, and to quality check the results after each regression step to prevent unnatural
property trends being accepted. A regression strategy could be developed as follows:

1. Create a list of the current objectives and rank them in order of declining importance.
2. Consider what pseudo properties affect each of the objectives and by how much, i.e.
how does objective X change by changing Y.
3. Consider how changing the selected properties for regression affect the other
objectives.
4. Consider which parameters would be more difficult to readjust at a later stage and
thus decide on a suitable anchor point.

However, before we start considering the above, we should take a moment to gain an
overview of how well the current EOS reproduces the lab experiments. As the lab data has
already been entered in the PVT Sample object, direct comparisons can already be made.
Taking the lab experiments in turn we will go through the process of add the appropriate
Calculation Data Object 241 and running a calculation:

CCE:

Select the Constant Composition Expansion object from the Main Menu Ribbon and place
it on the Calculation Window in the desired location.

Double click on the Constant Composition Expansion 258 object to open it.

In the window that opens, specify the temperature and pressure range over which the

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simulation is to be performed.

For the CCE we are only interested in the oil density and viscosity and thus it is not required
to specify a separator train. If additional data, such as the GOR had been provided in the lab
report, then the same separator train as used in the experiment would need to be specified.
This is because the GOR is path dependent and thus using a different separator train would
result in a different GOR to be calculated.

Press Calculate.

Go to the Results Plot tab and view the desired plots by selecting the variables from the Y-
axis menus:

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It can be seen that the EOS (within the Pseudo Properties object) reproduces the general
trend of the oil density in undersaturated conditions, however the calculated density is
consistently being overestimated.

Similarly the EOS reproduces the general trend of the oil viscosity in undersaturated
conditions, although generally speaking the results are not very close to the reported values.

DiffLib:

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Select the Differential Liberation object from the Main Menu Ribbon and place it on the
Calculation Window in the desired location, as was done for the CCE.

Double click on the Differential Liberation 274 object to open it.

Please note, by the nature of the DiffLib experiment, the composition of the fluid remaining in
the container will begin to change as the pressure is reduced below saturation since the gas
evolved is removed from the cell. As such, the residual oil volume, which is used to calculate
the GOR and Oil FVF for the DiffLib experiment, is path dependent, i.e. the conditions the fluid
is exposed to over the course of the experiment. If slightly different temperatures and
pressure are specified or whole stages are omitted, then the residual oil volume and thus
GOR and Oil FVF will be different.

Therefore enter the exact pressure stages used during the DiffLib experiment:

Press Calculate.

Go to the Results Plot tab and view the desired plots by selecting the variables from the Y-
axis menus:

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Above saturation pressure the CCE and DiffLib provide equivalent results as the composition
is constant since no gas is evolved that could be removed from the cells. As such, as we
already observed in the CCE experiment, whilst the EOS reproduces the general trend, it
overestimates the liquid density.

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As can be seen from the graphs above, the calculated GOR and Oil FVF trends are in
relatively close agreement with lab report, though not good enough.

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SEP:

The Separator object already exists in the Calculation Window as this was created earlier
during an earlier step 496 .

Double click on the Separator 290 object to open it and press Calculate to recalculate the
results.

Go to the Results Table tab and select the Stage Results view:

The calculated liquid density of 819.9 kg/m3 compares well with the reported value of 814.5
kg/m3 and the calculated GOR of 669 scf/stb also compares well to the reported value of 661
scf/stb.

In summary, the EOS currently provides an adequate description of most of the fluid's
properties, i.e. the liquid density and GOR from the SEP experiment, the liquid density and
viscosity above saturation from the CCE and also the GOR and Oil FVF from the DiffLib
experiment. However, a current short coming is the EOS's inability to reproduce the
measured densities below saturation from the DiffLib Experiment.

Now take a moment to consider the these outcomes and the steps above to develop a
possible regression strategy. An example of the development of a possible regression
strategy for this fluid can be seen below.

Example:
1. Create a list of the current objectives and rank them in order of declining
importance.
From the analysis above it can be concluded that the liquid density below the bubble point in
the DiffLib experiment requires the most improvement and would thus rank highly on our list.

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Psat, is slightly too high and would thus rank below the saturated liquid density. The other
parameters, liquid density above the bubble point, the liquid density at standard conditions,
GOR and Oil FVF, are already quite close to the reported lab data so that significant tuning is
not required and they would therefore rank low. In our case, this list could look as follows:

Importan Property
ce
High Saturated Liquid
Density
Saturated Oil Viscosity
Psat
GOR
Low Standard conditions
density

2. Consider what pseudo properties affect each of the objectives and by how
much, i.e. how does objective X change by changing Y.
We know that of the above, all properties but Psat are affected by Tc, Pc, BICs and VolShift,
which is in fact independent of the VolShift. A thus a regression could be performed only on
the VolShift, however as the difference between the measured and calculated density from
the DiffLib is quite large at low pressures, this could result in over-fitting and can sometimes
lead to negative densities being calculated under some conditions. As the DiffLib experiment is
path dependent and the liquid densities begin below the bubble point, this could be a sign of
the phase behaviour not being fully captured. As such, though brute force, a possible
regression approach would be to regress on all parameters as once.The table above can then
be expanded to include the regression parameters.

Importan Property Parameter

ce
High Saturated Liquid Tc, Pc, BICs, VolShift
Density
Saturated Oil Viscosity Vc
Psat Tc, Pc, BICs
GOR Tc, Pc, BICs, VolShift
Low Standard conditions Tc, Pc, BICs, VolShift
density

3. Consider how changing the selected properties for regression affect the other
objectives.
As the calculated density is higher than the measured, the VolShift would need to be reduced
to reduce the liquid density, which in turn would reduce the calculated GOR and Oil FVF,
which we know to be already close to the lab data. Similarly, reducing Tc and increasing Pc
should result in lower liquid density, as more of the lighter components will remain in the liquid
phase, however this also has knock on effects on the GOR, Oil FVF and probably most

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significantly the saturation pressure. The BICs could compensate for the reduction in Tc and
increase in Pc, however the use of large BICs can lead to significant distortions to the phase
envelope and unphysical behaviour.

With the above in mind, it can often be helpful to introduce “anchor points”, to prevent the EOS
from drifting too far away from certain parameters (e.g. Psat). However the use of too many
anchor points at any given time reduces the degrees of freedom and may thus prevent the
regression to achieve its primary objective. As such the number of anchor points should be
kept to a minimum.

4. Consider which parameters would be more difficult to readjust at a later stage

and thus decide on a suitable anchor point.
Referring back to our example, regressing on the liquid density below saturation alone using
Tc, Pc, BICs and VolShift, will affect the liquid density above saturation, GOR, Psat etc. As
we are already regressing using all parameters, it will be difficult to adjust the remaining
properties at a later regression stage, without undoing already made progress. As such Psat,
the Separator density and GOR as well as the liquid density at and above saturation would be
suitable anchor points.

In summary, the objective of the initial, and ideally the final, regression step will be to adjust
the critical properties, BICs and VolShift, to match the liquid density below the bubble point,
whilst maintaining our match on the the liquid density above the bubble point or at standard
conditions, the separator GOR and Psat.

3.3.9.1.1 Best Practice

Before the regression is started it is also worthwhile to discuss best practice during the
regression. As such, please refer to the Regression Best Practices 151 section.

3.3.9.2 Primary Regression

We will now perform the initial regression on the liquid density, Psat and Separator density
and GOR, which act as anachor point, using Tc, Pc, BICs and VolShift of the pseudo
components.

Double click on Add Regression in the Characterisation Wizard. Ensure that the "PVT
Sample" is highlighted in the Navigation Tree 75 before doing this.

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This will place a new Regression 137 and another PVT Fluid 158 object on the Characterisation
Window, connected to the PVT Fluid 158 that has just been defined.

Double click on the Regression object

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The first tab is the Lab Data Weightings tab. This is where any data points that we do not
want to be included in the regression can be excluded and other data points can be set with
specific weightings. The idea being that the selecting fewer data points to match to will give
the regression algorithm flexibility and additional degrees of freedom to achieve a good match.

As the experimental data has already been added to the PVT Sample 104 object, all of the data
is automatically populated into the Regression 137 data object. Taking each experiment in turn:

Saturation Pressure

As the saturation pressure is definitely something that we will want to match to, this data will
be left included.

It should be noted at obtaining accurate measurement at the bubble point, especially for near
critical fluid is difficult, as the liquid and vapour phase become hard to differentiate. To avoid
these uncertainties, one may wish to instead regress on a fluid density near rather than at
Psat.

Constant Composition Expansion

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Select the Constant Composition Expansion from the Laboratory Experiment list. Here the
liquid density and viscosity are of particular importance. For the Relative Volume it is the
slope of the curve rather than the absolute values that is of greater importance since it is
directly linked to the fluid compressibility.

Any data we are unlikely to use in the regression, such as the relative volume or erroneous
data, can be excluded by selecting the relevant data points and then pressing Exclude.
Additionally, we may wish to exclude some data point in order to speed up the regression.

The process of deciding which data points to exclude, can be aided by plotting the entered
data as a function of pressure and temperature, to identify outlier/unphysical behaviour. This
can be achieved by opening the PVT Sample and Regression objects side by side. The data
can be plotted in the PVT Sample object, and the respective data points included/excluded in
the Regression object.

For example, when plotting the liquid density and zooming in on the density profile above
bubble point, it can be seen that the curve appears to be slightly kinked near the bubble point,
see image below. This data point is best best excluded to avoid the EOS fine tuned to
reproduce this density profile.

For the CCE, exclude the following:

All relative volume points

The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th entry of the liquid viscosity
Every second entry of the oil density.

Differential Liberation

Care should be taken when matching directly to the differential liberation experiment as the
results are more difficult to obtain, adjustments to the results to ensure mass balance are not

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uncommon, last stage may be bled before equilibrium is established and thermal expansion of
the vessel at ambient conditions can also affect the results.

Similarly to the CCE experiment, the liquid density but also the gas oil ratio and oil formation
volume factor are important.

Exclude the following points:

The 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th and 12th entry of the Oil FVF
The 2nd to 6th, 9th and 11th entry of the Solution GOR

Weightings can be assigned to data that is less trusted, for example due to inherent
experimental inaccuracies, the original mass balance calculation was off or it is desired for the
regression to take smaller steps. To assign a weighting:

1. Select the relevant data points

2. Select the weighting from the drop down box (10, highest, is default).
3. Data points with weightings assigned will appear blue.

Now, assign a weighting of 6 to all entries in the oil density column.

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Separator

The GOR from the first separator stage and the liquid density at standard conditions are of
particular importance. The reason for this being that on the first separator stage most of the
gas is evolved (i.e. the uncertainty in the measurement is lower) and because it is easiest to
obtain an accurate oil sample at standard conditions.

By the time we get to the regression stage, the EOS should already be somewhat
reproducing the first stage GOR and liquid phase density at standard conditions and thus do
not require significant tuning. Nonetheless they are included in the regression as they act as
an anchor point, which prevents the EOS from drifting too far from the former, however we
want them to have a small impact on the error function or otherwise the regression would be
too constrained and thus unable to match the other parameters.

Exclude the following:

1. the Oil FVF

2. The second stage GOR

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set the following weightings:

1. The liquid density at standard conditions to a weighting of 7.

2. The first stage GOR to a weighting of 5.

Once done go to the Regression Inputs tab.

In this tab the select the following match variables:

1. PSAT - Saturation Pressure

2. SEP - Oil Density
3. SEP - Gas Oil Ratio
4. DIFLIB - Oil Density

Set the regression algorithm to Levenberg-Marquardt.

Set the Match Using to Tcs Pcs Afs with Multiplier on Each Property.

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Please note, it is generally recommended that the matching is perform on the basis of the
CCE rather than the DIFLIB experiment as this provides a more realistic evolution of the fluid
in the reservoir and well. In fact, both experiments provide near identical results at medium to
high pressures, especially above the bubble point where they are in fact equivalent since the
composition is constant. This is discussed in more detail in the Appendix 453 .

Typically, matching is performed against the CCE experiment with the DiffLib being used as a
means of validating the fluid characterisation. In this case, as there is only little data available
from the CCE experiment, the DiffLib experiment will be used for matching.

Go to the Regression Variables tab.

Select the Tcs, Pcs, VolShifts and BICs of all pseudo components and in the case of the
VolShifts also the pure components except CO2.

The easiest way to do this is to:

1. Set Allow Pure Tc Pc to No.

2. Select All On.
3. Clear the AF
4. Uncheck the CO2 Vol. Shift
5. Ensure the C1 and All Pseudos to Same Value for the BICs

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Press Calculate at the bottom of the object.

Wait until the regression is complete. A progress bar will be displayed and in the top right
corner the calculated error after each iteration is shown.

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3.3.9.2.1 Primary Quality Check

Once the regression is complete, i.e. the error is within a tolerance, the iterations have been
exceeded or no further improvements can be made, the Regression Error Details and Output
Fluid tabs will become active.

The liquid density above and below the bubble point, the saturation pressure and GOR have
all been matched to a high degree of accuracy as can be seen by the errors above in the
Regression Error Details tab. From this it can be concluded, that we appear to have met all
of our primary regression objectives.

Next, it is important to verify that the calculated critical properties (Tc and Pc) follow smooth
physical trends. If there are discontinuities such as step changes this can be as sign of the
regression over compensating for another variable or the variable not having a large effect on
the regressed property. This can be investigated by plotting the critical temperature and
pressure as a function of the component number.

To do this go to the Output Fluid tab and select the Plot tab.

From here we can plot the critical pressure and temperature profiles, as shown below. This
will by default plot the EOS feeding into the Regression object and the EOS created within the
Regression object for comparison.

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From the plot above, it can be seen that the critical temperature has not changed significantly
and appears to follow a physical trend. The critical pressures have been slightly reduced and
if anything now follow an even more natural profile.

If the critical properties and/or phase envelope are found to be unphysical or the surface
properties change significantly, then the regression strategy requires review. As part of this
review it should be established whether the pre-regression EOS provides a good enough
description of the fluid behaviour as the regression is only intended for fine tuning. If this is not
the case then the pseudo properties, the pseudo profile and splitting as well as BICs could be
reviewed. Alternatively, the property causing the behaviour, e.g. unphysical phase envelope
due to large BICs, could be omitted from the regression or the regression could be repeated
using only the heaviest components.

3.3.10 Validation
As the error results of the primary regression run are satisfactory, we now need to validate
the EOS against all available lab data to ensure that the EOS is representative of the fluid in a
variety of scenarios. The procedure for this validation is to simulate the lab experiments the
same as when we previously quality checked the EOS prior to the primary regression.

The calculation objects for each of the experiments should be recalculated to allow
comparison with the before- and after-regression EOS.

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This can be done by "selecting" the Regression object, as shown below, by choosing Select
from the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon:

Press Calculate Objects at the bottom of the screen. This will calculate all the Calculation
Objects for both selected EOS's.

Below we will go through each of the experiments to validate the new EOS.

Phase Envelope

Opening the phase envelope will allow us to compare the phase envelope before and after the
regression was performed, as shown below:

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As we can see, the "Regression" stream is the new EOS and it reproduces the saturation
pressure (at reservoir temperature) very well.

Separator

From the Separator experiment, it can be seen that the liquid density and first stage GOR
match well against the lab data, both within a 0.1% difference.

From the Separator results it is also possible to drill down further into the stage by stage
results. Go to the Detailed Results tab.

One can then go through the stages and investigate how the composition of the vapour and
liquid phase changes after each stage. Additionally it is possible to plot the Hoffman quality
plot by pressing Quality, to check whether a physically consistent flash is performed. If the
lighter components all lie on a straight line, then this means that a consistent flash is
calculated. Heavier components, i.e. the last pseudo components can deviate from the line of
best fit, see Hoffman quality plot for the first separator stage below. Extreme curvature can
be a sign of data inconsistencies, however as most components are on or close to the straight
line, this suggests the calculated K values are consistent.

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Constant Composition Expansion

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The liquid density above saturation is reproduced well however the liquid viscosity, especially
below saturation is currently not being reproduced and requires further matching.

Differential Liberation

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The liquid density above and below saturation match closely against the lab data however
there is a small deviation between the measured and calculated Oil FVF and GOR.

In conclusion, the EOS now reproduces all the lab experiments satisfactorily apart from the
liquid viscosity below the bubble point. That said, there is also room to improve the match on
GOR and Oil FVF in the differential liberation, however doing so will compromise the match
already achieved for the other properties.

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Traditionally the decision to accept a match or try to regress further would have been a
challenging one, as no-one wants to risk losing the match they have worked hard to achieve
already by trying to match too heavily and moving into an unphysical space. With the Data
Object Approach 36 , this decision can be easily made, as no EOS is overwritten so the user
can choose which EOS is the official final version.

With this in mind we will now perform a second regression to try and improve the overall
match of the fluid by including the Oil FVF and GOR from the Differential Liberation
experiment in the regression.

3.3.11 Second Regression

We will now manually add an additional Regression object, however as we want to keep many
of the same parameters as previously used, we will do this by making a copy of the first
Regression object.

Right click on the Regression object.

Select Copy from the menu. Right click in an empty space and select Paste.

Change the input connection to the new object to be from the PVT Fluid_1 object. Do this
using the Connect function in the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon.

Once created, right click on the object and select Change Label. Set the new name to "2nd
Regression".

Open the 2nd Regression object and go to the Regression Inputs tab. Here we want to
leave all the parameters already selected but include the DIFLIB Oil FVF and Solution GOR.
As we do not want to make too many changes, we will set the weighting to medium, as
shown below:

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Press Calculate to begin the regression.

3.3.11.1 Second Validation QC

As before we will want to view the Regression Errors and component critical property
distributions as detailed in the Primary Quality Check 534 section.

3.3.12 Second Validation

As before, now is the time to check the state of the EOS against the lab data to hopefully see
some improvement on the match we achieved after the first Regression.

The calculation objects for each of the experiments should now be recalculated to allow
comparison of the Regression and 2nd Regression EOS model.

This can be done by "selecting" the 2nd Regression object, as shown below, by choosing
Select from the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon:

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Press Calculate Objects at the bottom of the screen. This will calculate all the Calculation
Objects for both selected EOS's.

Below we will go through each of the experiments to validate the 2nd Regression EOS.

Phase Envelope

Opening the phase envelope will allow us to compare the phase envelope before and after the
regression was performed, as shown below:

As we can see, the "Regression" stream is the new EOS and it reproduces the saturation
pressure (at reservoir temperature) very well.

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Separator

From the Separator experiment, it can be seen that the liquid density and first stage GOR
match well against the lab data, with a 0.06% and 0.3% difference respectively.

Constant Composition Expansion

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The liquid density above saturation is reproduced well however the liquid viscosity, especially
below saturation is currently not being reproduced and requires further matching.

Differential Liberation

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The liquid density above and below saturation and Oil FVF match closely against the lab data
and there is a marked improvement to the GOR match.

In conclusion, the EOS now reproduces all the lab experiments satisfactorily apart from the
liquid viscosity below the bubble point. So we will now perform a separate Regression for the
viscosity.

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3.3.13 Viscosity Regression

As all parameters except for the CCE oil viscosity are now matching, this next section will
focus on perfroming a specific regression for the viscosity.

The oil viscosity can be calculated using a number of models, which are explained in further
detail under Engineering Theory and Calculations 412 , and the most commonly used being the
Lohrenz Bray Clark model. As the model was originally developed for gases, its predictions
for oils are often inaccurate, meaning that matching against lab data needs to be performed.
The matching against lab data can be performed twofold by regressing on the components
critical volumes or on the LBC coefficients used in its formulation. As such, the viscosity can
be matched without undoing progress made as part of the previous regressions on the insitu
densities, since the critical volume is not used in any other property calculation.

Matching against different viscosity models such as Pedersen et al. is performed using a
multiplier and a shift rather than regressing on the critical properties. This is because these
models are dependent on Tc and Pc instead of Vc and therefore progress made in a previous
regression could be undone.

We will now manually add an additional Regression object, again using the approach of
making a copy of the first Regression object. This is simply to make it a faster process as

Right click on the Regression object.

Select Copy from the menu. Right click in an empty space and select Paste.

Change the input connection to the new object to be from the PVT Fluid_1 object. Do this
using the Connect function in the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon.

Once created, right click on the object and select Change Label. Set the new name to
"Viscosity Regression".

Open the Viscosity Regression object and go to the Regression Inputs tab.

Set the Regression On to Viscosity using the drop down menu and check the CCE - Oil
Viscosity, as shown below:

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Go to the Regression Variables tab. Select All On and press Calculate.

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Once the regression is complete the Regression Error Details can be viewed, as done
previously.

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From the results above, it can be seen that the liquid viscosity has been closely matched to
the test data. This can be further verified by recalculating the CCE experiment and
comparing the calculated against the measured viscosity, as shown below.

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The calculated oil viscosity provides a good match against the lab data from medium to low
pressures, although at higher pressures some deviation from the lab data is observed.
However, as the reservoir pressure is at around 2340 psia a production simulation will not
suffer from the deviation at higher pressures as these pressures will not be encountered
naturally in the reservoir.

3.3.13.1 Additional Validation

More extensive EOS validation in addition to simulating the Lab experiments is recommended
because with each additional validation, the confidence the predictive nature of the
characterised EOS is increased. For example, one such additional validation step would be to
use it as the fluid description in a PROSPER model and to test whether well test data can
reproduced through time. This is covered in more detail in Example 4 643 .

3.3.14 Regression Summary

From the EOS validation procedure, it can be concluded that the EOS has been
characterised, as it is now possible to reproduce all lab experiments, meaning that for the
conditions of the experiments a consistent fluid description is provided. Before progressing
and pursuing a number of modelling objectives with the now characterised EOS, let us
perform a brief review of the characterisation process.

1. First we performed a review of the lab data available and also its quality, because the
characterisation is fundamentally driven by the lab data. We found that we had
sufficient and more importantly consistent data available. This was then loaded into
PVTp.
2. The EOS model was chosen and in this case the Peng-Robinson description was

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selected.
3. The pure components were selected and their composition entered
4. All lab data was imported.
5. Then the pseudo component properties were defined by entering the MW, SG and
BPT from the Lab Report
6. A separator experiment was simulated to demonstrate that the EOS in its current
form is unable to predict the liquid density or GOR at standard conditions.
i. The MW, SG, and BPT were adjusted in order to match the reported liquid phase
density and GOR using the Automatch procedure and performing the quality
checks after each iteration.
ii. As the EOS was unable to reproduce the Psat, we then split the pseudo by
deciding on a composition profile and the number of components to split this profile
into. We retained the match on the liquid density and GOR, by performing the
Automatch to the previously determined liquid density from the original composition
and performing the quality checks after each iteration.
iii. To provide the EOS with additional flexibility BICs were introduced, ensuring they
are not too large to avoid distortions of the phase envelope. The quality checks
were performed after each iteration.
7. Then the penultimate phase of the characterisation, the regression was performed to
fine-tune the EOS against the lab experiments
i. A Regression Strategy was developed to ensure each regression step is
performed with a clear objective in mind, to prevent undoing already made
progress at a previous regression stage.
ii. The Lab data was then entered, weightings assigned to less reliable data points
and excluding some data from the regression altogether.
iii. The primary regression step was then performed, by regressing on the insitu liquid
density from the DiffLib experiment whilst using the saturation pressure, GOR and
Separator liquid density as an anchor point. After the regression, the results were
quality checked by checking the Tc and Pc profiles, the separator test, the Phase
Envelope and determining whether the regression objective had been achieved.
iv. A second regression step was performed to fine tune the existing match, and
achieved a better overall match.
8. The EOS was fully validated against the lab experiments, by simulating the different
lab experiments and comparing the results to the lab report. The EOS was found to
reproduce all Lab Experiments, apart from the oil viscosity from the CCE experiment.
9. Additional regression was then performed to match the calculated against the
measured viscosity. After the regression the results were quality checked and
validated by simulating the CCE experiment
10.As the EOS was able to reproduce all Lab Experiments and the critical properties
follow a natural trend, it was concluded that the EOS was successfully characterised.

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3.3.15 EOS Export

The final thing to do is to export the EOS so that is can be used in an integrated model. To
do this, follow the steps below.

Double click on Add Export in the Characterisation Wizard. Ensure that the "Viscosity
Regression" is highlighted in the Navigation Tree 75 before doing this.

This will place a new EOS Export 553 object on the Characterisation Window, connected to the
last regression 137 object.

Double click on the EOS Export object. Select the IPM EoS Composition format.

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Select Browse and map to the location where the EOS is to be saved, giving it an appropriate
name.

Once ready, press Export at the bottom of the window to create the selected file format.

3.3.16 What to do next?

The EOS has now been characterised and has been shown to reproduce the Lab
experiments, meaning that it can now be applied to achieve a variety of modelling objectives,
some of which are described below.

• Fluid Description
The EOS can now be used to describe the fluid behaviour, i.e. phase changes, and also to
calculate its properties, i.e. density, viscosity etc. With this it is now possible to for example
use the EOS as the fluid description in a reservoir, well or process model. For examples on
how to build compositional models in MBAL, PROSPER, GAP and REVEAL, please refer to
the Examples in the respective User Guides.

• Flow Assurance
Common Flow Assurance concerns such as Wax/Hydrate and Salt/Scale formation can also
be addressed using the newly characterised EOS. For example the formation envelopes can
be calculated to gauge whether Wax, Hydrates and/or Salt formation is likely to be an issue

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over the field’s life time. If this is the case, management strategies can be developed to
counteract the adverse effects of solids appearance. For example in the case of Hydrate
formation, it is possible to calculate the required composition of an inhibitor, e.g. methanol, to
prevent hydrate formation, this and further examples of solids management are discussed in
the Flow Assurance Manual. For examples on how these types of Flow Assurance
calculations are performed in PVTp, please refer to the Hydrates 705 , Wax 698 and Salt 722
examples.

• Lumping Rule
As discussed previously, certain models have different requirements in terms of the granularity
of the components modelled explicitly. For example, for a reservoir simulator typically fewer
components are modeled explicitly in order to reduce the models run time, whereas in a
process model the full composition is required to ensure more accurate results. As such, when
building a full integrate model, one has two options, either to cater to each models needs
individually or to use a global fluid description and to compromise.

To achieve the former, PVTp can be used to develop a lumping rule, which translates the
lumped composition used in the reservoir simulator to the full composition used in the process
model. For an example of this, please refer to Lumping/Delumping 672 .

• Recombination
If the sample in the laboratory was recombined to an incorrect GOR, due to inaccurate
measurements in the field, or the measured saturation pressure in the lab is unphysical in the
field, i.e. Psat is higher than measured reservoir pressure, then the fluid composition can be
recombined to a Target GOR or Psat. For an example of this, please refer to Recombination
650 .

• Decontamination
If the sample is thought to have been contaminated during the sampling, i.e. the profile
appears unnatural (e.g. peaks in the composition for higher components), then a
decontamination can be performed in PVTp to remove the contaminants from the
composition. For an example of how a decontamination can be performed in PVTp, please
refer to Decontamination 625 .

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3.4 Example 2 - Retrograde Condensate

This guide intends to demonstrate the thinking process behind characterising a fluid - in this
case a retrograde condensate in PVTp, which are typically regarded as being more
challenging.

It should be noted that this is not a guide of the essential steps for matching any fluid - this is
because every fluid is different, has its own challenges and by definition there are multiple
solutions as well as pathways to a particular solution.

In order to begin this example, open an instance of PVTp and Create a New File:

3.4.1 Scenario
A condensate reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully
integrated model is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated
model encapsulates a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as
a process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated. As such the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather than a
Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

A fluid sample was taken and analysed in a laboratory. The engineer has been tasked with
using the lab data to develop an EOS for the reservoir fluid using PVTp.

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3.4.2 Workflow Summary

QC Lab Report:
The first step in building an EOS description of a fluid is to quality check the laboratory results.
This can be done by establishing whether the data available is sufficient to describe the fluid’s
behaviour over the range of conditions it will be exposed to over the field’s life time. With this
in place, for example plotting the composition as a function of carbon number can show
whether the determined composition is physical.

Lab Data Entry:

In order to continually quality check the validity of the EOS, we will want to be able to
reproduce the laboratory experiments, hence the lab data needs to be entered.

Define Pure Components:

With the Lab Report quality checked, the engineer then needs to decide which components to
model explicitly as pure components and which components to lump together as a pseudo
component. Once this has been completed, the fluid composition can be entered.

Define Pseudo Components:

To start performing flash calculations with the EOS at this stage, the critical properties of the
pseudo component need to be defined. Correlations may be used to estimate these
properties from the pseudo’s molecular weight (MW), specific gravity (SG) and boiling point
temperature (BPT).

The aim at this stage is to get the EOS to roughly reproduce the liquid phase density and
GOR at standard conditions as well as the saturation pressure at reservoir conditions.
Splitting pseudo and introducing binary interaction coefficients (BICs) can also be used to
achieve this.

Regression:
The EOS can then be fine-tuned in an attempt to reproduce the lab experiments by regressing
on the critical properties, acentric factor, volume shift and BICs. Multiple regressions can be
performed in series, but the results must always be validated against simulated lab
experiments and possess a natural distribution of critical properties etc. Weightings can be
applied to the entered data in order to steer the regression towards more important
parameters and to reflect uncertainties associated with some lab measurements. Some data
can also be excluded from the regression, to simplify the regression.

If an unnatural distribution is determined, or the EoS insufficiently describes the fluid

behaviour, then the user should return to their pseudo split definition and regression strategy
and repeat the process.

Validation:

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Once the EOS reproduces the lab experiments and the critical properties exhibit natural
trends, additional validation against real-life process data is required. The reason for this is
that the fluid used to perform the experiments in the laboratory may in fact not be fully
representative of the actual reservoir fluid. To understand whether the fluid sample was
representative of the reservoir fluid a more "holistic" approach needs to be takes a wider
range of data into consideration, for example:

Historical Well Tests

Repeat Formation Tests (RFTs)

EOS Application:
The validated EOS model can then be used for flow assurance calculations, e.g. hydrate and
wax formation, to build the integrated production model, i.e. deriving a lumping/delumping rule
to meet the requirements of the various models within the integrated model (simulator, well,
surface network and process model).

The general workflow is summarised in the graphic below.

For the purposes of this example, we will use the Characterisation Wizard 76 to help guide us
through this workflow.

3.4.3 Data Available

The following data is at the engineer’s disposal:
• Fluid composition
• Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment
• Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) experiment
• Separator (SEP) experiment

3.4.3.1 Reservoir Conditions

Units
Reservoir Pressure 9236.3 psig
Reservoir 241 °F

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Temperature
Reservoir Depth 13000 ft

3.4.3.2 Composition
Compone
Mol%
nt
N2 0.9
H2S 0
CO2 1.66
C1 70.55
C2 10.75
C3 4.63
nC4 2.45
nC5 1.66
C6 1.09
C7 6.31

C7+ Properties
Molecular Weight 205 g/mol
Specific Gravity 0.82

3.4.3.3 CCE Experiment

Gas Retrograde
Relative Retrograde Liquid
Pressure Deviation Liquid Deposit
Volume, Deposit (1),
, (psig) Factor, (2),
(V/Vsat) (vol %)
(-) (vol %)
9236.3 (*) 0.918 1.484
8975.3 0.925 1.453
8785.3 0.931 1.431
8591.3 0.937 1.408
8384.3 0.943 1.384
8181.3 0.950 1.360
7960.3 0.958 1.334
7755.3 0.965 1.310
7565.3 0.972 1.288
7370.3 0.980 1.265
7155.3 0.989 1.239
7050.3 0.994 1.227
6920.3 (**) 1.000 1.211 0.000 0.000
6800.3 1.007 12.149 12.063
6560.3 1.022 20.223 19.779
6117.3 1.054 24.826 23.547
5642.3 1.095 26.569 24.261
5037.3 1.161 27.534 23.723
4363.3 1.261 28.093 22.277
3546.3 1.451 28.433 19.593

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2656.3 1.836 28.146 15.334

1631.3 2.926 26.487 9.052
1211.3 3.969 25.315 6.379

* Initial Reservoir Pressure

** Dew Point Pressure

(1) Vol Liquid / Vol Dew Point Pressure

(2) Vol Liquid / Vol at Stage Pressure

3.4.3.4 CVD Experiment

Gas
Retrograde Liquid
Pressure Deviation
Deposit,
, (psig) Factor Z,
(vol %)
(-)
6920.3 (*) 1.211 0.00
6679.3 1.162 17.35
6278.3 1.102 23.57
5589.3 1.024 26.20
4719.3 0.948 26.86
3885.3 0.895 26.72
3052.3 0.865 26.00
2250.3 0.861 24.63
1461.3 0.882 22.74
667.304 0.928 20.39

* Dew Point Pressure

3.4.3.5 SEP Experiment

Temperatu Gas Oil Oil Oil
Stage Pressure
re, Ratio, Gravity, Gravity,
Number , (psig)
(°F) (scf/STB) (Kg/m3) (API)
1 530 91.4 5919
2 0 60 380 771 52

3.4.4 Import the Lab Report

This step is optional and can only be performed if the lab report is available in an Excel
format.

As in this case we do have an Excel file available we will import this into the PVTp file. This
step serves to keep all the necessary data together in one location and allows us to quality
check the data in one location.

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Double click on Add PVT Report in the Characterisation Wizard window.

This will place a PVT Report 101 object onto the Characterisation Window.

Double click on the PVT Report object and select Browse to navigate to the required PVT
report. In this can be found in the sample directory under ...Samples\pvtp\Example 2
Retrograde Condensate\Lab Data.xlsx.

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Selecting Open will import the report into the object in the same format and tab structure as
the original Excel file.

Data in this screen can be modified if necessary without affecting the original Excel sheet. In
this instance some data formats cannot be automatically interpreted so need to be manually
modified.

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Go to the CCE tab and modify the pressures to remove the * and ** signifying the initial
reservoir and saturation pressure respectively.

Also in the CCE tab, we can see that there are two different kinds a liquid dropout reported.
One is with respect to the volume at stage pressure and the other is with respect to the
volume at dew point pressure. So that the Lab Report Import tool can distinguish these we
will add the words PSAT Vol to the first of these columns.

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Go to the CVD tab and modify the pressures to remove the * signifying the saturation
pressure.

Go to the Separator Test tab and modify Oil Gravity to Oil Density, as the Importer will not
be able to reconcile the units used with a gravity term.

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Once this has been done, press OK to close the window.

3.4.5 Lab Report Quality Check

The assumption taken in most companies is that the individual Equation of State (EOS)
descriptions are accurate and matched to good measurements from lab reports. However the
measurements themselves may carry experimental errors that engineers need to be aware of
before forcing the EOS to reproduce them.

There are various challenges associated with the fluid sampling and the lab measurements
themselves. The fluid samples can be collected either:

1. Downhole
2. At Surface

Downhole samples run the risk of gas escaping through the seals of the sampling tool as the
sample is brought to surface. When the sample is then taken to the lab and restored to
reservoir conditions, by elevating the sample to the reservoir temperature and pressure, the
gas that escaped on the way to surface will not be re-dissolved back into the oil, which will
impact the measurements of the volumetric properties (i.e. GOR and Formation Volume
Factor). For this reason the measured saturation pressure should be checked with the
reservoir pressure or an RFT measurement as this could lead to the conclusion that there is a
problem with the sample taken.

A surface sample is created by taking a separate sample of gas and oil at the separator
during a well test. The separator pressure and temperature are noted along with the in-situ
GOR. To recreate the reservoir fluid in the lab, the oil and gas samples are re-combined in a
common sample with the same GOR in the field and then the temperature and pressure are
elevated to reservoir conditions. If the GOR reading during the rest was wrong (e.g. unstable
flow from well, liquid carry over, etc.) then the re-combined fluid will not represent the
reservoir fluid either. Therefore it is good practice to have the well test report to hand to
validate this

There are various checks that can be performed before progressing with the characterisation:

If there are multiple samples in the report, identify which sample was used to perform
the experiments
Check the sample was given sufficient time to stabilise at reservoir conditions
Perform a mass balance check
Check for inconsistencies in the measurements (i.e. Oil Formation Volume Factor,
Density, GORs, etc.)
Check for contamination
Check Hoffmann Plot for K values
Check Saturation pressure vs Reservoir Pressure
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etc.

3.4.5.1 Review of Available Data

The laboratory experiments intend to describe different aspects of the fluid’s behaviour but
only when combined they can give a full picture of the fluid’s behaviour. For further details on
how these experiments are performed and what they aim to simulate, please refer to Lab
Experiments 241 .

For example, the Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment is analogous to the
expansion of the fluid in the reservoir as the pressure is reduced at a constant temperature.
The SEP experiments captures the fluid path from the reservoir through the well, surface
network and separator stages to standard conditions.

The Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) experiment describes how the composition in the
reservoir can change over time as fluid is produced and the pressure is reduced whilst the
temperature is kept constant.

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With the above in mind, in principle only two experiments, including the separator experiment
are required to perform a characterisation. With additional experiments, the fluid’s behaviour
is better understood and therefore more confidence can be placed in a characterised EOS to
be representative of the fluid’s behaviour over the field’s life time.

Experimentally speaking, the CVD is more complex to conduct than the CCE and issues such
as carry-over can result in erroneous measurements. Practically, however, the main
advantage of the CVD is that volume of the test cylinder is fixed meaning that a larger range
of pressures can be investigated. With this in mind, the characterisation is typically performed
with the CVD results as it is the only experimental data that is available, however CCE data
would be equally suitable. In practice, it would be desirable to characterise the EOS against
one of the experiments and then verify that the characterised EOS provides a representative
description of the fluid behaviour.

The data available should then be quality checked to ensure that measurements of the
following have been performed:

Saturation Pressure at Reservoir Conditions

Reservoir or Saturation Liquid density
Surface Liquid density
GOR
Liquid Dropout Curve

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3.4.5.2 Compositional Gradient Check

A compositional profile check tests whether whether the composition follows a natural trend or
whether there are erratic spikes. Such spikes could be an indicator of the sample having
been contaminated, with for example drilling mud, or the sample having been improperly
recombined. A plot of the fluid composition as a function of carbon number is shown below
for illustrative purposes.

As the trend is smooth and natural in appearance, it can be assumed that the sample was not
contaminated.

3.4.5.3 Saturation Pressure

For condensates, the precise measurement of the saturation pressure is notoriously difficult
as the gas and liquid phases and therefore the onset of liquid drop out are problematic to
differentiate between and is therefore usually associated with some degree of uncertainty.
Additionally poor stirring and/or contamination can lead to poor estimation of the saturation
pressure. "Tailing" in the liquid drop out curve can be used as an indicator of this.

If the measured saturation pressure in the laboratory is greater than the measured reservoir
pressure at the point of sampling (in the case of a separator sample, this would be assumed
to be the top of perforations), then this indicates an inconsistency between the sample and
reservoir fluid. This is because the saturation pressure must be less than or equal to the
reservoir pressure, at the point of sampling.

The most extreme case, i.e. saturation pressure is equal to reservoir pressure, occurs at the
Gas-Oil-Contact (GOC), where the gas and oil phase are in equilibrium such that the gas and
oil phase pressure must be the same. If we go above this limit, i.e. saturation pressure is
greater than reservoir pressure at point of sampling, then this would suggest that the reservoir
is not in equilibrium and that mass transfer occurs between the gas and oil phase. This would

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typically not be the case, especially not at the start of the reservoir’s life time, as the reservoir
would have equilibrated over the past millennia.

As such, if the saturation pressure is reported as being larger than the reservoir pressure,
then this could indicate inaccuracies in the lab, e.g. recombination to an incorrect GOR. Since
the lab experiments have been conducted with this recombined fluid, the procedure in this
case would be to progress with the characterisation as usual and once complete perform a
recombination to a known measurement of Psat or GOR. See Example 5 650 for further details
of this.

3.4.6 Choice of EOS Model

Lab Report quality checked and no inconsistencies found, the characterisation process in
PVTp can be started. The first step of the process is the decision on which formulation of the
EOS should be used, Peng-Robinson (PR) or Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK). The choice
between either formulations has to be made by the engineer, however neither formulation
holds significant advantages over the other and a similar quality of characterised EOS can be
achieved with either. That being said, an important consideration in integrated modelling is that
the same EOS model should be used for all underlying models (i.e. you cannot mix and match
EOS models of a different type).

Please refer to EOS Models 385 for further information on the PR and SRK equation.

The PR EOS is used by default, but the chosen EOS model can be changed to SRK from the
Main Menu Ribbon via Home | Calculation Options.

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3.4.7 Defining the Sample

With the EOS model selected the next step is to decide which components from the lab report
are to be modelled explicitly as pure components and which ones are to be lumped together
as a pseudo component. The reasoning for lumping higher carbon number components (C7+)
together is that due to the exponentially growing number of isomers, it becomes exceedingly
difficult to identify pure components to a high degree of accuracy. The cut-off point for pure
components is somewhat arbitrary and down to the engineer’s discretion, however as a
general guide, components higher than C6 are typically lumped into a pseudo component.

With this in mind, the laboratory composition is recalculated by lumping C7 and higher into a
pseudo component (C7+) as below.

Component Mole % Molecular Weight

(g/mol)
N2 0.9
CO2 1.66
H2S 0
C1 70.55 Default
C2 10.75 Database
C3 4.63 Values
nC4 2.45
nC5 1.66
C6 1.09
C7+ 6.31 205

Please note:

H2S will be omitted from the composition as it has a zero Mol % and therefore does
not contribute to the phase behaviour.

The MW of the pseudo component could either be measured in the lab using the
Benzene freezing point test or estimated from correlations, meaning that there is
typically an associated error of around 10% with the reported value from the lab
report.

This composition, along with other information relating to the sample will be entered into the
PVT Sample 104 data object. To add this data follow the steps below.

Double click on Add PVT Sample in the Characterisation Wizard window.

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This will place a PVT Sample 104 object onto the Characterisation Window.

Double click on the PVT Sample object to open the interface. Once opened we can begin
populating some of fields with known data in the Sample Information tab. In particular the
Reservoir Conditions and Reference Conditions can be defined:

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Moving down the tabs on the left hand side, next the Select Components tab can be filled in.
This is where the pure and pseudo components can be selected as per the composition.
Select the required components, which will highlight them as shown below, and enter the
number of pseudos required.

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Once this is done press Apply. This will transfer the selection to the following tabs.

In the Enter Composition tab, enter the component mole percentages. Molecular weights of
the pure components will automatically be entered best of database values. The molecular
weight of the pseudo component from the lab report can also be entered.

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Moving to the Enter Lab Data tab allows us to define all the lab experiments and enter data.
To begin press Add Experiment and select the required experiments from the pop-up menu.
The following experiments need to be added:

1. Saturation Pressure
2. Constant Composition Expansion
3. Constant Volume Depletion
4. Separator

This information can either be added manually or using the Importer. The following steps will
illustrate both methods.

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Select the Saturation Pressure experiment and enter the data shown above manually.
Ensure that care is taken with the units. This data can be found within the CCE experiment
tab of the lab report, however entering it here identifies the saturation point explicitly allowing
it to be specifically used in the file.

Select the Constant Composition Expansion experiment and press Import From PVT
Report. Select the CCE data tab (highlighted below), highlight the cells that contain the
required data, press Set Selection as Data Table.

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Once the data is selected, press Auto-Map Remaining to automatically populate the
available data into the lab data table on the right hand side.

This transfer will try and identify the variables based on the table name (e.g. pressure can be
"pressure", "pres", "P" etc.) and identify the units. If data cannot be picked up automatically,
the it can be modified or entered manually, as is the case for the temperature.

Enter the temperature manually as below. Only one cell in the temperature column needs to
be entered, and the program will assume that the rows below are for the same temperature
until otherwise specified.

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Enter the Z Factor (Vapour) data manually as these will not be transferred automatically.

Once all the data has been imported, press OK (next to Cancel Import) to complete the
import. See screen-shot below for the clarification.

Repeat the import process for the Constant Volume Depletion (making sure to manually
enter the vapour Z factor) and Separator experiments.

Quality Check

At this point it would normally be advised to perform a mass balance calculation to assess
whether the measured fluid properties are consistent. In this particular case however, there
is not enough data to do this check, so this step will be omitted.

To close the PVT Sample data object, press OK.

3.4.8 Define Pseudo Component

In the PVT Sample object, a single pseudo component was defined. This component is
designed to represent all the components from C7 onwards, and as such needs to be tuned in
order to accurately do this.

Double click on Add Pseudo Properties in the Characterisation Wizard. Ensure that the
"PVT Sample" is highlighted in the Navigation Tree 75 before doing this.

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This will place a new Pseudo Properties 119 and PVT Fluid 158 object on the Characterisation
Window, connected to the PVT Sample 104 that has just been defined.

Double click on the Pseudo Properties object.

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In the window that opens, the Pseudo components' critical properties are estimated from
correlations using an input of the pseudo's molecular weight (MW), specific gravity (SG) and
boiling point temperature (BPT). The critical properties are required such that the EOS can
perform any calculations.

If the MW, SG or BPT are not specified in the lab report, they can be estimated as follows:

Molecular Weight
o The process for estimating the MW is described in the previous section, and the
MW entered in the PVT Sample 104 object has already been carried over

Boiling Point Temperature

o Calculate using correlations from an input of MW and SG

Specific Gravity
o Manually estimate a value, then simulate a separator test and iterate until it agrees
with the lab data.

Since neither the SG nor BPT are specified in the lab report, these will both need to be
estimated. As a starting point for this process a SG of 0.8 can be assumed for this particular
fluid.

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Enter the SG of 0.82 and press Calculate to estimate the BPT and in turn the critical
properties.

Note: the options for AutoMatch of Densities via BPts are selected as default, which was
specifically developed by Petroleum Experts. This means that when the object is calculated,
the AutoMatch process will be performed unless the user decides otherwise.

The Standing Katz method for calculating liquid phase densities is known to provide accurate
results near standard conditions. As part of the AutoMatch, PVTp performs two calculations
of the liquid phase density in parallel. On the one hand, the EOS is used to calculate the K-
values for a flash to standard conditions, from which the individual phase compositions and in
turn the density can be calculated. On the other hand, the fluid is flashed to standard
conditions using K values from the Hoffmann plot, which are in turn used to determine the
phase compositions. With the composition of the liquid phase known, the Standing-Katz
method can be used to calculate the liquid phase density.

Please note that the use of K-values from the Hoffman plot, unlike the EOS, ensures that
mass balance is met, however their use is somewhat limited to ambient conditions, where the
tie lines are straight.

When AutoMatch is used, PVTp regresses on the pseudo’s critical properties to match the
liquid density predicted by the EOS to that predicted by Standing-Katz by adjusting the

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pseudo's boiling point temperature. Changing the BPT, changes the value of the characteristic
function (or b-function), such that a different K-value is determined from the Hoffmann plot
(example shown below), which alters the phase composition and therefore the calculated
liquid density from Standing Katz. However, changing the BPT also changes the calculated
critical properties (via the chosen correlations) such that different K-values and therefore
phase compositions and liquid densities are calculated. This process is repeated until either
the two methods converge, or the maximum number of iterations is exceeded. For further
information on the AutoMatch methodology, please refer to Automatch 121 .

With the pseudo properties defined, the EOS can technically be used to perform flash
calculations, however since the correlations predict generic values, the calculated fluid
behaviour may be quite different to what is observed in the lab and thus the EOS CANNOT be
used for predictive modelling. This is therefore a good point to perform a quality check on
the EOS.

Without needing to close any open windows, navigate to the Calculation tab in the Main
Menu Ribbon.

Select the Separator object and click on the Calculation Window where the object is to be
placed.

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Once the Separator 290 object is placed on the window, double click on it to open the screen.
Note that object screens will open directly on top of the object icon though can be moved
around to the users preference.

In the window that opens enter the temperature and pressure of each separator stage. This
can be done manually by either referring to the lab report itself, or the PVT Sample 104 object
can be opened and the information copied and pasted as required.

Before the separator train can be calculated, the fluid to be used must first be selected. I.e.
each of the Characterisation Objects has an "output" fluid description or EOS within it, any of
which can be used to perform a flash calculation. Therefore PVTp needs to know which of
the EOS descriptions is to be used for this calculation.

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Do one of the following:

1. Right click on the Pseudo Properties object and choose Select

2. Choose Select from the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon, then click on
the Pseudo Properties object.

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3. As the Pseudo Properties and PVT Fluid objects contain the same EOS, one of the
above option can also be done choosing the PVT Fluid object.

Once the desired object has been selected, it will appear as below:

Now the Separator object can be calculated. To do this Press Calculate within the object.

Choose the Results Table tab and select the Stage Results view.

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The calculated liquid density at standard conditions using the EOS of 788 kg/m3 compares
well with the reported liquid density of 771 kg/m3
same can be said of the calculated first stage GOR of 5995.56 scf/STB compared to the

well within 10%, which is arguably an acceptable match). This good agreement is a result of
AutoMatch feature being used, and if the user were to repeat the above process again
without AutoMatch enabled, the difference would be much larger.

At this stage we will also want to access the saturation pressure. To do this a Phase
Envelope 241 calculation object is needed.

Without needing to close any open windows, navigate to the Calculation tab in the Main
Menu Ribbon.

Select the Phase Envelope object and click on the Calculation Window where the object is
to be placed.

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Once the Phase Envelope 241 object is placed on the window, double click on it to open the
screen. Note that object screens will open directly on top of the object icon though can be
moved around to the users preference.

As the EOS within the Psuedo Properties 119 object has already been selected, the Phase
Envelope 241 object simply needs to be calculated.

Press Calculate and go to the Results Plot tab to view the phase envelope.

Note: any relevant experimental data previously entered in the PVT Sample 104 object will
automatically appear on plots, as can be seen above for the saturation pressure.

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In this case we can see that there is very poor agreement with the saturation pressure, as
there is over 2000 psi difference with the lab data point.

From these quality checks the following can be concluded:

Liquid density is realistic but can be further tuned to reproduce lab data
GOR is realistic but can be further tuned to reproduce lab data
Psat requires further tuning to reproduce lab data

As the pseudo’s physical properties are typically determined with a large margin of error (±
10%) a match can be better achieved by changing the MW, SG and BPT.

For example, increasing the MW increases the calculate liquid density, GOR and Psat,
however it will also stretch the phase envelope such that the critical point will shift further
away from Psat. Clearly, these objectives stated above are conflicting so that it is necessary
to prioritise.

For now, we will focus on reproducing the liquid density and the GOR first, bearing in mind
that the GOR carries the greater margin of error, because Psat can be adjusted at a later
stage through splitting of the pseudo and introducing binary interaction coefficients. The
position of the critical point can also be adjusted as part of the regression, so that it can be
virtually disregarded at this stage.

To get a feel for how the MW, SG and BPT affect the separator and phase envelope
calculation we will want to:

1. Change one parameter at a time

2. Re-calculate the Pseudo Properties 119 data object
3. Re-calculate all of the calculation objects

Please note, this time the Automatch is not performed as this breaks the dependency of the
calculated critical properties on the entered MW, SG and BPT and therefore the impact of
changing a parameter might be lost in the automatching process.

With the above analysis complete, try to achieve as close a match between the measured and
calculated liquid phase density and GOR by changing the MW and SG only. For this the
following steps could be used.

1. Change a parameter in the Pseudo Properties object

2. Press Calculate to estimate the BPT and critical properties, ensuring that the
AutoMatch options are selected to ensure the calculated liquid phase density is
realistic

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3. Press Calculate Objects to re-calculate all the calculation objects at once for quality
checking, i.e. Separator 290 and Phase Envelope 241 objects to compare calculated to
measured results

4. Repeat if necessary

To ensure comparable results are achieved please enter a MW of 205 g/mol and a SG of
0.82, as otherwise the results of all subsequent steps will be different from this guide. In this
case these happen to be the values form the Lab Report, however this is not always the case
andit should be noted that there are multiple solutions that could work equally well.

3.4.8.1 Pseudo Splitting

The EOS reproduces the liquid density and the first stage GOR very closely, so the remainder
can be achieved via the regression by adjusting the volume shift, for example. The Psat
however is only very off and requires further tuning. As such the aim for the next step will be
to expand the phase envelope, whilst maintaining the match on the liquid density and GOR.

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Before introducing Binary Interaction Coefficients (BICs), we will first attempt to expand the
phase envelope and increase Psat by splitting the pseudo into smaller constituent pseudo
components. For this, we will first use correlations to estimate a composition profile and then
lump these constituent pseudo components together into a number of pseudo components.

Introducing additional pseudo components, increases the granularity, i.e. increasing the phase
envelope as there are now components with higher Tcs and lower Pcs than before, and also
the degrees of freedom giving the regression more flexibility to perform the matching.

Open the Pseudo Properties object by double clicking on it. Go to the Split Pseudo tab.

Note that pseudo splitting is initially disabled, so in order to evaluate splitting options this will
need to be enabled.

To get a feel for how the shape of the composition and the number of constituent pseudo
components affect the phase envelope, and separator calculation

1. Set the split to Last Pseudo

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2. Change one parameter at a time (Method/Alpha factor)

3. Choose the preferred profile
4. Move to the Split tab
5. Try different Split Numbers
6. Recalculate the Pseudo Properties 119 object.
7. Recalculate all the calculation objects to quality check the split (Separator 290 and
Phase Envelope 241 objects)

Initially, the aim will be to try and reproduce the compositional profile from the lab report, as
this will ensure that the composition is consistent, which is especially important when
performing compositional tracking. However, it has to be remembered at the components do
not represent any real-life counter parts, as they rather represent a group of components, and
as such it is possible to divert from the reported profile. That said, the original profile, is
usually a good starting point.

In our case however, the composition is only reported up until C6 and all subsequent
components are lumped into the C7+ component. This gives us relative freedom with the
choice of profile that we can follow, but we should aim to have a C7 composition that is just
below the reported composition of C6.

Through this investigation, it can be found that with the Whitson method it is possible to
produce more complex profile shapes, however in this case the most natural seeming trend is
produced using the Petroleum Experts 2 method.

Therefore, select Petroleum Experts 2 as the profile method in the Profile tab.

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Next split the original Pseudo into 5 constituent pseudo components.

Go to the Split tab, enter a Split Number of 5. Check AutoMatch to adjust the critical
properties such that the calculated liquid density is the same as that calculated with the
original pseudo component only. Press Calculate.

Press Calculate Objects.

Review the Phase Envelope 241 and Separator 290 calculation object results.

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As can be seen, there is very little change in the separator results, however the phase
envelope has improved hugely. To improve this further we could look at increasing the
number of splits, or introduce BICs. This is case we will move on to introduce BICs.

3.4.8.1.1 Pseudo Split Quality Check

As an additional quality check, the degree of normalisation applied to the split profile should
be verified before accepting the pseudo split. The reason for this is that the calculated MW
and SG of the constituent components may not add up to that of the original pseudo
component, so that scaling is applied when they do not. This is particularly problematic when
using the Whitson method. Excessive normalisation is not desirable as it can result in the
natural MW and SG trends from the correlations not being maintained.

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To check the degree of normalisation applied, the normalisation first needs to be disabled. In
the Split Pseudo tab select the No Values Adjusted mode for MW and SG normalisation
respectively. In the table at the bottom of the screen, it can now be seen that the entered
pseudo properties and the calculated totals are not in perfect agreement.

Since in this case the differences themselves are small, the degree of normalisation is
acceptable. That said, if the differences were significant then the user may wish to review the
splitting method.

The Select Best function can be used to try and automatically reduce the differences by
automatically selecting the best split settings.

For the example, switch the Properties Normalisation modes back to the default of All
Values Adjusted.

3.4.8.2 Binary Interaction Coefficients

With the chosen Pseudo split, the EOS now reproduces the reported liquid density, GOR and
Psat at reservoir conditions. The calculated Psat is still significantly below that reported, such
that additional stretching of the phase envelope is a requirement.

Go to the BIC Input Data tab in the Pseudo Properties object.

Check Add Binary Interaction Coefficients and press Calculate. This will populate the
table as per the chosen correlation as below:

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Calculate the Phase Envelope object to check is the envelope is physical.

As can be seen above, no critical point has been found for this fluid, which, although not

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uncommon to happen when characterising a retrograde condensate, this is not something that
we want since the critical point is key in defining the type of system we have (i.e. bubble point
or dew point).

With the above in mind we will investigate what BICs values are needed to:

1. Increase the size of the phase envelope

2. Ensure we can calculate a critical point

This will typically be done via trial and error using the different correlations and the "Set Max
Value To" function.

In our case, it was decided to progress with BICs limited to a maximum of 0.025. To do this:

Check Set Max Value To and enter 0.025. Press Calculate.

This results in the following Phase Envelope, and although the calculated saturation pressure
is lower than desired, we know that this can be corrected during the Regression 516 stage.

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3.4.8.3 Pseudo Output Fluid

This final tab of the Pseudo Properties object is the Output Fluid tab. This tab is continually
being updated as pseudo component is defined. As can be seen below, this tab will show all
the EOS properties that have been set/defined. An important thing to note here is that this
particular interface is read only. While the user can view all the properties, they cannot be
modified. If any variables need to be modified, this can be done within a PVT Fluid 158 object.

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In this particular example, the fluid does not require any manual overriding.

3.4.9 Regression
The regression is the penultimate step of the characterisation process, in which the EOS is
fine-tuned to the laboratory experiments. The fine-tuning is performed by adjusting the critical
properties, volume shifts and BICs, such that the difference between the reported and
calculated parameters is minimised.

The overall objective for the regression stage is to not only reproduce the liquid density and
GOR but also to tune the EOS, such that the saturation pressure, at reference conditions and
the remaining data generated during the lab experiments, i.e. CCE, separator test, etc, can
be reproduced. The current EOS already gives a relatively close match on the stock tank
liquid density, GOR and Psat, however the liquid density at reservoir conditions is currently not
being reproduced and requires further refining.

As such the objectives for the regression are as follows:

1. Match liquid density

2. Match GOR
3. Match Psat

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4. Reproduce laboratory experiments

3.4.9.1 Strategy
To achieve the objectives above, the pseudo properties, i.e. Tc, Pc, BICs and Volume Shifts
will be adjusted to minimise the error between the lab and calculated data. However, since
the regression is merely a mathematical tool it is important to first develop a regression
strategy, and to quality check the results after each regression step to prevent unnatural
property trends being accepted. A regression strategy could be developed as follows:

1. Create a list of the current objectives and rank them in order of declining importance.
2. Consider what pseudo properties affect each of the objectives and by how much, i.e.
how does objective X change by changing Y.
3. Consider how changing the selected properties for regression affect the other
objectives.
4. Consider which parameters would be more difficult to readjust at a later stage and
thus decide on a suitable anchor point.

However, before we start considering the above, we should take a moment to gain an
overview of how well the current EOS reproduces the lab experiments. As the lab data has
already been entered in the PVT Sample object, direct comparisons can already be made.
Taking the lab experiments in turn we will go through the process of add the appropriate
Calculation Data Object 241 and running a calculation:

CCE:

Select the Constant Composition Expansion object from the Main Menu Ribbon and place
it on the Calculation Window in the desired location.

Double click on the Constant Composition Expansion 258 object to open it.

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In the window that opens, specify the temperature and pressure range over which the
simulation is to be performed.

For the CCE we are only interested in the oil density and viscosity and thus it is not required
to specify a separator train. If additional data, such as the GOR had been provided in the lab
report, then the same separator train as used in the experiment would need to be specified.
This is because the GOR is path dependent and thus using a different separator train would
result in a different GOR to be calculated.

Press Calculate.

Go to the Results Plot tab and view the desired plots by selecting the variables from the Y-
axis menus:

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It can be seen that the EOS (within the Pseudo Properties object) reproduces the general
trend of the liquid dropout curve, however the calculated dropout tends to be overestimated
and the initiation of dropout is at a reduced pressure (as expected from the lower predicted
saturation pressure).

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Similar behaviour can be seen for the PSAT volume liquid dropout.

The EOS is able to reproduce the general trend of the vapour Z factor, though it is over

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predicting it.

CVD:

Select the Constant Volume Depletion object from the Main Menu Ribbon and place it on
the Calculation Window in the desired location, as was done for the CCE.

Double click on the Constant Volume Depletion 266 object to open it.

Please note, by the nature of the CVD experiment, the composition of the fluid remaining in
the container will begin to change as the pressure is reduced below saturation since the gas
evolved is removed from the cell. As such, the residual oil volume, which is used to calculate
the liquid dropout in the CVD experiment, is path dependent, i.e. the conditions the fluid is
exposed to over the course of the experiment. If slightly different temperatures and pressure
are specified or whole stages are omitted, then the residual oil volume and thus dropout will
be different.

Therefore enter the exact pressure stages used during the CVD experiment:

Press Calculate.

Go to the Results Plot tab and view the desired plots by selecting the variables from the Y-

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axis menus:

As can be seen, much like in the CCE, the general trend of the liquid dropout curve, however
the calculated dropout tends to be overestimated and the initiation of dropout is at a reduced
pressure (as expected from the lower predicted saturation pressure).

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The vapour Z factor is generally well predicted, especially in trend however it is consistently
over-predicting.

SEP:

The Separator object already exists in the Calculation Window as this was created earlier
during an earlier step 496 .

Double click on the Separator 290 object to open it and press Calculate to recalculate the
results.

Go to the Results Table tab and select the Stage Results view:

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The calculated liquid density of 787.0 kg/m3 compares well with the reported value of 771 kg/
m3 ( 2.24% difference) and the calculated GOR of 669 scf/stb also compares well to the
reported value of 661 scf/stb ( 2% difference).

In summary, the EOS currently provides an adequate description of some of the fluid's
properties, i.e. the liquid density and GOR from the SEP experiment and Z factor from the
CCE, while the liquid dropouts are not well matched up to now.

Now take a moment to consider the these outcomes and the steps above to develop a
possible regression strategy. An example of the development of a possible regression
strategy for this fluid can be seen below.

Example:
1. Create a list of the current objectives and rank them in order of declining
importance.
With the critical point being on the wrong side of Psat, we are unable to perform any
meaningful regression on the liquid drop out curve. As such the position of the critical point
would rank highly on this list. The GOR and liquid density, whilst important, are already pretty
close to the reported lab values and thus do not require as much attention and would
therefore not rank highly on this list. In our case, this list could look as follows:

Importan
Property
ce
Position of Critical
High
Point
Liquid Drop Out
Psat
Rho L
Low GOR

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2. Consider what pseudo properties affect each of the objectives and by how
much, i.e. how does objective X change by changing Y.
We know that the phase envelope and the critical point are unaffected by the volume shift, so
we could regress with Tc, Pc and BICs alone. Although BICs do not typically affect the
position of the critical point strongly, the danger is that large BICs may be proposed to
compensate for Tc and Pc, thus causing unphysical phase envelopes to be calculated. With
this in mind, the best approach would be to regress on the critical point using Tc and Pc alone.
The table above can then be expanded to include the regression parameters.

Importan
Property Parameter
ce
Position of Critical Tc, Pc, BICs
High
Point
Tc, Pc, BICs,
Liquid Drop Out
VolShift
Psat Tc, Pc, BICs
Tc, Pc, BICs,
Rho L
VolShift
Tc, Pc, BICs,
Low GOR
VolShift

3. Consider how changing the selected properties for regression affect the other
objectives.
For example, to shift the critical point to the left, Tcs would generally be reduced, whilst Pcs
are increased. This in turn would have an impact on the calculated liquid density and GOR as
the phase behaviour is changed and in particular reduce the size of the phase envelope, which
is counter to our current objective.

With the above in mind, it can often be helpful to introduce “anchor points”, to prevent the EOS
from drifting too far away from certain parameters (e.g. Psat). However the use of too many
anchor points at any given time reduces the degrees of freedom and may thus prevent the
regression to achieve its primary objective.

4. Consider which parameters would be more difficult to readjust at a later stage

and thus decide on a suitable anchor point.
Referring back to our example, regressing on the critical point using Tc and Pc only, we know
that the liquid density and GOR will change, however these can be adjusted to some degree
by the Volume Shift at a later stage. The Psat on the other hand is unaffected by the Volume
Shift and regressing on BICs alone may result in the phase envelope becoming unphysical. As
such, Psat would be a suitable anchor point.

In summary, the objective of the initial regression step will be to adjust the EOS, such that

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liquid dropout curves can be reproduced satisfactorily.

3.4.9.1.1 Best Practice

Before the regression is started it is also worthwhile to discuss best practice during the
regression. As such, please refer to the Regression Best Practices 151 section.

3.4.9.2 Primary Regression

We will now perform the initial regression on the liquid density, Psat and Separator density
and GOR, which act as anachor point, using Tc, Pc, BICs and VolShift of the pseudo
components.

Double click on Add Regression in the Characterisation Wizard. Ensure that the "PVT
Sample" is highlighted in the Navigation Tree 75 before doing this.

This will place a new Regression 137 and another PVT Fluid 158 object on the Characterisation
Window, connected to the PVT Fluid 158 that has just been defined.

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Double click on the Regression object

The first tab is the Lab Data Weightings tab. This is where any data points that we do not
want to be included in the regression can be excluded and other data points can be set with
specific weightings. The idea being that the selecting fewer data points to match to will give
the regression algorithm flexibility and additional degrees of freedom to achieve a good match.

As the experimental data has already been added to the PVT Sample 104 object, all of the data
is automatically populated into the Regression 137 data object. Taking each experiment in turn:

Saturation Pressure

As the saturation pressure is definitely something that we will want to match to, this data will
be left included.

It should be noted at obtaining accurate measurement at the dew point, especially for near
critical fluid is difficult, as the liquid and vapour phase become hard to differentiate. To avoid
these uncertainties, one may wish to instead regress on a fluid density near rather than at
Psat if available.

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Constant Composition Expansion

Select the Constant Composition Expansion from the Laboratory Experiment list. Here the
liquid dropout and Z factor are of particular importance. For the Relative Volume it is the
slope of the curve rather than the absolute values that is of greater importance since it is
directly linked to the fluid compressibility.

Any data we are unlikely to use in the regression, such as the relative volume or erroneous
data, can be excluded by selecting the relevant data points and then pressing Exclude.
Additionally, we may wish to exclude some data points in order to speed up the regression.

The process of deciding which data points to exclude can be aided by plotting the entered
data as a function of pressure and temperature, to identify outlier/unphysical behaviour. This
can be achieved by opening the PVT Sample and Regression objects side by side. The data
can be plotted in the PVT Sample object, and the respective data points included/excluded in
the Regression object.

For the CCE, exclude the following:

All liquid dropout points (not the liquid dropout at PSAT, these should all be left as
included)
All relative volume points
The 2nd to 7th, and 9th to 12th entries of the Z factor (vapour)

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Constant Volume Depletion

As we already have liquid dropout and vapour Z factor data in the CCE, we do not also need
to match to the CVD data.

Exclude the following points:

All liquid dropout points

All vapour Z factor points

Separator

The GOR from the first separator stage and the liquid density at standard conditions are of
particular importance. The reason for this being that on the first separator stage most of the
gas is evolved (i.e. the uncertainty in the measurement is lower) and because it is easiest to
obtain an accurate oil sample at standard conditions.

By the time we get to the regression stage, the EOS should already be somewhat
reproducing the first stage GOR and liquid phase density at standard conditions and thus do
not require significant tuning. Nonetheless they are included in the regression as they act as

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an anchor point, which prevents the EOS from drifting too far from the former, however we
want them to have a small impact on the error function or otherwise the regression would be
too constrained and thus unable to match the other parameters.

Exclude the following:

The second stage GOR

set the following weightings:

1. The oil density at standard conditions to a weighting of 7.

2. The first stage GOR to a weighting of 5.

Once done go to the Regression Inputs tab.

In this tab the select the following match variables:

1. PSAT - Saturation Pressure

2. CCE - Liquid Dropout (PSAT Volume)
3. CCE - Z Factor (Vapour)
4. SEP - Liberated Gas Oil Ratio

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5. SEP - Oil Density

Set the regression algorithm to Levenberg-Marquardt.

Set the Match Using to Tcs Pcs Afs with Multiplier on Each Property.

Typically, matching is performed against the CCE experiment with the CVD being used as a
means of validating the fluid characterisation.

Go to the Regression Variables tab.

Select the Tcs, Pcs, VolShifts and BICs of all pseudo components and in the case of the
VolShifts also the pure components except N2 and CO2.

The easiest way to do this is to:

1. Set Allow Pure Tc Pc to No.

2. Select All On.
3. Clear the AF
4. Uncheck the N2 and CO2 Vol. Shift
5. Ensure the C1 and Last Pseudo for the BICs - the reason for this is that we know

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from previously that having too large BICs for this fluid meant that the critical point
was difficult to determine. We know that most of the influence of BICs comes from
the interaction between the C1 and heaviest pseudo, and as we will need the BICs to
match the saturation pressure, this option has been chosen.

Press Calculate at the bottom of the object.

Wait until the regression is complete. A progress bar will be displayed and in the top right
corner the calculated error after each iteration is shown.

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3.4.9.2.1 Primary Quality Check

Once the regression is complete, i.e. the error is within a tolerance, the iterations have been
exceeded or no further improvements can be made, the Regression Error Details and Output
Fluid tabs will become active.

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The vapour Z factor, liquid dropout and the saturation pressure have been matched to a high
degree of accuracy as can be seen by the errors above in the Regression Error Details tab.
From this it can be concluded, that we appear to have met all of our primary regression
objectives.

Next, it is important to verify that the calculated critical properties (Tc and Pc) follow smooth
physical trends. If there are discontinuities such as step changes this can be as sign of the
regression over compensating for another variable or the variable not having a large effect on
the regressed property. This can be investigated by plotting the critical temperature and
pressure as a function of the component number.

To do this go to the Output Fluid tab and select the Plot tab.

From here we can plot the critical pressure and temperature profiles, as shown below. This
will by default plot the EOS feeding into the Regression object and the EOS created within the
Regression object for comparison.

From the plot above, it can be seen that the critical temperature has not changed significantly
and appears to follow a physical trend. The critical pressures have been slightly reduced and
if anything now follow an even more natural profile.

If the critical properties and/or phase envelope are found to be unphysical or the surface

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properties change significantly, then the regression strategy requires review. As part of this
review it should be established whether the pre-regression EOS provides a good enough
description of the fluid behaviour as the regression is only intended for fine tuning. If this is not
the case then the pseudo properties, the pseudo profile and splitting as well as BICs could be
reviewed. Alternatively, the property causing the behaviour, e.g. unphysical phase envelope
due to large BICs, could be omitted from the regression or the regression could be repeated
using only the heaviest components.

3.4.10 Validation
As the error results of the primary regression run are satisfactory, we now need to validate
the EOS against all available lab data to ensure that the EOS is representative of the fluid in a
variety of scenarios. The procedure for this validation is to simulate the lab experiments the
same as when we previously quality checked the EOS prior to the primary regression.

The calculation objects for each of the experiments should be recalculated to allow
comparison with the before- and after-regression EOS.

This can be done by "selecting" the Regression object, as shown below, by choosing Select
from the Panel Actions tab in the Main Menu Ribbon:

Press Calculate Objects at the bottom of the screen. This will calculate all the Calculation
Objects for both selected EOS's.

Below we will go through each of the experiments to validate the new EOS.

Phase Envelope

Opening the phase envelope will allow us to compare the phase envelope before and after the
regression was performed, as shown below:

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As we can see, the "Regression" stream is the new EOS and it reproduces the saturation
pressure (at reservoir temperature) very well.

Separator

From the Separator experiment, it can be seen that the liquid density and first stage GOR
match well against the lab data, both within a 0.5% difference.

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From the Separator results it is also possible to drill down further into the stage by stage
results. Go to the Detailed Results tab.

One can then go through the stages and investigate how the composition of the vapour and
liquid phase changes after each stage. Additionally it is possible to plot the Hoffman quality
plot by pressing Quality, to check whether a physically consistent flash is performed. If the
lighter components all lie on a straight line, then this means that a consistent flash is
calculated. Heavier components, i.e. the last pseudo components can deviate from the line of
best fit, see Hoffman quality plot for the first separator stage below. Extreme curvature can
be a sign of data inconsistencies, however as most components are on or close to the straight
line, this suggests the calculated K values are consistent.

Constant Composition Expansion

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The liquid density above saturation is reproduced well however the liquid viscosity, especially
below saturation is currently not being reproduced and requires further matching.

Constant Volume Depletion

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In conclusion, the EOS now reproduces all the lab experiments satisfactorily.

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3.4.11 Regression Summary

From the EOS validation procedure, it can be concluded that the EOS has been
characterised, as it is now possible to reproduce all lab experiments, meaning that for the
conditions of the experiments a consistent fluid description is provided. Before progressing
and pursuing a number of modelling objectives with the now characterised EOS, let us
perform a brief review of the characterisation process.

1. First we performed a review of the lab data available and also its quality, because the
characterisation is fundamentally driven by the lab data. We found that we had
sufficient and more importantly consistent data available. This was then loaded into
PVTp.
2. The EOS model was chosen and in this case the Peng-Robinson description was
selected.
3. The pure components were selected and their composition entered
4. All lab data was imported.
5. Then the pseudo component properties were defined by entering the MW, SG and
BPT from the Lab Report
6. A separator experiment was simulated to demonstrate that the EOS in its current
form is unable to predict the liquid density or GOR at standard conditions.
i. The MW, SG, and BPT were adjusted in order to match the reported liquid phase
density and GOR using the Automatch procedure and performing the quality
checks after each iteration.
ii. As the EOS was unable to reproduce the Psat, we then split the pseudo by
deciding on a composition profile and the number of components to split this profile
into. We retained the match on the liquid density and GOR, by performing the
Automatch to the previously determined liquid density from the original composition
and performing the quality checks after each iteration.
iii. To provide the EOS with additional flexibility BICs were introduced, ensuring they
are not too large to avoid distortions of the phase envelope. The quality checks
were performed after each iteration.
7. Then the penultimate phase of the characterisation, the regression was performed to
fine-tune the EOS against the lab experiments.
i. A Regression Strategy was developed to ensure each regression step is
performed with a clear objective in mind, to prevent undoing already made
progress at a previous regression stage.
ii. The Lab data was then entered, weightings assigned to less reliable data points
and excluding some data from the regression altogether.
iii. The primary regression step was then performed, by regressing on the insitu liquid
dropout and vapour Z factor from the CCE experiment whilst using the saturation
pressure, GOR and Separator liquid density as an anchor point. After the
regression, the results were quality checked by checking the Tc and Pc profiles,
the separator test, the Phase Envelope and determining whether the regression

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objective had been achieved.

8. The EOS was fully validated against the lab experiments, by simulating the different
lab experiments and comparing the results to the lab report.
9. As the EOS was able to reproduce all Lab Experiments and the critical properties
follow a natural trend, it was concluded that the EOS was successfully characterised.

3.4.12 What to do next?

The EOS has now been characterised and has been shown to reproduce the Lab
experiments, meaning that it can now be applied to achieve a variety of modelling objectives,
some of which are described below.

• Fluid Description
The EOS can now be used to describe the fluid behaviour, i.e. phase changes, and also to
calculate its properties, i.e. density, viscosity etc. With this it is now possible to for example
use the EOS as the fluid description in a reservoir, well or process model. For examples on
how to build compositional models in MBAL, PROSPER, GAP and REVEAL, please refer to
the Examples in the respective User Guides.

• Flow Assurance
Common Flow Assurance concerns such as Wax/Hydrate and Salt/Scale formation can also
be addressed using the newly characterised EOS. For example the formation envelopes can
be calculated to gauge whether Wax, Hydrates and/or Salt formation is likely to be an issue
over the field’s life time. If this is the case, management strategies can be developed to
counteract the adverse effects of solids appearance. For example in the case of Hydrate
formation, it is possible to calculate the required composition of an inhibitor, e.g. methanol, to
prevent hydrate formation, this and further examples of solids management are discussed in
the Flow Assurance Manual. For examples on how these types of Flow Assurance
calculations are performed in PVTp, please refer to the Hydrates 705 , Wax 698 and Salt 722
examples.

• Lumping Rule
As discussed previously, certain models have different requirements in terms of the granularity
of the components modelled explicitly. For example, for a reservoir simulator typically fewer
components are modeled explicitly in order to reduce the models run time, whereas in a
process model the full composition is required to ensure more accurate results. As such, when
building a full integrate model, one has two options, either to cater to each models needs
individually or to use a global fluid description and to compromise.

To achieve the former, PVTp can be used to develop a lumping rule, which translates the
lumped composition used in the reservoir simulator to the full composition used in the process
model. For an example of this, please refer to Lumping/Delumping 672 .

• Recombination

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If the sample in the laboratory was recombined to an incorrect GOR, due to inaccurate
measurements in the field, or the measured saturation pressure in the lab is unphysical in the
field, i.e. Psat is higher than measured reservoir pressure, then the fluid composition can be
recombined to a Target GOR or Psat. For an example of this, please refer to Recombination
650 .

• Decontamination
If the sample is thought to have been contaminated during the sampling, i.e. the profile
appears unnatural (e.g. peaks in the composition for higher components), then a
decontamination can be performed in PVTp to remove the contaminants from the
composition. For an example of how a decontamination can be performed in PVTp, please
refer to Decontamination 625 .

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3.5 Example 3 - Decontamination

This guide intends to demonstrate the thinking process behind a decontamination procedure
in PVTp.

By the nature, for a decontamination procedure, a characterised EOS description of the fluid
including the contaminants is required. As such, this guide assumes that the user is familiar
with characterising an EOS against available Lab Data and only the steps unique to a
decontamination procedure will be shown in this guide. For a guide on the fluid
characterisation process, please refer to the Oil 475 and Retrograde Condensate 556 examples.

It should be noted that this is not a guide of the essential steps for decontaminating any fluid -
this is because every fluid is different, has its own challenges and by definition there are
multiple solutions as well as pathways to a particular solution. It should also be noted that a
decontamination is a purely mathematical procedure to remove a contaminant from the fluid
composition. As such no guarantee can be given that the resulting fluid composition and EOS
are representative of the actual reservoir fluid and therefore validation of the decontaminated
fluid is required.

3.5.1 Scenario
An oil reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated model
is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model is to be
comprised of a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated and therefore the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather
than a Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

A fluid sample was taken and analysed in a laboratory, where it was found to be slightly
drilling mud contaminated in the C13 to C20 region. The engineer has been tasked with using
the lab data generated from the contaminated fluid, to develop a representative EOS
description of the reservoir fluid using PVTp.

3.5.2 Data Available

The following data is at the engineer’s disposal:
• Fluid composition
• Differential Liberation (DiffLib) experiment
• Separator (SEP) experiment
3.5.2.1 Reservoir Conditions
Units
Reservoir Pressure 15864 psia
Reservoir 236 °F
Temperature
Reservoir Depth 23493 MD ft

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3.5.2.2 Recombined Composition

Mol%
N2 0
CO2 0.8
C1 36.22
C2 8.65
C3 7.78
iC4 1.94
nC4 4.58
iC5 2.26
nC5 2.42
C6 3.25
C7 3.549
C8 3.713
C9 2.923
C10 2.675
C11 2.026
C12 1.684
C13 1.668
C14 1.496
C15 1.62
C16 2.627
C17 1.463
C18 1.804
C19 0.964
C20 0.803
C21 0.597
C22 0.557
C23 0.494
C24 0.465
C25 0.423
C26 0.365
C27 0.38
C28 0.338
C29 0.323
C30+ 4.618

Mean Molecular Weight of C7+ fraction = 245 g/mol

Mean Specific Gravity of C7+ fraction = 0.867

3.5.2.3 DiffLib Experiment

The DiffLib Experiment was conducted at 236degF

Pressure Oil Cummulative Oil FVF,

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, (psia) Density, GOR, (bbl/

(kg/m3) (scf/bblresidual) bblresidual)
15864* 767 724 1.335
14000 759 724 1.35
12000 749 724 1.368
10000 738 724 1.388
9000 732 724 1.399
8000 727 724 1.41
7000 720 724 1.422
6000 714 724 1.435
5000 707 724 1.45
4000 698 724 1.467
2857** 687 724 1.491
2400 700 615 1.433
1800 716 477 1.368
1200 733 348 1.306
600 755 214 1.242
150 770 98 1.171
15 792 0 1.091

* Reservoir Pressure
** Saturation Pressure
3.5.2.4 Separator Experiment
SEP Experiment 1:

Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)
1240 200 322 1.23 0.732
0470 199 163 1.16 0.802
185 198 69 1.12 0.970
85 193 31 1.10 1.203
35 184 61 1.08 1.517
15 80 - 1.01 1.660
15 60 - 1.00

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.849 or 35.1°API

3.5.3 Compositional Profile Check
A compositional profile check tests whether whether the composition follows a natural trend or
whether there are erratic spikes. Such spikes could be an indicator of the sample having been
contaminated, with for example drilling mud, or the sample having been improperly
recombined. A plot of the fluid composition as a function of carbon number is shown below.

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At first sight, the above composition appears smooth and natural, however upon further
investigation, it can be seen that there are actually some spikes in the composition, which are
indicative of drilling mud contamination. Zooming in on this portion of the profile, it is further
highlighted that there is some drilling mud contamination in the C13 to C20 region, as the
reported composition (orange) in places lies well above the expected composition, which was
interpolated from the composition trend to the left and right of the potentially contaminated
region.

3.5.4 Workflow Summary

The first step in building an EOS description of any fluid is to quality check the laboratory
results. This can be done by establishing whether the data available is sufficient to describe
the fluid’s behaviour over the range of conditions it will be exposed to over the field’s life time.
With this in place, for example plotting the composition as a function of carbon number can
show whether the determined composition is physical. In fact, from our initial quality check of
the reported compositional profile, we concluded that the fluid sample is indeed drilling mud
contaminated as suggested in the lab report, since spikes in the C13 to C20 region were
observed and we will therefore have to adjust our characterisation workflow accordingly.

Since the contaminants were not removed from the fluid, prior to the experiments being

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conducted in the laboratory, the results describe the behaviour of the contaminated fluid rather
than the raw, uncontaminated fluid. With this in mind, we will aim to develop an EOS
description for the contaminated fluid that can reproduce the lab results conducted with the
contaminated fluid. The characterisation procedure is almost identically to normal
characterisation of an uncontaminated fluid, besides determining the pseudo split profile and
removing the contaminants once the characterisation has been completed.

The general workflow is summarised in the graphic below.

In this guide it will be assumed that the user is confident with performing the general
characterisation workflow and only the steps unique to a contaminated sample will be
discussed in detail. The user is invited to take some time and to perform his/her own
characterisation of the fluid up until splitting the pseudo component into its constituents.

3.5.5 Pseudo Splitting

To ensure consistent results are achieved, the workflow up until the pseudo splitting is
summarised below and a sample file ("Decontamination Initial.pvi") with the state of the
EOS prior to the pseudo splitting has been provided. The sample file can be accessed via
Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.5 Samples | PVTP | Example 3 Decontamination.

Characterisation Progress so far:

1. Having received the lab report, the available data was quality checked and it was
found that sufficient data is available to perform the fluid characterisation, but as
suggested in the lab report summary, the sample was found to be contaminated with
drilling mud. The data was found to be consistent by performing a Mass Balance
check.
2. The pure components and initially pseudo component were selected and their
respective compositions entered.
3. Using the reported MW and SG of the C7+ components, the BPT and thus critical
properties were estimated.
4. The lab data,which will be used as part of the regression was entered and weightings
assigned to less reliable data points.
5. A separator test was performed and it was found that the calculated liquid density at
standard conditions did not agree well with the reported value or with the calculated
value using the Standing Katz method.

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6. Automatching was then performed to achieve more realistic calculated densities. The
MW and SG were then adjusted to alter the critical properties, which in turn result in
different liquid densities to be calculated. This process was then repeated until
calculated liquid density and GOR agreed well with the reported values. A MW of 225
and SG of 0.877 for the C7+ pseudo component were found to produce a good
enough match. However, the saturation pressure at reference conditions was being
underestimated, so it was decided to split the pseudo component.

When splitting the pseudo components, we want to ensure that the contaminated profile or at
least the contaminated section of the profile is preserved so that it can be adjusted once the
EOS has been characterised. To this effect, it is possible to enter a custom composition
profile for PVTp to follow when grouping the pseudo components into lumped components.

Open the Pseudo Properties object and go to the Split Pseudo section (1):

In our case, the contamination is in the C13 to C20 region so we would certainly want to
specify the composition in that region. It is usually recommended to only enter the region of
the profile, where the contamination is present, although if it is difficult to achieve a good
enough match against the known profile using the split methods, then additional sections of the
profile can be entered.

In our case, it can be seen that it is difficult to reproduce the C7 to C12 region using either of
the available splitting methods, meaning that the final profile is somewhat unrepresentative of
the fluid compositions. As such it was decided to specify the profile for the C7 to C20 regions
and to then use one of the splitting methods to generate a smooth profile for the C21+

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components.

To do this, enable the Follow Split Profile tick box (2) and then enter the mole percent of C7
to C20 as shown above (3).

Next experiment with the different splitting methods, to achieve a smooth transition between
the entered and calculated profile for the C21+ components. Once this is complete, the
original pseudo component can be split into a number of constituent pseudo componets,
whose critical properties can be automatched to ensure that the calculated standard
conditions density is realistic. Should the splitting not raise the saturation pressure sufficiently,
BICs could be introduced to raise it. At each stage of this process however, the results should
be quality checked using the Quick Calc facility.

In our scenario, it was found that the Petroleum Experts 2 splitting method achieves the
smoothest transition between the entered and calculated profile.

In our case, it was decided that six pseudo components would be sufficient for our purposes
but BICs would be required to achieve a closer match on the saturation prior to the regression
step.

3.5.6 Decontamination
With the pseudo splitting complete, the user is now invited to continue with the normal
characterisation process to produced a calibrated EOS description for the contaminated fluid.
To ensure consistent results are obtained in the decontamination procedure, a second sample
file ("Decontamination Characterised EOS.pvi"), which contains the EOS post regression and
validation against the available lab, has been provided. The sample file can be accessed via
Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.5 Samples | PVTP | Decontamination.

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Characterisation progress so far after pseudo splitting:

1. A regression strategy was developed based on the state of the EOS post splitting the
pseudo component.
2. The regression was performed by regressing on the saturation pressure at reference
conditions, the Separator liquid density and first stage GOR and the insitu liquid density
from the DiffLib experiment using the critical temperatures and pressures of all pseudo
components, the volume shift of all components but N2 and CO2 as well as the BICs.
3. The regression results were validated against the available lab data for the contaminated
fluid.
4. Once the initial regression was validated, a secondary regression was performed to match
the liquid viscosity against the lab data.

Now that the EOS has been fully characterised and validated against the lab data, we can be
confident that the EOS provides an accurate description of the fluid properties over the range
of conditions tested in the laboratory. With this in place, we can now proceed with the
decontamination procedure of the characterised EOS in PVTp. In PVTp there are two
different procedures that could be used to that effect, i.e. either specifying the expected
component composition in the contaminated region without the contaminant or by specifying
the composition of the contaminant as provided by the laboratory. With this information, PVTp
will then compute the uncontaminated composition of the fluid.

We will now, perform these two procedures in turn. The decision on which one should be
performed in reality very much depends on the data available but both procedures can in
principle yield the same result.
3.5.6.1 Procedure A
The calculation to decontaminate the fluid composition by entering expected composition in the
contaminated region, we first need to add a Decontamination object to the screen. This can
be selected via the Characterisation tab:

Add this to the Characterisation window and link the characterised PVT Fluid to the new
object:

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So that we can run calculations on the resultant composition, also add a PVT Fluid called
Decontaminated Fluid A and link it as shown below:

(Note, to change the name any object, right click on it and select Edit Label.)

Double click on the Decontamination Object to open it. In the window that opens, select Use
Decontaminated Composition (1) to allow the expected fluid composition to be entered.
Note that we do not have to enter the enter composition and it is also possible to only enter
the composition in the contaminated region of the profile. When decontaminating the fluid,
PVTp will then use the entered composition and if it does not add up to 100 scale the
composition accordingly.

As such, to perform this decontamination procedure, the uncontaminated fluid composition

needs to be known. If the expected composition is not reported in the lab report, then this
could be generated manually, by adjusting the reported composition until there is a smooth
transition between the uncontaminated regions, C7 to C12 and C21+, see image below. The
compositional trend below for example was determined by matching the compositional profiles
with an exponential decay, A*exp(-alpha*carbon number), where A is the C12 composition and
alpha is a match parameter.

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Mol%
C13 1.501
C14 1.337
C15 1.192
C16 1.062
C17 0.947
C18 0.844
C19 0.752
C20 0.67

To perform the decontamination procedure, enter the expected fluid composition in the
contaminated region (2) and press Calculate (3) to perform the procedure.

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The results of the decontamination can be seen in the Results Plot section of the object:

As we have connected a PVT Fluid to the object, the resultant composition will also be
exported.

We can then run calculations on the new composition by selecting the PVT Fluid object (called
Decontaminated Fluid A) on the main screen. This can be done by right clicking on the object
and selecting Select:

A Phase Envelope calculation object already exists in the Calculation section and so double
click on it to open it up. Leave the input data as the defaults and then select Calculate. Go to
the Results Plot section to see the new phase envelope:

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From the phase envelope, it can be seen that the saturation pressure of the decontaminated
fluid is slightly higher than before. Exit the Phase Envelope object by selecting OK.

Next, the separator values can be calculated via the predefined Separator Train calculation
object. Double click on it and ensure that the separator train is as shown below:

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Select Calculate and then go to the Results Table screen to see the results.

To see the results from each stage, select the Stage Results, and then it can be seen that
whilst the oil density has not changed significantly, the GOR has increased by almost 40scf/
stb. That said however, these changes in fluid properties can be expected since removing part
of and then rescaling the composition increases the contribution of the heavy components,
thus causing the density and GOR to increase. This is because, the heavy components have
higher Tcs and lower Pcs meaning that they preferentially remain in the liquid phase whereas
more lighter components escape into the gas phase as the molecular interactions between the
light and heavy components are weaker. Similarly the saturation pressure at reference
conditions is also higher.

Next, we will perform the same decontamination but with procedure B using the supplied
contaminant composition.
3.5.6.2 Procedure B
We now want to add a second decontamination calculation object to them model so that we
can use a different technique. As before, add this object from the Characterisation tab and
then also add a PVT Sample to collect the resultant composition:

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To perform this decontamination procedure further information regarding the contaminant

weight fraction of the total fluid and also its composition is required.

In our case, we were fortunate enough to have had this data provided to us by the laboratory,
see table below. The report also states that the contaminant makes up 4.14mol% of the total
fluid composition.

Mol%
C13 4.04
C14 3.83
C15 10.34
C16 37.79
C17 12.47
C18 23.19
C19 5.13
C20 3.21

To perform the decontamination with the data provided, please enable the Use Contaminant
Composition (1). Then in the Contaminant Composition tab, set the Contaminant Input Mode
to Mole (2), enter the total molar composition of the contaminant as 4.14% (3) and also enter
the composition of the contaminant (4) as detailed above. The decontamination procedure can
then be performed by pressing Calcualte (5):

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As we have connected a PVT Fluid to the object, the resultant composition will also be
exported.

We can then run calculations on the new composition by selecting the PVT Fluid object (called
Decontaminated Fluid B) on the main screen. This can be done by right clicking on the object
and selecting Select.

A Phase Envelope calculation object already exists in the Calculation section and so double
click on it to open it up. Leave the input data as the defaults and then select Calculate. Go to
the Results Plot section to see the new phase envelope:

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Similarly to before, the saturation pressure of the decontaminated fluid can be found to be
slightly higher than before, as the heavier components are now somewhat more prevalent.

And similar to the previous decontamination procedure, the same trends in the liquid density
and first stage GOR can be observed:

3.5.7 Validation
With the decontamination completed, we now have a "clean" fluid compositions, however
before we can use this as a description of the actual reservoir fluid, further validation against
field data is required to build confidence in the predictive capabilities of the clean EOS
description. The reasoning for this is as follows:

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Since the original fluid sample was contaminated, so the characterisation was performed on
the basis of the contaminated fluid. As part of the initial validation procedure, the
characterised EOS was found to be capable of reproducing the lab experiments and therefore
we were able to place some confidence in its description of the contaminated fluid over the
range of operating conditions. The subsequent decontamination procedure is a purely
mathematical procedure that neglects the chemical nature of the contaminants and thus their
contribution to their respective contituent pseudo component. As such when the
decontamination is performed, only the fluid composition is adjusted but the critical properties
remain unchanged.

For now we will focus on just one of the constituent pseudo components, e.g. C16. In reality
this C16 constituent component is comprised of a multitude of chemical components who all
happen to fall in a similar boiling point range, however just because components fall in the
same boiling point range, does by no means guarantee that their properties are similar as
well. The prime example of this being aromatic components, which have generally higher
specific densities, due to their ability to "stack" on top of each other, compared to the other
components in the boiling point range and similarly, the critical properties of the components
within a boiling point range will also vary. With this in mind, removing the contaminating
species from a constituent pseudo component should therefore also change the critical
properties, which in turn affects the phase behaviour and the calculated fluid properties. As
such, adjusting the composition of the constituent component to what is believed to be the
"clean" composition, does not fully capture reality. Essentially the decontamination procedure
assumes that the contaminant and the reservoir fluid have exactly the same chemical
components in a boiling point range, which are then proportionally removed, such that the
critical properties of the constituent component remain unchanged. As such, this procedure
may not always result in a reliable fluid description, which is why additional validation is
required to ensure that the "clean" EOS can in fact be used to describe the fluid behaviour
over a range of operating conditions.

More extensive EOS validation in addition to simulating the Lab experiments is recommended
because with each additional validation, the confidence the predictive nature of the
characterised EOS is increased. For example, one such additional validation step would be to
use it as the fluid description in a PROSPER model and to test whether well test data can
reproduced through time. This is covered in more detail in Example 4 643 .

3.5.8 Decontamination Summary

With this the decontamination of a characterised EOS has been completed and it could now
be used to describe the fluid properties as the fluid travels from the reservoir through the well
and surface network to the production separator and beyond to a processing plant.

In summary, we:

1. Determined that our fluid sample was contaminated since the compositional profile in the
medium to high hydrocarbon region was not following a smooth trend. As such, the need for
a decontamination procedure was recognised.

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2. Since the lab experiments were performed on this contaminated fluid sample, it was
decided to perform a characterisation on the contaminated fluid, since with this
methodology atleast we have some confidence in the EOS providing a description of the
contaminated fluid.
3. The characterisation was performed similar to the Oil 475 characterisation example, with only
exception in procedure being the splitting of the pseudo component. Here we used the
Follow Profile facility in PVTp, to enter a composition for PVTp to follow when calculating
the compositional profile for the constituent pseudo components.
4. The characterised EOS was then used to perform the decontamination, for which there are
two possible procedures:
A. Decontaminating the fluid by specifying the expected or actual composition of the fluid less
the contaminats
B. Decontaminating the fluid by specifying the total fraction of contaminants in the fluid and
also their respective composition.
5. Possible Validation procedures for the decontaminated fluid compositions were proposed to
ensure that the decontaminated fluid can actually accurately describe the reservoir fluid
behaviour over a range of operating conditions, e.g. a well test.

It should be remembered that performing a decontamination does not guarantee that the
resultant decontaminated fluid is necessarily representative of the actual reservoir fluid such
that extensive validation against a variety of data sets is recommended. If it is not possible to
sufficiently reproduce the fluid behaviour using the decontaminated fluid description, then this
may provide grounds for performing an additional PVT study.

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3.6 Example 4 - Additional EOS validation

3.6.1 Scenario
An oil reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated model
is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model is to be
comprised of a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated and therefore the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather
than a Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

Fluid samples were taken in the field and analysed in a laboratory, where they were
recombined to an incorrectly reported GOR, e.g. production had not yet stabilised, such that
the saturation pressure at reservoir conditions measured in the lab is above the initial reservoir
pressure, which is not physical. To correct for this a recombination to a target PSAT 173 was
performed to estimate a fluid composition more in line with the observed saturation pressure.
However, as such a recombination is a mathematical procedure, it is important to ensure that
the resulting EOS model is validated against a variety of data source and in particular tested
against field data to ensure that it provides a representative description of the fluid properties.

With this in mind, the engineer has been tasked with performing additional validation of the
recombined EOS model by determining whether the EOS can reproduce the data collected
during a recent well test using the VLP/IPR matching procedure in PROSPER.

3.6.2 Data Available

The available well test data is summarised in the table below.

Units
Tubing Head 400 psig
Pressure
Tubing Head 130 degF
Temperature
Water Cut 0 %
Liquid Rate 3650 STB/day
Gauge Depth 2200 ft
Gauge Pressure 720 psig
Reservoir Pressure 2000 psia
solGOR 667 scf/STB

The engineer has also been supplied with:

A copy of the characterised EOS model

A *.prp file, which contains the characterised EOS model and can be imported into

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PROSPER.
A copy of the well model

For similar wells in the same reservoir the PE-2 vertical lift correlation has shown to give good
agreement with well test data and so should be used for this example.

3.6.3 Workflow Summary

Validating an EOS model requires a more holistic approach in order to reconcile data
gathered from a number of different sources. For example, an EOS model may reproduce the
results from the laboratory experiments but when applied in the field to reproduce well test
data may be unable to do so. With this in mind, it is important to continuously challenge the
EOS model against a variety of data sources to ensure it provides a consistent representation
of the fluid behaviour.

One of such validations could be to challenge the EOS model with available well test data -
i.e. will the EOS be able to reproduce the measured pressure profile along the well?

Using the supplied, well and EOS models, the VLP/IPR matching procedure will be performed
to gauge whether the EOS provides an representative description of the fluid properties.

If the EOS is found to be unable to reproduce the test data, this means that it does not
provide an accurate description of the fluid properties, suggesting that the characterisation
and/or the recombination procedure may require review.

3.6.4 VLP/IPR matching

To start the VLP/IPR matching procedure, please navigate to the Sample files (Start |
Petroleum Experts IPM 11.0 Sample Files | Open Samples Installation Folder | PVTP |
Example 4 Additional EOS Validation) and open the Sample file ("Validation Initial.out")
containing the well model. The *.prp file has already been imported into the PVT section.

In PROSPER, navigate to the VLP/IPR matching screen, which can be accessed via Matching

| Matching | VLP/IPR (Quality Check) or by pressing in the Analysis

Summary section.

In the window that opens, enter the well test data as provided under Data Available 643 .

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The first step is to match ensure that the temperature profile along the well is reproduced.
This can be achieved by regressing on the heat transfer coefficient required to reproduce the
measured well head tempeature from the test. To do so press Estimate U Value. When the
calculation is complete a window will appear detailing the outcome of the regression and the
calculated U value. Press OK to carry this value forward to the vertical lift correlation
comparison. Progress to the correlation comparison by pressing Correlation Comparision.

In the window that opens, select the correlations that are to be compared against the test
data (1) and then press Calc. (2) in order for the gradient calculation to be performed with
each correlation.

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To verify whether the well test data is physical, first select the Duns and Ros Modified and
Fancher Brown correlations. This is because these two correlations form the limits of reality,
i.e. the most extreme pressure gradients that are possible. The Fancher Brown correlation
assumes that there is no slip, i.e. gas and liquid travel at the same velocity, and thus mixture
density and in turn the pressure drop are at a minimum. In the case of Duns and Ros
Modified, the original correlation was adapted to overestimate slip in the slug flow regime
resulting in higher mixture densities and thus a higher pressure drop. Since either of these
correlations represent the most extreme pressure gradients, ideally the gauge pressure
should lie between those two profiles. This can be verified pressing Plot (3) to visualise the
calculated gradients in relation to the well test data.

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From the plot it can be seen that the well test point lies comfortably between the two
extremes and thus it can be concluded that the well test data is physical in the current model.

Next return to the, correlation comparison screen and also select the Petroleum Experts 2
correlation. The reason for this is that this correlation has been shown to provide a good
description of the well performance for similar wells in the same reservoir and is thus
considered as a good starting point. With PE-2 selected, repeat the calculation and then plot
the results like before.

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As can be seen from the graph above, the calculated and measured downhole gauge
pressure are in good agreement. This suggest that at least for this particular well test, the
recombined EOS does provide a representative description of the fluid properties.

The real challenge now will be to see whether the EOS will be able to consistently reproduce
well test date through time as the well's flowing conditions change. If deviations from the test
date are observed in the future then potential reasons for this deviation should be investigated
- these may include:
the fluid PVT description (i.e. the EOS)
the downhole equipment description (i.e. the tubing roughness, internal diameter, etc. may
have changed over time)
the well test data (i.e. measurement inaccuracies, path to surface inconsistency, etc.)

The decision on which of the above is the likely culprit for the observed deviations is best
made by the engineers most familiar with the well and reservoir in question.

3.6.5 Additional Validation Summary

With this the additional validation procedure has been completed for the time being, and now
greater confidence can be placed in the EOS's capability of describing the fluid properties
over a range of conditions in the field. To further increase the confidence in the EOS
description, the EOS should be continued to be validated and challenged against a multitude
of available field data.

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In summary:

1. The test data was entered in PROSPER and the calculated well head temperature matched
against the measured temperature by adjusting the heat transfer coefficient
2. The two most extreme pressure profiles were calculated with the Duns and Ross
Modified and Fancher Brown correlations to determine whether given the well model the
well test data is physical, i.e. the gauge data is between the two extremes.
3. The pressure gradient was then calculated using the Petroleum Experts 2 correlation, as
this is a correlation already known to be applicable to similar wells in the same field. The
calculated pressure gradient was found to be very close to the measured data.
4. Contiunous validation against a well tests as they become available was proposed to
further increase confidence in the EOS's description of the fluid properties.

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3.7 Example 5 - Recombination

This guide intends to demonstrate the thinking process behind a Target Psat 173 and Target
GOR 170 recombination procedure in PVTp.

By the nature, for a recombination procedure, a characterised EOS description of the fluid is
required. As such, this guide assumes that the user is familiar with characterising an EOS
against available Lab Data and that this has already been performed prior to this example.
For a guide on the fluid characterisation process, please refer to the Oil 475 and/or Retrograde
Condensate 556 examples.

It should also be noted that a recombination is a purely mathematical procedure to create a

fluid composition of a specified saturation pressure at a given temperature or GOR. As such,
no guarantee can be given that the resulting fluid composition and EOS are representative of
the actual reservoir fluid and therefore additional validation of the recombinated fluid is
required.

3.7.1 Example 5.1 Target Psat

3.7.1.1 Scenario
An oil reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated model
is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model is to be
comprised of a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated and therefore the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather
than a Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

Fluid samples were taken in the field and analysed in a laboratory, where they were
recombined to an incorrectly reported GOR, e.g. production had not yet stabilised, such that
the saturation pressure at reservoir conditions measured in the lab is above the initial reservoir
pressure, which is not physical. With this in mind, the engineer has been tasked with using the
available lab data to develop a representativ EOS description for the reservoir fluid using
PVTp.
3.7.1.2 Data Available
The following data is at the engineer’s disposal:
• Fluid composition
• Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment
• Differential Liberation (DiffLib) experiment
• Separator (SEP) experiment

3.7.1.2.1 Reservoir Conditions

Units

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Reservoir Pressure 2000 psia

Reservoir 185 °F
Temperature
Reservoir Depth 4400 ft
3.7.1.2.2 Recombined Composition
Component Mol%
N2 0
CO2 0.8
C1 36.22
C2 8.65
C3 7.78
iC4 1.94
nC4 4.58
iC5 2.26
nC5 2.42
C6 3.25
C7+ 32.1

Mean Molecular Weight of C7+ fraction = 220 g/mol

Mean Specific Gravity of C7+ fraction = 0.87

3.7.1.2.3 CCE Experiment

Pressure Relative Oil Oil
, (psia) Volume, (V/ Density, Viscosity,
Vsat) (kg/m3) (cp)
4000 0.97 661 0.49
3600 0.976 657 0.48
3200 0.982 653 0.47
2800 0.987 649 0.46
2339 0.994 644 0.44
2200 0.997 643 0.43
2091** 1 641 0.42
2000* 1.021 - 0.43
1750 1.093 - 0.44
1500 1.199 - 0.45
1250 1.36 - 0.46
1000 1.621 - 0.47
750 2.084 - 0.48
500 2.92 - 0.51
200 7.691 - 0.61

* Reservoir Pressure
** Saturation Pressure

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3.7.1.2.4 DiffLib Experiment

Pressure Oil Cummulative Oil FVF,
, (psia) Density, GOR, (bbl/
(kg/m3) (scf/bblresidual) bblresidual)
4000 661 996 1.636
3600 657 996 1.638
3200 653 996 1.655
2800 649 996 1.665
2339 644 996 1.677
2200 643 996 1.680
2091** 641 996 1.686
1757 655 842 1.611
1408 669 700 1.538
1067 681 571 1.477
711 696 445 1.412
370 707 311 1.310
15 789 1.057

* Reservoir Pressure
** Saturation Pressure
3.7.1.2.5 SEP Experiment
SEP Experiment 1:

Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)
80 75 661 1.088 0.842
0 75 110 1.007 1.33

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.8145 or 42.2°API

SEP Experiment 2:

Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)
40 75 735 1.088 0.888
0 75 29 1.007 1.447

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.8140 or 42.3°API

SEP Experiment 3:

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Pressure Temperatur Gas Oil Oil FVF, Gas Gravity

, (psig) e, (°F) Ratio, (bbl/stb)
(scf/stb)
0 75 754 1.007 0.961

Stock Tank Oil Gravity 0.8139 or 42.35°API

3.7.1.3 Saturation Pressure Check
After quality checking the available lab data it can be concluded that whilst the data is
sufficient and consistent with itself, such that a characterisation can be performed, the
measured saturation pressure at reservoir conditions is inconsistent with the reported
reservoir pressure.

At the time of sampling, the reservoir pressure was reported as 2000psia at a depth of
4400ft, whereas the saturation pressure at 185°F was measured to be 2091psia in the
laboratory. This is unphysical since in a reservoir, the reservoir pressure would be expected to
be at a minimum equal to the saturation, but generally not below.

The most extreme case, i.e. saturation pressure is equal to reservoir pressure, occurs at the
Gas-Oil-Contact (GOC), where the gas and oil phase are in equilibrium such that the gas and
oil phase pressure must be the same. If we go beyond this limit, i.e. saturation pressure is
greater than reservoir pressure at the point of sampling, then this would suggest that the
reservoir is not in equilibrium as the gas and liquid phase are still in the process of separating
This would typically not be the case, especially not prior to the start of production, as the
reservoir would have equilibrated over the past millennia.

With the saturation pressure being higher than the reservoir pressure, this indicates that the
fluid samples may have been recombined to an incorrect GOR. This may be a result of the
GOR having been incorrectly reported when the samples were taken, e.g. the well production
had not fully stabilised, inaccuracies in the recombination procedure in the laboratory, etc.

As such, the analysed fluid is not representative of the reservoir fluid as both the GOR and
saturation pressure are different.

3.7.1.4 Workflow Summary

The first step in building an EOS description of any fluid is to quality check the laboratory
results. This can be done by establishing whether the data available is sufficient to describe
the fluid’s behaviour over the range of conditions it will be exposed to over the field’s life time
and whether it is physical. From our initial quality check of the lab report, we concluded that
the fluid sample in inconsistent with the known reservoir conditions at the time of sampling,
since the measured saturation pressure is higher than the measured reservoir pressure. As
such the analysed fluid is unrepresentative of the reservoir fluid and we will need to adjust our
characterisation workflow accordingly.

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Since the fluid was possibly not recombined to correct saturation pressure, the lab results
actually provide a description of the incorrectly recombined fluid's behaviour rather than the
reservoir fluid. With this in mind, we will aim to develop an EOS description for the incorrectly
recombined fluid that can reproduce the lab results. The characterisation procedure is
identically to the normal characterisation of a correctly recombined fluid, besides final step of
recombining the characterised EOS to desired saturation pressure at reservoir conditions
using the Target Psat methodology developed in house by Petroleum Experts.

The general workflow is summarised in the graphic below.

In this guide it is assumed that the user is confident with performing the general
characterisation workflow and only the steps unique to a recombination will be discussed in
detail.

3.7.1.5 Recombination
To ensure consistent results are achieved, a sample file
("Example_5_1_TargetPsat_Initial.pvi") with the characterised EOS has been provided. The
sample file can be accessed via Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.5 Samples | PVTP |
Example 5 Recombination.

Now that the EOS has been fully characterised and validated against the lab data of
incorrectly recombined fluid samples, we can be confident that the EOS at least provides an
accurate description of that fluid's properties over the range of conditions tested in the
laboratory. With this in place, we can now proceed with the recombination procedure of the
characterised EOS in PVTp, as part of which the current fluid composition will be adjusted
until the calculated and specified saturation pressure at the reservoir temperature are within a
tolerance.

Before we continue, with the recombination procedure, we need to determine what the correct
saturation pressure at reservoir conditions should be. For an oil, one possible approach could
be to use the Black Oil properties measured in the field (i.e. GOR, API and Gas gravity) as
inputs to Black Oil correlations to get an idea of the range of reasonable saturation pressures.
However, it should be remembered that these correlations were often developed for specific
fluid types, e.g, heavy oils, and that the composition of the tested fluids may be quite different

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to our reservoir fluid. As such the decision on what saturation pressure is reasonable for a
particular field can only be made by engineers familiar with the field.

In our case, tests have shown that the reservoir is currently above saturation as for low rates/
drawdown the GOR at the production separator is near constant, however when the
drawdown was increased and the the bottomhole pressure lowered, it was observed that the
produced GOR increased. The reservoir is known not to have a gas cap, so the increase in
producing GOR can only be explained by the pressure in the near wellbore region dropping
below the saturation pressure. This considered, the saturation pressure at reservoir conditions
was estimated to be around 1900psia.

To perform the recombination to a target Saturation Pressure, the Targe PSAT object can be
selected from the Characterisation ribbon and added to the canvas:

Connect the current, matched PVT Sample to this new object and then also add a new PVT
Sample (called PSAT 1900) to the model:

Before we continue with the recombination it is worthwhile briefly discussing the two
recombination methods, Use fluids from near PSAT and Use Separator Fluids, and to
highlight differences between the two.

Use fluids from near PSAT, flashes the original composition to just below the saturation
pressure at the specified temperature and then recombines the resultant gas and liquid
phases in order to reproduce the desired saturation pressure or GOR. Since both the gas and
liquid phase have the same saturation pressure at the specified temperature, this
methodology is limited to generally increasing the fluid's saturation pressure or GOR. That
said, this methodology can also be used to recombine to a lower saturation pressure,
although the internal procedure is slightly different.

The plot below, which can be accessed by pressing after the calculation has been preformed
via the PSAT Profile, shows the different saturation pressures that can be achieved by

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recombining the gas and liquid fluid compositions. As explained above, the minimum saturation
pressure is obtained when recombining 100% liquid or 100% gas. It should be noted that if a
data point is contained within a black square, this signifies that at the specified temperature
the fluid is a gas, i.e. Psat is to the right of the critical point.

Use Separator Fluids, flashes the original composition through the specified separator train
to standard conditions and then recombines the resultant gas and liquid phases to reproduce
the desired saturation pressure. Since the two fluids' saturation pressure and GOR are quite
different it is possible to recombine fluids to a larger variety of GORs/saturation pressures.

The plot below, which can be accessed by pressing after the calculation has been preformed
via the PSAT Profile, shows the different saturation pressures that can be achieved by
recombining the separator gas and liquid compositions. It should be noted that if a data point
is contained within a black square, this signifies that at the specified temperature the fluid is a
gas, i.e. Psat is to the right of the critical point.

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The Use fluids near PSAT method is generally more representative of the physical
processes in reality as in-situ compositions are recombined. The Use Separator fluids
method on the other hand essentially assumes that the fluid is taken to standard conditions
through a separator train, then recombined at surface before being returned to in-situ
conditions. This process is clearly not entirely representative of what happens in reality.

That being said, the Use Separator fluids method has one major advantage over the Use
fluids near PSAT method - its flexibility. For example as discussed previously, the Use fluids
near PSAT method cannot be used to recombine the fluid to a GOR much lower than the
original GOR, since the liquid phase, which represents the minimum GOR, is quite similar in
composition and thus GOR to the original fluid. As such, when performing recombination
procedures, the Use Separator fluids method is preferred although it cannot achieve as high
saturation pressures as the Use fluids near PSAT method.

Whilst both methods can be used to achieve our objective, the Use fluid from near PSAT,
typically yields higher saturation pressures as shown in the plots above

The former performs the recombination using the gas and liquid phase compositions near the
current saturation pressure, where as the latter uses the gas and liquid composition observed
after the separator train. Since the compositions used for recombination are quite different
between the two methodologies, the results can be expected to be quite different between the
two methodologies. For example, with the Use fluids from near PSAT method higher
saturation pressures compared to the Use Separator Fluids method can be achieved. This is
because for the separator fluids, the range in saturation pressure between the gas and liquid
phase is quite large, whereas for the

The above being considered, we will now perform the recombination using the Use Separator

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Fluids method:

1. Select the method that will be used to perform the recombination, in our case User
Separator Fluids
2. Enter the desired saturation pressure (1900psia)
3. Select the Use Reservoir Temperature From PVT Sample to use the previously entered
reservoir temperature (185degF)
4. Select the resultant fluid type, in our case the recombined stream will be an oil.
5. Select Use Separator Train and then select the SEPARATOR calculation object which has
already been setup to with the correct path to surface.
6. Press Calculate to perform the recombination procedure.

As we have connected a PVT Fluid to the object, the resultant composition will also be
exported.

We can then run calculations on the new composition by selecting the PVT Fluid object (called
PSAT 1900) on the main screen. This can be done by right clicking on the object and
selecting Select:

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A Phase Envelope calculation object already exists in the Calculation section and so double
click on it to open it up. Leave the input data as the defaults and then select Calculate. Go to
the Results Plot section to see the new phase envelope and how it compares with the
original:

From the phase envelope, it can be seen that the saturation pressure of the new fluid is
slightly lower than the original and it matches the target value of 1900psia. Exit the Phase
Envelope object by selecting OK.

Next, the separator values can be calculated via the predefined Separator Train calculation
object. Double click on it and ensure that the separator train is as shown below:

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Select Calculate and then go to the Results Table screen to see the results.

3.7.1.5.1 Validation
With the recombination procedure completed, we now have a fluid composition that matches
our expected saturation pressure at reservoir conditions. However before we can use this
EOS as a description of the reservoir fluid, further validation against field data is required to
improve confidence in its predictive capabilities. The reasoning for this is as follows:

Since the original fluid sample was incorrectly recombined and then analysed in the lab, the
characterisation was performed on the basis of the data gathered from the different
experiments. At the end of the characterisation procedure, the EOS was found to be capable
of reproducing the lab experiments and therefore we were able to place some confidence in
its description of the incorrectly recombined fluid over the range of conditions tested in the lab.

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The subsequent recombination procedure to a known or estimated saturation pressuse is a

purely mathematical procedure, such that dependent on the methodology used, multiple
solutions are possible, of which in fact none may be representative of the true chemical
composition at reservoir conditions

More extensive EOS validation in addition to simulating the Lab experiments is recommended
because with each additional validation, the confidence the predictive nature of the
characterised EOS is increased. For example, one such additional validation step would be to
use it as the fluid description in a PROSPER model and to test whether well test data can
reproduced through time. This is covered in more detail in Example 4 643 .

3.7.1.6 Recombination Summary

With this the recombination of a characterised EOS has been completed and it could now be
used to describe the fluid properties as the fluid travels from the reservoir through the well and
surface network to the production separator and beyond to a processing plant.

In summary, we:

1. Determined that our fluid sample was incorrectly recombined in the lab as the
measured saturation pressure at reservoir conditions was higher than the known
reservoir pressure of 2000psia. As such, the need for a recombination procedure was
recognised.
2. Since the lab experiments were performed on this incorrectly recombined fluid
sample, it was decided to perform a characterisation on its basis, since with this
methodology at least we have some confidence in the EOS providing a description of
that fluid.
3. The characterisation was performed similar to the Oil 475 characterisation example.
4. The characterised EOS was then used to perform the recombination procedure using
the Use Separator Fluids method.
5. Possible Validation procedures for the recombined fluid composition were proposed
to ensure that the EOS can actually accurately describe the reservoir fluid behaviour
over a range of operating conditions, e.g. a well test.

It should be remembered that performing a recombination does not guarantee that the
resultant fluid is necessarily representative of the actual reservoir fluid such that extensive
validation against a variety of data sets is recommended. If it is not possible to sufficiently
reproduce the fluid behaviour using the recombined EOS, then this may provide grounds for
performing an additional PVT study.

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3.7.2 Example 5.2 Target GOR

3.7.2.1 Scenario
An oil reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated model
is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model is to be
comprised of a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated and therefore the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather
than a Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

Fluid samples were taken in the field and analysed in a laboratory and a characterisation was
performed in PVTp. Initially, the reservoir pressure was producing above the bubble point but
has since dropped below the bubble point, initially resulting in an increase in production GOR
due to the free gas being produced as well as the oil and water. The engineer has been
tasked with using the EOS description of the original reservoir fluid to perform a
recombination study in PVTp to obtain a EOS model capable of describing the fluid currently
being produced.
3.7.2.2 Data Available
The engineer has been provided with a copy of the PVT model developed for the original
reservoir fluid ("Example5_2_TargetGOR_Initial.pvi"), which can be accessed via Start |
Petroleum Experts IPM 12.5 Samples | PVTP | Recombination.

Using the following reference separator train, see table below, the original produced reservoir
fluids had a GOR of 771 scf/STB. In the mean time as the reservoir pressure dropped below
the bubble point, the produced GOR has increased to around 1200scf/STB, using the same
reference separator train.

Gas Oil
Pressure Temperatur
Ratio,
, (psig) e, (°F)
(scf/stb)
80 75 661
0 75 110

3.7.2.3 Recombination
As the EOS was characterised and validated in the field over the time of production, we can
be confident that it provides an accurate description of the undersaturated fluid. With this in
mind, we can now proceed with the recombination procedure to achieve a desired GOR, as
part of which the current fluid composition will be adjusted until the calculated and specified
GOR using the specified separator train are within a tolerance.

To perform the recombination to a target GOR value, a Target GOR object be added to the
canvas from the Characterisation ribbon:

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Connect the current, matched PVT Sample to this new object and then also add a new PVT
Sample (called GOR 1200) to the model:

Before we continue with the recombination it is worthwhile briefly discussing the two
recombination methods, Use fluids from near PSAT and Use Separator Fluids, and to
highlight differences between the two.

Use fluids from near PSAT, flashes the original composition to just below the saturation
pressure at the specified temperature and then recombines the resultant gas and liquid
phases and flashes them to standard conditions using the specified separator train in order to
reproduce the desired GOR. This methodology is generally limited to increasing the fluid's
GOR because the minimum GOR is still quite similar to the original fluids GOR as the fluid
was flashed to just below PSAT and only a small amount of gas was evolved, such that the
composition remains near unchanged.

Use Separator Fluids, flashes the original composition through the specified separator train
to standard conditions and then recombines the resultant gas and liquid phases to reproduce
the desired GOR. Since the two fluids' GOR are quite different it is possible to recombine
fluids to a larger variety of GORs.

The Use fluids near PSAT method is generally more representative of the physical
processes in reality as in-situ compositions are recombined. The Use Separator fluids
method on the other hand essentially assumes that the fluid is taken to standard conditions
through a separator train, then recombined at surface before being returned to in-situ
conditions. This process is clearly not entriely representative of what happens in reality.
That being said, the Use Separator fluids method has one major advantage over the Use
fluids near PSAT method - its flexibility. As discussed previously, the Use fluids near PSAT
method cannot be used to recombine the fluid to a GOR much lower than the original GOR,
since the liquid phase, which represents the minimum GOR, is quite similar in composition and
thus GOR to the original fluid. As such, when performing recombination procedures, the Use
Separator fluids method is preferred although the resultant fluid composition may not be as

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representative.

In our case, both methods can be used to achieve our objective, as the fluid's GOR is to be
increased. We will therefore use both methods and perform a comparison of the resultant
compositions.

To perform the recombination using the Use Separator Fluids method:

1. Select the method that will be used to perform the recombination, in our case User
Separator Fluids
2. Enter the desired GOR, in our case 1200 scf/STB
3. Select Use Separator Train.
4. Select the SEPARATOR calculation object which has already been setup to with the correct
path to surface.
5. Press Create Stream to perform the recombination procedure.

This will save the new composition into the GOR 1200 PVT Sample object.

In order to do a comparison with the Use fluids from near PSAT add a new TargetGOR and
PVT Sample as shown below:

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To perform the recombination using the Use fluids from near PSAT method:

1. Select the method that will be used to perform the recombination, in our case User Fluids
near PSAT
2. Enter the desired GOR, in our case 1200 scf/STB.
3. Select Use Reservoir Temperature from PVT Sample
4. Select Use Separator Train.
5. Select the SEPARATOR calculation object which has already been setup to with the correct
path to surface.
6. Press Create Stream to perform the recombination procedure.

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When the recombination is complete, for the Use Fluids from near PSAT method, the minimum
and maximum possible GOR is displayed to guide the user when performing such a
recombination.

The next step is to run a few calculations to see the impact of the different techniques. To do
this, first select both the the PVT Samples from the canvas (by right clicking on the object and
pressing select). When this is done, small green ticks should appear next to each sample:

Now go to the Calculations screen and double click on the Phase Envelope object. Leave the
input data as the defaults and then select Calculate. Go to the Results Plot section to see
the new phase envelopes and how they compares with the original:

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As can be seen from the phase envelopes above, even though the recombined fluids both
have the same GOR, the phase envelopes are quire different. In fact at the reservoir
temperature, 185degF, the recombined fluid using the Use fluids from near PSAT
methodology has a saturation pressure that is roughly 200psia higher than that using the Use
Separator fluids, which is an indication of the compositions being quite different.

Next, the separator values can be calculated via the predefined Separator Train calculation
object. Double click on it and ensure that the separator train is as shown below:

Select Results Table to see the results of each of the new streams:

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From the separator calculations above, it can be seen that the total GOR in both cases was
increased from 783scf/STB to 1200scf/STB. It can also be noticed that the remaining fluid
properties have changed, in particularly the liquid density at standard conditions, similarly to
the saturation pressure, this is indicative for the compositions being different between the two
methods. Generally, it would have been expected that the liquid density would increase slightly
because as there is more lighter components in the fluid, and thus the heavier components
tend to stay in the liquid phase rather than partially vaporising. As such, the remaining liquid
phase is more concentrated in heavy components, which increases the density of the liquid
phase. With this in mind, if we look at the liquid density from the two recombination methods,
it can be seen that the recombined fluid using fluids from near PSAT has a slightly higher
density than the original fluid, whilst the recombined fluid using separator fluids in fact has a
slightly lower density.

To understand why these differences are observed, we need to take a look at the
composition profiles of the two recombined fluids.

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From the plots above (which can be obtained in the PVT Samples object for each fluid), it can
be seen that the composition of the heavy end components is near identical for the two
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methods and this is of course a result of the evolved gas containing few of these heavy
components. If we look at the opposite spectrum however, we can see that there are distinct
differences between the two compositions, especially for C1 to C3. This difference can be
attributed to the gas composition that is being added to the liquid composition. The gas
evolved near PSAT will be rich in methane, C1, as it is the most volatile component and thus
prefers to be in the vapour phase. The separator gas however is the combination of all the
gas evolved at each separator stage and will thus contain not only methane but also more
ethane, C2, and propane, C3, which are evolved at later separator stages once the bulk of
methane is evolved. This can explain the observed difference in the composition of the two
fluids as one is essentially mixed with methane, whilst the other is mixed with methane, ethane
and propane.

Having understood the composition, we can also explain the observed difference in density at
standard conditions, since in one there are more lighter components, meaning there is a
greater disparity in the molecular interactions and thus the heavy components remain more
predominantly in the liquid phase increasing the liquid density.

3.7.2.3.1 Validation
With the recombination procedure completed, we now have a fluid composition that matches
our expected GOR using the reference separator train. However before we can use this EOS
as a description of the reservoir fluid, further validation against field data is required to
improve confidence in its predictive capabilities. The reasoning for this is as follows:

The original EOS was well validated against not only the lab data but was also able to
consistently reproduce the well test data, meaning that it provided a representative description
of the fluid properties. The subsequent recombination procedure to a GOR is a purely
mathematical procedure, such that dependent on the methodology used, multiple solutions are
possible, of which in fact none may be fully representative of the true chemical composition
being produced.

More extensive EOS validation in addition to simulating the Lab experiments is recommended
because with each additional validation, the confidence the predictive nature of the
characterised EOS is increased. For example, one such additional validation step would be to
use it as the fluid description in a PROSPER model and to test whether well test data can
reproduced through time. This is covered in more detail in Example 4 643 .
3.7.2.4 Recombination Summary
With this the recombination of a characterised EOS has been completed and it could now be
used to describe the fluid properties as the fluid travels from the reservoir through the well and
surface network to the production separator and beyond to a processing plant.

In summary, we:

1. Determined that our fluid sample was incorrectly recombined in the lab as the measured

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saturation pressure at reservoir conditions was higher than the known reservoir pressure of
2000psia. As such, the need for a recombination procedure was recognised.
2. Since the lab experiments were performed on this incorrectly recombined fluid sample, it
was decided to perform a characterisation on its basis, since with this methodology at least
we have some confidence in the EOS providing a description of that fluid.
3. The characterisation was performed similar to the Oil 475 characterisation example.
4. The characterised EOS was then used to perform the recombination procedure using the
Use Separator Fluids method.
5. Possible Validation procedures for the recombined fluid composition were proposed to
ensure that the EOS can actually accurately describe the reservoir fluid behaviour over a
range of operating conditions, e.g. a well test.

It should be remembered that performing a recombination does not guarantee that the
resultant fluid is necessarily representative of the actual reservoir fluid such that extensive
validation against a variety of data sets is recommended. If it is not possible to sufficiently
reproduce the fluid behaviour using the recombined EOS, then this may provide grounds for
performing an additional PVT study.

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3.8 Example 6 - Lumping/ Delumping

3.8.1 Scenario
A condensate reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated
model is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model
encapsulates a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated. As such the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather than a
Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

Based on a fluid sample taken in the field, an EOS description was developed in PVTp and
validated against the available lab data. This EOS model is comprised of overall 16
components, 10 pure and 6 pseudo components.

The different components of the integrated model, reservoir, well, surface network and
process model all have different requirements for the EOS model used. For instance, in order
to capture the thermal properties of the fluid within the process model more accurately, a
detailed composition is required. On the other hand in the reservoir model, smaller component
models are preferred as this can significantly reduce the run time.

With this in mind, instead of compromising between the needs of either type of model, the
engineer has been tasked with developing an equivalent EOS model with no more than 6
components for the reservoir model. Such a lumping procedure can be performed in PVTp.
For a worked example of how lumping/delumping is performed in an Integrated Model, please
refer to the RESOLVE User Manual.

Please refer to Lumping 231 for further information on how the procedure is performed.

3.8.2 Data Available

The following data is at the engineer’s disposal:
• Fluid composition
• Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment
• Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) experiment
• Separator (SEP) experiment

The engineer has also been supplied with a copy of the characterised EOS.

3.8.2.1 Reservoir Conditions

Units
Reservoir Pressure 5975 psia

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Reservoir 250 °F
Temperature
Reservoir Depth 10000 ft
3.8.2.2 Recombined Composition
Compone
Mol%
nt
N2 0.62
H2S 0.00
CO2 12.11
C1 57.22
C2 7.86
C3 5.15
iC4 0.73
nC4 2.04
iC5 0.65
nC5 0.9
C6 2.09
C7 1.92
C8 1.36
C9 0.77
C10 0.96
C11 0.69
C12 0.54
C13 0.56
C14 0.48
C15 0.4
C16 0.33
C17 0.33
C18 0.27
C19 0.19
C20+ 1.83
Average Molecular Weight 44 g/mol.
3.8.2.3 CCE Experiment
Coefficient of Gas Retrograde
Calculated
Compressibil Relative Deviatio Specific Condensate % of Liquid
Pressur Gas
ity, Volume, n Volume, dew-point Dropout,
e, (psia) viscosity,
(cc/cc/psi (V/Vsat) Factor, (cc/g) volume, (%)
(cp)
(10-6)) (-) (%)
8000 - 0.927 1.445 0.0446 - - -
7500 30.0 0.941 1.375 0.0428 - - -
7160* 32.0 0.951 1.327 0.0416 2.03 - -
7000 33.2 0.956 1.304 0.0410 - - -
6500 37.8 0.975 1.234 0.0394 - - -

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5975** 46.4 0.999 1.162 0.0377 2.13 - -

5945*** 47.9 1.000 1.158 0.0376 2.13 0.00 0.00
5500 - 1.027 - - - 16.41 15.98
5000 - 1.069 - - - 29.10 27.22
4500 - 1.124 - - - 33.60 29.89
4000 - 1.201 - - - 35.45 29.52
3500 - 1.309 - - - 36.45 27.85
3000 - 1.468 - - - 36.55 24.90
2500 - 1.713 - - - 36.05 21.04
2000 - 2.116 - - - 34.99 16.54
1500 - 2.848 - - - 33.15 11.64
1000 - 4.436 - - - 31.00 6.99
500 - 9.542 - - - 28.45 2.98

* Specific volume at initial reservoir pressure 2.03 cm3/g

** Specific volume at current reservoir pressure 2.13 cm3/g
*** Specific volume at dew-point pressure 2.13 cm3/g
3.8.2.4 CVD Experiment
Retrograde
Produced Gas
Stage Pressure Gas Gravity, 2 Phase Condensate % of
Z-Factor, viscosity,
Number , (psia) (-) Z-Factor dew-point volume,
(-) (cp)
(%)
0 5945 1.518 1.158 1.158 0.03759 0
1 5500 1.392 1.093 1.1 0.0345 16.41
2 5000 1.283 1.022 1.043 0.0314 28.02
3 4500 1.203 0.951 0.992 0.0285 32.02
4 4000 1.129 0.911 0.948 0.0259 34
5 3500 1.063 0.888 0.908 0.0235 34.48
6 3000 1.013 0.875 0.869 0.0214 34.1
7 2500 0.969 0.871 0.832 0.0194 33.5
8 2000 0.946 0.879 0.798 0.0177 32.23
9 1500 0.931 0.895 0.75 0.016 30.55
10 1000 0.933 0.917 0.674 0.0146 28.49
11 500 0.955 0.954 0.497 0.0133 26.46

Separator conditions:
Stage 1 – 366 psia, 70 °F
Stage 2 – 14.7 psia, 60 °F
3.8.2.5 SEP Experiment
Liquid
Tempera Gas
Stage Pressure Gas Oil Ratio, Volume
ture, Gravity,
Number , (psia) (scf/STB) Factor,
(degF) (-)
(RB/STB)

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1 943 143.6 3541 1.289 0.828

2 827 86 0 1.243 -
3 377 80.6 153 1.175 0.827
4 102 86 150 1.106 1.052
5 14.7 60.08 92 1 1.420

Fluid density at Saturation (5945 psia and 250°F): 468 kg/m3

Liquid gravity at Standard Conditions (14.7 psia and 60°F):45.62 °API or 798.9 kg/m3

3.8.3 Workflow Summary

Before starting the Lumping/Delumping procedure the received EOS should be quality
checked, to ensure that the correct fluid description has been received and that
characterisation provides a sufficient description of the fluid properties over the range of
operating conditions.

With the quality check complete, the lumping/delumping procedure can be performed. Once
the lumped EOS has been created, it should again be quality checked to ensure that it can
deliver an equivalent description of all relevant fluid properties as the full EOS model.

With the lumped EOS quality checked, the full and lumped EOS can then be exported in a
single file, which can then be used as the fluid description in the reservoir, well, surface
network and process models.

3.8.4 Quality Check EOS

As a starting point, a quick quality check of the received EOS model will be performed, by
simulating the lab experiments and comparing them against the supplied lab data.

Please navigate to the Sample files (Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.0 Sample Files |
Open Samples Installation Folder | PVTP | Example 6 LumpingDelumping) and open the
Sample file ("Example_06_LumpingDelumping_Initial") containing the characterised EOS
model. The available lab data has already been entered but at also been provided under Data
Available 672 , see above.

Navigate to the CCE experiment double click on the CCE calculation object on the Calculation
screen:

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This will open the calculation input screen:

Press Calculate to run the calculation.

Once the calculation is complete, select the Results Plot to visualise the results. In this case
the main properties of interest are the Liquid Dropout curves and the Gas Z-factor so these
can be selected from the left hand menus:

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As can be seen from the plots above, the simulated data is in close agreement with the
measured lab data. Next, repeat the above procedure for the CVD and SEP test to confirm
that the EOS is also capable of reproducing these results.

3.8.5 Creation of Lumping Rule

Before commencing with the lumping procedure, it is worthwhile to gain a better understanding
of how the procedure is performed. The engineer can either manually sort the components
into lumps or use a previously created lumping rule to perform the lumping.

With all components assigned to lumps, PVTp can then lump the specified components by
combining their respective compositions and calculating the critical properties of the lumped
component.

Then the saturation pressure at reference conditions and the GOR from the specifed
separator train are calculated and compared against the values obtained with the full
composition.

If these are significantly different, then PVTp will perform a series of recombinations to a
target GOR and PSAT to adjust the lumped composition until the values agree. Additionally, if
the respective option has been enabled, it may also try to keep the composition of single
components constant, for example so that its composition is preserved when converting
between lumped and full compositions.

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This being said, in many cases it is not neccessarily possible to achieve all three objectives
simultaneously. For this reason these objectives have been organised into a hierachy, which
PVTp will follow. PVTP will try to achieve these objectives in the following order:

1. Hold Amount of Single Component

2. GOR
3. PSAT

It should be noted that the engineer can force PVTp to disregard any or all of the above by
disabling the respective option if so desired.

Now that the underlying procedure of creating a lumping rule has been understood and the
quality checks have been performed, the Lumping Procedure can now be commenced.

Begin by adding a Lumping object to the Characterisation screen via the Characterisation
ribbon:

So that we can store the resultant composition, also add a new PVT Sample and name it
AutoLumping:

Double click on the Lumping object to open it. In the window that opens the engineer is
confronted with many different options and input fields, whose purpose may not be
immediately obvious. As such before progressing with the lumping procedure, the different
inputs on this screen and how they affect the lumping procedure can be reviewed via the
Lumping characterisation object 231 section of the manual.

As this is a fresh file, no Lumping Rule (a relationship for converting between a full and lumped

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composition) has previously been created and therefore the lumping of components will need
to be performed manually. Ensure that Manual Lumping has been selected:

In the centre of the screen, select matching on Target GOR, PSAT and select to Use
Reservoir Temperature From PVT Sample. For the Path to Surface Data, select Use
Separator Train and then select the existing separator object.

In this first case, we are going to use the Auto Lump option with 6 components. Enter the
Num Lumps as 6 and then press Auto Lump:

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Before performing the lump, we can notice that Lump 2 has only CO2 within it. As it is a single
component, we can select Hold to hold this component constant during the lumping process.

Select Calculate to create the new lumped composition.

After the calculation has completed, it can be seen that the saturation pressure and GOR of
the lumped composition have now been calculated and they can be seen to match the full
composition very well:

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As an additional check, we can also calculate the phase envelopes. To do this, first exit the
Lumping screen by pressing select and then Select the Autolumping composition on the main
screen (this can be done by right clicking on the object and pressing Select):

Double click on the Phase Envelope object on the Calculation screen and select Auto Range
0.5 to 1 and Full and Lumped for the Calc Mode:

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After selecting Calculate, go to the Results Plot screen to see the two phase envelopes:

From the phase envelope, it can be seen that the lumped composition (orange) not only
produces a much smaller phase envelope, but also the quality lines do not line up well with
those of the full composition (blue). As such, before progressing any further with the quality
check, we can conclude, that the current lumping rule cannot provide an equivalent description
of the fluid compared to the full composition.

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So that we can audit out work, rather than delete this bad lumping, we are going to create a
new branch for a new lumping technique. Add a new Lumping and PVT Sample object to
accommodate this:

Enter the new Lumping object and setup the inputs as done previously:

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The difference this time is that rather than get the program to automatically lump our
components together, we will do this ourselves.

At this stage, the engineer is invited to experiment with different ways of organising the 16
original components into 6 lumps. To do so:

1. Select components to be added to the next lump, e.g. N2 and C1 can go into lump 1
2. Press Add Lump to add components to that lump

As a general rule, components of similar molecular weights and thus critical properties should
be lumped together, for example it would make little sense to lump C1 with the last pseudo
component as their physical properties are so different and their behaviour cannot be
expected to be similar.

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Please note, similarly to characterising a fluid, again there are many possible solutions when
performing a lumping procedure. To ensure consistency for the remainder of the example, the
lumping was performed as follows:

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Notice in the screen shot above that the final lump (which contains only the final pseudo) has
been selected to be held. This means that the composition of this component will not be
changed during the lumping process.

Select Calculate to perform the lumping.

Similarly to before, the phase envelopes of the full and lumped composition were then
compared. To do this, first select the new PVT Sample:

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Then go to the Phase Envelope calculation object and run the calculation for the same inputs
as before:

From the Results Plot screen, it can be seen that not only do the phase envelope of the full
(red) and lumped (black) composition virtually overlap, the quality lines are also in close
agreement.

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Next, the Separator calculation object can be used to see if the fluids give simulator surface
values. Setup the into values as shown below:

Select Calculate and then go to the Results Table screen to compare the results:

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We can see that whilst the oil density and GOR at standard conditions are not in perfect
agreement, they are very close, with the errors less than 0.1% and 1.5% respectfully.

As such it can be said that this lumping rule provides a much more satisfactory match and can
be put forward for further quality checking and validation.

3.8.6 Validation
Now that a lumping rule has been created that can reproduce both the saturation pressure at
reservoir conditions and the separator test to a resonable degree of accuracy, the EOS
should be further validated by comparing the performance of the lumped and full composition
when simulating the lab experiments.

For as this fluid is a retrograde condensate, the liquid dropout curve is of particular
importance, especially in the near wellbore region, where the pressure first drops below the

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saturation pressure. This in turn results in liquid dropping out from the gas phase and since the
liquid has a higher viscosity and thus lower mobility this can result in condensate banking
which can impede a wells productivity.

Furthermore, the two compositions should also provide similar description of the most
important fluid properties in the context of a reservoir model such as:

liquid dropout
viscosity
density
etc.

To test whether the two compositions provide a similar description of the above, return to the
main PVTp screen and then access the CCE calculation object as before. Before performing
the calculation, please ensure that under the Calculate option the Full and Lumped
composition have been selected:

Select Calculate to run the CCE and then go to the Results Plot screen to compare the
different outputs:

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From the two dropout curves it can be concluded that the two descriptions do provide very
similar results. This could have been expected since on the phase envelope the position of the
critical point had not changed significantly and the quality lines were in good agreement.

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There appears to be a slight difference in the calculated liquid density below saturation, but
the predicted gas densities are in good agreement. Since the volume of liquid at reservoir
conditions is initially low this is likely going to have an impact on the results when the pressure
falls below saturation. To investigate this further, an additional validation procedure using the
reservoir model could be performed, which will be explained below.

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The predictions of the phase viscosities can be found to be in good agreement although the
impact of the observed difference in oil viscosity at lower pressures should be investigated
further via validation using the reservoir model. That being said, as the lumped composition
currently over estimates the oil viscosity, this would likely result in a more conservative
estimate.

However when comparing the predicted thermal properties such as the Specific Enthalpy of
the Gas Phase, it can be seen that there is a large difference between the full and lumped
compositions. In fact this marks the main short coming of any lumped composition because to

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accurately compute the thermal properties a detailed composition is required. For this reason,
process models require a more detailed composition as these properties need to be known to
a higher degree of accuracy for the underlying thermodynamic calculations than would be
required in for example a reservoir model.

Similar results are obtained when performing the CVD experiment:

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From the above, it could be said that this lumped composition has some short comings, in
particular with regard to the prediction of the liquid phase density and viscosity. However this
does not necessarily disqualify this lumped composition from being used in the reservoir

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model.

The only way to truly determine whether the two compositions can provide equivalent results
is to compare the results of a reservoir simulation using the full and lumped compositions. In
this case, the reservoir simulation would need to be run once with the full and once with the
lumped compositions. If similar results are obtained by both models, the lumped model can be
relied upon as an equivalent description of the fluid. If not, then the lumping procedure would
need to bee repeated, possibly allowing for more lumped components to achieve a slightly
higher granularity of the results.

More extensive EOS validation in addition to simulating the Lab experiments is recommended
because with each additional validation, the confidence the predictive nature of the
characterised EOS is increased. For example, one such additional validation step would be to
use it as the fluid description in a PROSPER model and to test whether well test data can
reproduced through time. This is covered in more detail in Example 4 643 .

3.8.7 Lumping/Delumping Summary

With this the lumping procedure of a characterised EOS has been completed and the lumped
composition could now be used to provide equivalent results to the full composition in a
reservoir model. That said, it was also shown that this composition could NOT be used for the
process model as the lumped composition predicts significantly different thermal properties.

In summary, we:

1. It was determined that the EOS was fully characterised against the available lab data,
by simulating the lab experiments and comparing the results against the available data
2. Since the results were in good agreement, the lumping procedure was performed
using the manual lumping.
3. Initially, the Auto Lumping was used, however when quality checking it was found that
the predicted saturation pressure and GOR were not in good agreement with the full
composition.
4. The lumping was then repeated, which resulted in much better agreement between
the two compositions.
5. The lumped composition was then validated by simulating the lab experiments and
comparing its results against the available lab data and the predictions made by the
full composition
6. The lumped composition was found to have some weaknesses, in particularly with
regard to liquid phase density and viscosity as well as the thermal properties in
general.
7. Secondary validation via a comparison of the results of the reservoir model using
either the full or lumped composition was proposed.

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3.9 Example 7 - Flow Assurance

This guide intends to demonstrate the thinking process behind performing Flow Assurance
studies on Wax 698 , Hydrates 705 and Salt 722 formation in PVTp.

It should be noted that to fully gauge the likelihood of any of the above, these calculations
need to be performed as part of an integrated model forecast to ensure that the changes in
pressure, temperature and composition over time are captured. For worked examples of how
these calculations can be included in such a production forecast, please refer to the Flow
Assurance User Guide.

3.9.1 Example 7.1 - Wax

This guide intends to demonstrate the procedure for performing a wax study in PVTp using a
previously characterised EOS model.

3.9.1.1 Scenario
A oil reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated model is
to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model encapsulates a
numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a process model.
Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as wax formation is to be
investigated. As such the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather than a Black Oil (BO)
description of the reservoir fluid is required.

There are concerns over possible wax formation in the well and surface network, and the
engineer has been tasked with performing a wax formation study in PVTp to gauge the
likelihood of wax formation and if found to be likely, to estimate how much wax is likely to
form.

For theory on how wax formation is modelled within PVTp please refer to Wax 434 in the
Engineering Theory and Calculations 385 chapter.

3.9.1.2 Objectives
The objective is to investigate the possibility of wax formation in any part of the production
system from the reservoir to the production separator and if this is found to be likely to
estimate how much wax is likely to drop out.

3.9.1.3 Data Available

The reservoir temperature is 185 degF
The reservoir pressure is 2324psia
The first stage of the production separator temperature is at least 75 degF and at a pressure

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of 80psig.

The engineer has been supplied with a copy of the previously characterised EOS for the
reservoir fluid.

3.9.1.4 Wax Appearance Temperature Curve

As a starting point for the investigation, the engineer may wish to generate a wax appearance
temperature curve, which indicates whether wax formation is likely to occur at a given
pressure and temperature. This curve can then be copied and pasted into for example
Prosper to generate PVT warnings if at a point along the well the pressure and temperature
fall with in the wax appearance region.

When using an EOS description of the fluid properties in PROSPER, these warnings can be
generated directly without the need for a wax appearance curve. If however a BO description
is used (for example to speed up the calculations) then a wax formation temperature curve is
required to issue these PVT warnings.

To gauge whether wax appearance is likely to occur in our system, we will use the
characterised EOS model to create such a wax appearance temperature curve. From this
curve, we can then determine whether there is potential for wax formation under certain
operating conditions.

Please navigate to the Sample files (Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.0 Sample Files |
Open Samples Installation Folder | PVTP | Example 7 Flow Assurance | Example 7.1
Wax) and open the Sample file ("Example_07_01_Wax_Initial") containing the characterised
EOS model.

To run a Wax Formation Temperature calculation, a Wax Formation calculation object needs
to be added to the Calculation screen via the Calculation ribbon:

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Double click on the object to open it and then we can specify a range of pressures for which
we want to calculate the wax appearance temperature and also the number of data points we
wish to generate:

Next, press Calculate to generate the wax appearance temperature over the specified range
of pressures

When the calculation is complete, the results can be plotted by going to the Results Plot
screen:

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This gives us a wax formation temperature of between 137-138.6 degF through the pressure
range. From the data available, we know that the maximum and minimum temperature in our
system is 185 degF and 75degF, i.e. the reservoir and separator temperature respectively.
With this in mind, we can see that the operating conditions would have to pass below this
temperature and wax is likely to form. Exactly where in the system it will occur (in the
wellbore, surface network etc.) would depend upon the pressure and temperature in the entire
system which could be analysed using GAP to see where the deposition is most likely to
occur.
3.9.1.4.1 Split Out Pseudo Components
As part of the EOS characterisation process, a pseudo component composition profile was
chosen, which was subsequently lumped into a number of pseudo components, as a means of
reducing the computational time required to perform calculations with the EOS. In wax
formation, however, the interaction of the higher hydrocarbons is of particular importance,
which cannot be fully captured in a lumped composition. As such, there exists the option
within PVTp to split out the pseudo components into the constituent components and to
perform the calculation on the basis of the full composition, although this calculation takes
significantly longer.

To perform the wax appearance temperature calculation with this option enabled,return to the
wax appearance calculation input screen, select the Split Out Pseudo Components option,
press Calculate:

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As can be seen from the graph below, with the option enabled and thus the interactions of
higher hydrocarbons accounted for, significantly higher wax appearance temperatures are
being calculated (159degF vs 138degF):

3.9.1.5 Amount of Wax Appearance

From the above, we can conclude that wax appearance at various stages in our system, i.e.
from the reservoir to the production separator, is likely to be an issue over the course of the

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field's life time. With this in mind, we have now been tasked with determining how much wax is
likely to appear as the fluid travels from the reservoir to the production separator. This sort of
analysis can be completed using the Wax Amount (Multiphase Flash) calculation in PVTp,
which is performed similarly to the CCE experiment by flashing the initial composition to the
specified pressure and temperature and then calculating the amount of solid wax that is
produced.

To run a Wax Formation Temperature calculation, a Wax Amount calculation object needs to
be added to the Calculation screen via the Calculation ribbon:

Double click on the new object and in the window that opens, specify the range of pressures
and temperatures for which the calculation should be performed. When selecting the range of
pressures for the calculation, it should be remembered that wax appearance is
predominantely dependent on the temperature and only slightly changes with pressure. As
such high granularity on the range of temperatures would be desired rather than pressure. In
our case, we will investigate the full spectrum of operating conditions so from the reservoir
temperature and pressure to the separator temperature and pressure in 10 and 3 steps
respectively (1):

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Ensure the Split Out Pseudo Components option in enabled (2)and press Calculate (3) to run
the calculation.

Go to the Results Plot screen to see the amount of wax which can expected to dropout:

It can be seen again that the wax appearance is only weakly dependent on the pressure, as

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the three lines virtually overlap. Assuming 0 accumulation of wax within the production system,
we would thus expect around 1mol% or 3.2mass% of wax to appear at the separator inlet.

3.9.1.6 Wax Summary

With the above, we have now achieved all of our modeling objectives, i.e. we have:
investigated for which conditions wax appearance is likely to be an issue
investigated how much wax is likely to appear at the separator - which could be used to
gauge the degree of wax accumulation in the system.

With this Wax study complete, the engineer may wish to investigate other potential flow
assurance issues such as Hydrate 705 or Salt 722 formation.

3.9.2 Example 7.2 - Hydrates

This guide intends to demonstrate the procedure for performing a hydrate study in PVTp
using a previously characterised EOS model.

3.9.2.1 Scenario
A condensate reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated
model is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model
encapsulates a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as hydrate or wax
formation is to be investigated. As such the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather than a
Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

There are concerns over possible hydrate formation in the surface pipeline, and the engineer
has been tasked with performing a hydrate formation study in PVTp to gauge the likelihood of
hydrate formation and if found to be likely how much inhibitor is required to prevent its
formation.

For theory on how hydrate formation is modelled within PVTp please refer to Hydrates 444 in
the Engineering Theory and Calculations 385 chapter.

3.9.2.2 Objectives
The objective is to eliminate the possibility of hydrate formation in any part of the production
system from the reservoir to the production separator.

3.9.2.3 Data Available

The reservoir temperature is 250 degF
The reservoir pressure is 5975psia

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The production separator temperature is at least 60 degF and the separator pressure is
943psia.

The engineer has been supplied with a copy of the previously characterised EOS for the
reservoir fluid.

3.9.2.4 Hydrate Formation Pressure Curve

As a starting point for the investigation, the engineer may wish to generate a hydrate
formation pressure curve, which indicates whether hydrate formation is likely to occur at a
given pressure and temperature. This curve can then be copied and pasted into for example
Prosper to generate PVT warnings if at a point along the well the pressure and temperature
fall with in the hydrate formation region.

When using an EOS description of the fluid properties in PROSPER, these warnings can be
generated directly without the need for a hydrate formation curve. If however a BO
description is used (for example to speed up the calculations) then a hydrate formation
pressure curve is required to issue these PVT warnings.

To gauge whether hydrate formation is likely to occur in our system, we will use the
characterised EOS model to create such a hydrate formation pressure curve. From this curve,
we can then determine whether there is potential for hydrate formation under certain operating
conditions.

Please navigate to the Sample files (Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.0 Sample Files |
Open Samples Installation Folder | PVTP | Example 7 Flow Assurance | Example 7.2
Hydrates) and open the Sample file containing the characterised EOS model.

The hydrate formation pressure calculation can be added to the Calculation screen from the
Calculation ribbon:

As the Characterised EOS PVT Sample has already been selected (represented by the green
tick) we can open the newly added object by double clicking on it:

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In the window that opens, we can specify a range of temperatures for which we want to
calculate the hydrate formation pressure (1) and also the number of data points we wish to
generate (2).

For our initial analysis we will assume that all the water observed at the separator is
vaporised in the gas at reservoir conditions and only begins to drop out in the well as the
pressure and temperature are reduced. As such we have already assumed that the water has
a salinity of 0ppm in the PVT Sample object. We will show later in the example how this can
be changed.

The options used will be the default but more information on these settings can be found in
the Hydrate 345 section of this guide.

Next, press Calculate button(3) to generate the hydrate formation pressure over the specified
range of temperatures:

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Go to the Results Plot screen to see the generated hydrate curve , the calculations results are
displayed as they are being generated:

Additionally this data could now be transferred to PROSPER in order for Hydrate flags to be
raised as part of Gradient, VLP and System calculations. Please note however, that such a
curve for PROSPER is generated for a constant water and fluid compositions and thus hydrate
formation pressures may change over the life time of the field, as the fluid composition
changes and free formation water containing minerals starts being produced. To account for
changes in the water and fluid composition, PVT warnings for Hydrates can be generated
dynamically using an EOS model, although the calculations are slower.

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From the data available, we know that the maximum possible pressure in our system on the
production side is 5975psia, which is equal to the initial reservoir pressure, so that we can
adjust the scales in order to investigate hydrate formation at more typical pressures.

This can be done via the scale button on the Results Plot screen:

To change the scale, unselect the Automatic option and then enter a range from 14.7-6000
psia as shown above.

Select OK to return to the plot:

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From the plot above it can be seen that depending on the pressure and temperature path
taken by the fluid from reservoir conditions to the production separator, various degrees of
hydrate formation are possible, i.e. where the green line goes above the blue line, which
represent the minimum pressure at which Hydrate formation is possible. In fact, since the
initial production separator stage is at 943psia, hydrate formation at near ambient
temperatures could be a significant problem and potentially cause separator blockage.

As hydrate formation within our production separator or surface pipeline is clearly undesirable,
we can dose inhibitors to prevent the formation of hydrates, by increasing the minimum
hydrate formation process or by slowing down the formation process using kinetic inhibitors.

Before we continue to determine the minimum composition of inhibitor required to prevent

hydrate formation in our production system, let us first conduct a short sensitivity study on the
impact of salinity and inhibitor content such as methanol on the minimum hydrate formation
pressure.

Select OK to exit the calculation object.

3.9.2.5 Sensitivity on Water Composition

For our previous calculation we assumed that the salinity of the water was 0ppm because all
the water was assumed to be condensed water vapour. However, once formation water is
being produced as well as the condensed water vapour, this assumption is no longer valid and
hydrate formation will be naturally inhibited. Additionally, the production technologists may
decide to dose certain inhibitors such as methanol to further increase the hydrate formation

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pressure and thus reduce their likelihood.

Going forward, we will perform two sensitivities to demonstrate how these types of
calculations can be set up in PVTp. For the first scenario, we will assume that vast majority of
the water observed at the separator is free formation water and thus the water salinity is
equal to the formation salinity of 50000ppm. For the second scenario, we will use a salinity of
0ppm but the water has been dosed with methanol such that it contains 5mol%.

Before we continue, therefore, we need to add two more PVT Samples to the
Characterisation screen via the Characterisation ribbon:

By connecting the Characterised EOS PVT Sample to the two new samples the PVT
properties are copied through.The names of each object can be changed by right clicking and
going to Edit Label.

Next, we need to setup the Water Composition of each of these two new fluids.

First, double click on the Salinity PVT Sample and browse to the Water Composition tab (1):

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As we are going to enter different water composition data to that of the original fluid, we don't
want to use the Use Upstream option. Untick both these boxes (2) to allow the water
composition to be modified for this particular sample only.

As this case will only include salt (and no inhibitor), unselect the Include the alcohols (Ethanol,
Propanol) as hydrate formers (3) option.

Next, set the Salts Mode to Use Salinity Only (4) and then enter the Water Salinity as
50000ppm (5).

This sets up the first new fluid with a water salinity of 50000ppm. Select OK to return to the
main screen.

Double click on the second PVT Sample (Methanol) and go to the Water Composition tab (1):

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As for the first case, we need to edit the values and so deselect the Use Upstream tick boxes
(2).

Next, in the Inhibitor section, select Methanol from the list (3) and then add a mole percent of
5% (4).

Select OK to complete the setup of the water composition for the second sample.

We want to do a comparison between the three cases and so ensure that all three objects
are selected:

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3.9.2.5.1 Impact of Salinity and Inhibitors

To perform the calculation on each of the fluids, return to the Hydrate Formation Temperature
calculation object and double click.

We will use the same temperature range as the first case but now, as we are modelling the
effects of salts and inhibitors, the Use Inhibitors/Salts in Calculation option should be
enabled. Finally, select Calculate to run the calculation:

Go to the Results Plot screen and change the scales of the plots to have a maximum pressure
of 6000psia:

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As can be seen from the plot below, the presence of salts in the water has significantly
increased the minimum hydrate formation pressure as the water preferentially interacts with
the salt ions rather than the gas and therefore hydrates do not form as readily. With the
formation salinity of 50000ppm, the production separator is almost outside the hydration
formation envelope.

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The impact of the inhibitor is even greater to the point where the minimum formation pressure
for the system has been increased from around 900 psia to just below 1500 psia. Assuming
that the separator pressure is constant at 943 psia, then the entire system should be hydrate
free.

It is worth noting, that this analysis assumes that the temperature of the fluid does not drop
below the minimum surface temperature of 60 degF. In cases where Joules Thompson
cooling is significant, however, the temperature may drop below this and mean that hydrates
could potentially form.
3.9.2.6 Minimum inhibitor
In the example above, the hydrate formation at the separator was prevented using 5mol% of
methanol in the water; however depending on the observed water rates at the separator this
could potentially correspond to large additional liquid volumes that require surface processing
(which could limit the separator capacity) and also not only incur additional treatment but also
procurement costs.

With this in mind, we have been asked to determine the minimum amount of methanol inhibitor
required to ensure that hydrate formation below a pressure of 1550 psia will not be an issue
at our miniimum expected separator temperature of 60°F. We have been told to investigate
two scenarios:

1. All the water was originally vaporised, i.e. Salinity = 0 ppm

2. The majority of the water is formation water, i.e. Salinity = 50000 ppm

Of course, this could be done using a similar approach to the one illustrated above, where we
manually alter the methanol content of the water until the minimum hydrate formation pressure
exceeds 3000psia, actually there already is a facility in PVTp, where the inhibitor and salt
compositions are altered automatically to match a specified minimum pressure.

Before we continue with this, we want to create two new PVT Samples (one with 0 ppm and
one with 50000 ppm) which will be modified:

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In the 50000ppm Min_Inhibitor sample, set the Water Composition inputs as shown below
following these steps:

1. Browse to the Water Composition tab

2. Deselect the Use Upstream option to allow the screen to be edited.
3. As inhibitors will now be used, enable Include the alcohols (Ethanol, Propanol) as
hydrate formers
4. Select Methanol from the inhibitor list
5. Enter a small initial amount of ethanol (i.e. 1 mol%)
6. Ensure that the water salinity is set as 50000ppm
7. So that we can see the impact of the salt on the inhibitor, we need to calculate the
equivilent salt components via the Convert Salinity to Composition button
8. This will calculate an NaCl content of around 4.76%
9. Finally, change the Mode to Use Composition

When this has been done, press OK to save the changes and enter the 0ppm Min_Inhibitor
PVT Sample. Set the Water Composition inputs as shown below following these steps:

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1. Browse to the Water Composition tab

2. Deselect the Use Upstream option to allow the screen to be edited.
3. Ensure that salinity is 0ppm
4. Check that the methanol inhibitor has been selected and has a value of 5 mol%

The two PVT Samples are now ready to be used to calculate the minimum inhibitor to avoid
hydrate at a given condition.

The next step is to select the two new compositions and deselect the existing ones:

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To run the calculation of the minimum inhibitor required, add a Min Inhibitor calculation object
to the Calculation screen from the Calculation ribbon:

Double click on the Hydrate Inhibitor Concentration calculation object to open it up. We need
to enter the temperature of interest (60 degF which is our minimum expected separator
pressure) and the minimum pressure that hydrates can be allowed to form (1500 psia):

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Change the Adjusted Species select to Inhibitors Only. This will keep the concentration of
salt in each sample constant and only change the concentration of the inhibitor.

Press Calculate the run the calculation.

When the calculation has been completed, the Calculation Results table will be populated for
each selected PVT Sample:

This shows the multiplier on the current inhibitors required to match this condition and also the
hydrate formation pressure which was obtained by the match.

Selecting the Apply Mult to fluid will change the inhibitor concentration in the selected PVT
Sample to the minimum concentration required to match the conditions. Select this option for
both of the samples and then press OK to exit.

Going back to the PVT Samples we can see that both of the inhibitor concentrations have

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been modified:

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As expected, the minimum concentration of inhibitor is lower when the salinity is higher.

3.9.2.7 Hydrates Summary

With the above, we have now achieved all of our modeling objectives, i.e. we have:

investigated for which conditions hydrate formation is likely to be an issue

investigated the effect of inhibitors and salinity on the hydrate formation pressure
determined an upper and lower bound for the amount of inhibitor required to prevent
hydrate formation at pressures below 1550psia in our production system.

With this Hydrate study complete, the engineer may wish to investigate other potential flow
assurance issues such as Wax 698 or Salt 722 formation.

3.9.3 Example 7.3 - Salt

This guide intends to demonstrate the procedure for performing a salt study in PVTp using a
previously characterised EOS model.

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3.9.3.1 Scenario
A condensate reservoir in the extensive Logie Mill field has been discovered. A fully integrated
model is to be built to come up with a field development strategy. This integrated model
encapsulates a numerical reservoir model, well and surface network models as well as a
process model. Additionally, the likelihood of flow assurance issues such as wax, hydrate or
salt formation is to be investigated. As such the use of an Equation of State (EOS) rather than
a Black Oil (BO) description of the reservoir fluid is required.

There are concerns over possible salt formation in the surface pipeline, and the engineer has
been tasked with performing a salt formation study in PVTp to gauge the likelihood of salt
formation.

For theory on how salt formation is modelled within PVTp please refer to Salt 722 in the
Engineering Theory and Calculations 385 chapter.

3.9.3.2 Objectives
The objective is to investigate the possibility of salt formation in any part of the production
system from the reservoir to the production separator.

Please note, salt formation due to incompatible water mixing is NOT considered in the PVTp
salt calculations. Such forms of salt formation can be investigated using the Water Chemistry
data objects in RESOLVE. Please refer to the RESOLVE and/or Flow Assurance User Manual
for an example of how such forms of salt formation can be considered.

3.9.3.3 Data Available

The reservoir temperature is 250 degF
The reservoir pressure is 5975psia
The production separator temperature is at least 60 degF
The production separator pressure is at least 943psia.

The water composition is as follows:

Species Weight%
NaCl 3.15
KCl 2
CaCl2 2.5

Please note, the above water composition is purely used for illustrative purposes and does not
represent a real life formation fluid.

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3.9.3.4 Salt Map

As a starting point for the investigation, the engineer may wish to generate a salt map, which
indicates how much salt drop out can be expected at a given temperature and pressure. The
generated data can be manipulated and transformed into a salt formation curve which can be
used in for example PROSPER to generate PVT warnings if at a point along the well the
pressure and temperature fall with in the salt formation region.

To gauge whether hydrate formation is likely to occur in our system, we will use the
characterised EOS model to create such a salt map. From this map, we can then determine
whether there is potential for salt formation under certain operating conditions.

Please navigate to the Sample files (Start | Petroleum Experts IPM 12.0 Sample Files |
Open Samples Installation Folder | PVTP | Example 7 Flow Assurance | Example 7.3
Salt) and open the Sample file containing the characterised EOS model
("Example_07_03_Salt_Initial.pvi").

First, we need to set the water composition in our PVT Sample. To do this, double click on the
Characterised EOS PVT Sample and follow these steps:

1. Browse to the Water Composition tab

2. Deselect the Use Upstream option to allow the screen to be edited.
3. As inhibitors will not be used, disable Include the alcohols (Ethanol, Propanol) as
hydrate formers
4. Set the Salt Mode to Use Composition
5. Add the three components to the model
6. Set the values of each component

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Select OK to save these changes.

Next, add a Salt Map calculation object to the Calculation screen using the Calculation ribbon:

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Double click on the new object and then we can specify a range of temperatures and
pressured as well as the number of values, over which we want to calculate the salt drop out:

Press Calculate the run the calculation.

Once this has been completed, the Salt Map can be viewed via the Results Plot screen:

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Once the calculation is complete, the results can be used to determine the maximum mol% of
salt formation, in our case 9.79mol% at a temperature of 60degF and 6000psia. From the
plot, the salt formation curve can be estimated, by extrapolating each of the lines to the
temperature at which the Salt Dropout is 0mol%. For example at a pressure of 945psia, the
salt begins to form at a temperature less than about 195deg.

In fact by repeating this for each pressure, we can define a salt formation curve, similar to the
wax appearance or hydrate formation curve, see image below, where the green lines
represent possible pressure and temperature pathways the fluid might take from the reservoir
to the production separator. As such, it can be concluded that salt precipitation is likely to
occur in some part of the system as the fluid will need to cross the blue on its journey from
reservoir conditions to the production separator. The point at which salt first precipitates
however is dependent on the pressure and temperature profile within the system, as shown
by the green lines.

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From the Salt map calculation, we also know how much solid salt would be expected to be
produced at the production separator assuming no accumulation of salt within the system.
Using this information, the amount of salt accumulation within the system, i.e. scale build up on
the well walls, can be estimated by performing a mass balance on the mass of solid salt
observed and expected at the separator, with the difference being accumulated within the
system.

3.9.3.5 Salt Summary

With the above, we have now achieved our modeling objective, i.e. we have:
investigated for which conditions salt formation is likely to occur
investigated how much salt is likely to appear at the separator - which could be used to
gauge the degree of salt accumulation in the system via a mass balance.

With this Salt study complete, the engineer may wish to investigate other potential flow
assurance issues such as Wax 698 or Hydrate 705 formation.

1990-2020 Petroleum Experts Limited