EE AC10 Introduction

MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Microcomputers and Microprocessors
There are three (3) major parts of a computer system
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU). This is where it houses the microprocessor, which
acts as the brain coordinating all activities within a computer. Microprocessors
process information by performing logical operations on binary data and these
data are stored in logic circuits both within the microprocessor itself and in external
devices.
2. Memory. This is where the program instructions and data are primarily stored.
3. Input/Output (I/O) Devices. Also known as computer peripherals and allow the
computer to communicate with the outside world.
The CPU is connected to memory and I/O devices through a strip of wires called a BUS.
It reads instructions from memory and executes them, often performing logical
operations on binary data.
In every computer, there are three (3) types of buses.
1. Address Bus. Used to identify the memory location or I/O device, in which the
processor intends to communicate with. The width of the Address Bus ranges from
20 bits to 36 bits, that is, from 8086 to Pentium II.
2. Data Bus. Used by the CPU to get data from/to send data to the memory or the
I/O devices. The width of a microprocessor is used to classify the microprocessor.
The size of data bus of Intel microprocessors vary between 8-bit to 64-bit, that is
from 8085 to Pentium.
3. Control Bus. This tells if the address on the bus is a memory address or an I/O device
address. Each time the processor outputs an address, it also activates one of the
four control bus signals: Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read and I/O Write.
Based on the figure, the basic operation of the computer is to transfer information
between the CPU and the memory and peripherals, and to process information. The
transfers occur along the busses. One such information transfer occurs when the
computer is to find out its next instruction. Here the CPU arranges to read the instruction
from memory.
NOTE:
The address bus and the control bus are unidirectional because it contains output lines
only, while the data bus is bidirectional.
Two (2) types of memory used in microcomputers
1. RAM (Random Access Memory/Read-Write Memory). Used by the computer for

the temporary storage of the programs that is running. Data is lost when the
computer is turned-off. RAM is known to be a volatile memory and is sometimes
referred to as the primary storage.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory). The information in ROM is permanent and not lost
when the power is turned-off. ROM is known to be a non-volatile memory and is
referred to as the secondary storage.
Inside the CPU
It is the function of the CPU to fetch and decode the program instructions from the
memory and execute them.
1. The CPU contains a number of registers to temporarily store information inside the
CPU. The registers can be an 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or even 64-bits.
2. The CPU contains ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) which performs processing
operations like arithmetic (add, subtract, multiply, divide) and logic (AND, OR,
NOT) functions.
3. The CPU contains a program counter known as the Instruction Pointer to point the
address of the next instructions to be executed.
4. The CPU contains Instruction Decoder. This is a kind of dictionary used to interpret
the meaning of the instruction fetched into the CPU and an appropriate control
signal are generated according to the meaning of the instruction.
(Flags is the status register that contains the current state of the CPU)
TYPES OF REGISTERS
1. Data registers store data.

2. Address registers store addresses.
Two (2) special address registers

o Program Counter, PC -contains the address in memory of the next
instruction.
o Stack Pointer, SP -contains the address of part of the memory called the
stack which is used for storing information temporarily.
3. Status register contains information about the state of the machine and contains
various flags indicating the state resulting from the last operation.
Brief History of the Computers
1940-1956
(First Generation Computers)
The first generation of computer ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
was started to be used based on the vacuum tube technology.
1956-1963
(Second Generation Computers)
The first transistorized computer TRADIC (Transistor Digital Computer or Transistorized
Airborne Digital Computer) was announced by IBM. These were also the first computers
to store their instructions in their memory.
1964-1971
Third Generation Computers
The first IC was invented. ICs were started to be used in CPU boards.
1971-1981
Fourth Generation Computers
Entire CPU was put in a single chip and in 1971, the first microprocessor of Intel 4004 was
invented. Late 1970s, Intel 8080/85 appeared with 8-bit data bus and 16-bit address bus
and used from traffic light controllers to homemade computers.
1981-Present
Fifth Generation Computers
First PC was introduced by IBM with Intel 8088 microprocessor. Fifth generation
computing devices are based on artificial intelligence.
Evolution of Microprocessors
Name Invented Clock Number of Instruction Microprocessor

Rate/Speed Transistors per sec Size
(MHz)
Intel 1971 740 kHz 2300 60000 4-bit
4004/4040 Ted Hoff and
Stanley MAZOR
8008 1972 500 kHz 3500 50000 8 -bit
8080 1974 2 MHz 6000 10 times 8 -bit
faster than
8008
8085 1976 3 MHz 6500 769230 16-bit
8086 1978 4.77-1o MHz 29000 2.5 million 16-bit
8088 1979 2.5 million 16-bit

80186/80188 1982 6 MHz
80286 1982 8 MHz 134000 4 million 16-bit
Intel 80386 1986 16-33 MHz 275000 32-bit
Intel 80486 1986 16-100 MHz 1.2 million 32-bit
Pentium 1993 66 MHz 32-bit
Intel Core 2 2006 1.2-3 GHz 291 million 64-bit
i3 2007 2.2-3.3 GHz 64-bit
i5 2009 2.4-3.6 GHz 64-bit
i7 2010 2.93-3.33 GHz 64-bit
Types of Microprocessors
Complex Instruction Set Microprocessor (CISC) –

The processors are designed to minimize the number of instructions per program and
ignore the number of cycles per instruction. The compiler is used to translate a high-
level language to assembly-level language because the length of code is relatively
short and an extra RAM is used to store the instructions. These processors can do tasks
like downloading, uploading, and recalling data from memory. Apart from these tasks,
this microprocessor can perform complex mathematical calculations in a single
command.
Example: IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780
Reduced Instruction Set Microprocessor (RISC) –

These processors are made according to function. They are designed to reduce the
execution time by using the simplified instruction set. They can carry out small things in
specific commands. These processors complete commands at a faster rate. They
require only one clock cycle to implement a result at uniform execution time. There is a
number of registers and lesser number of transistors. To access the memory location
LOAD and STORE instructions are used.
Example: Power PC 601, 604, 615, 620
Superscalar Microprocessor –
These processors can perform many tasks at a time. They can be used for ALUs and
multiplier-like arrays. They have multiple operation units and perform tasks by executing
multiple commands.
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) –
These processors are application-specific like personal digital assistant computers. They
are designed according to proper specifications. These types of processors are used for
specific drives that comprise automotive emissions control or personal digital assistant’s
computer.
Digital Signal Microprocessor (DSP) –

These processors are used to encode and decode the videos, and are used to convert
signals like analog to digital or digital to analog. The chips of these processors are used
in many devices such as RADAR, SONAR, home theatres, audio gears, TV set-top boxes,
mobile phones.
MICROPROCESSOR WORKING
Microprocessors are working following the steps below –
Fetch.
The commands are in storage from where the processor fetches them.
Decode.
It then decodes the order to allocate the task further. The arithmetic and logic unit also
completes to register the data provisionally for the duration of this.
Execute.
The assigned tasks undergo execution and reach the output port in binary form.

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MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS

Microcomputers and Microprocessors

There are three (3) major parts of a computer system

In every computer, there are three (3) types of buses.

Two (2) types of memory used in microcomputers

1. RAM (Random Access Memory/Read-Write Memory). Used by the computer for

Inside the CPU

1. Data registers store data.

Two (2) special address registers

Brief History of the Computers

Name Invented Clock Number of Instruction Microprocessor

8088 1979 2.5 million 16-bit

Complex Instruction Set Microprocessor (CISC) –

Example: IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780

Reduced Instruction Set Microprocessor (RISC) –

Digital Signal Microprocessor (DSP) –

Microprocessors are working following the steps below –

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