CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSORS &

COMPUTERS

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 Contents

Introduction
4-Bit Microprocessors
8-Bit Microprocessors
16-Bit Microprocessors
32-Bit Microprocessors
64-Bit Microprocessors

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 Micro-processor
What is a Micro-processor?
• A Microprocessor is used as a CPU in a
microcomputer.
• A semiconductor chip or chip set that forms the
CPU
• Controls computers input/output devices
• Executes programs

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 Basic Concepts of Microprocessors

Microcomputer : a computer with a microprocessor as its

CPU. Includes memory, I/O etc
Microprocessor – silicon chip which includes ALU,
register circuits & control circuits
Microcontroller – silicon chip which includes
microprocessor, memory & I/O in a single
package.

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 Microprocessor unit

Microprocessor unit (MPU)

• Consists of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a control
unit, an instruction decoder and some registers.
• The MPU Works by sequentially decoding
instructions and operating on data under control of
a program.
• The instructions and the data are stored in
memory.

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 Microprocessor
 The “Microprocessor” term was used by Intel to
name their first CPU (4004). A 4-bit chip designed to
be used in a calculator.
 Architectures now have advanced to 8, 16, 32, 64-bit
for general purpose CPUs, and 128/256-bit and
higher for specialised microprocessors such as GPUs,
DSPs.
 Term now used to describe the core component of a
computer, the “brains” of the system that controls all
the rest of the components, the peripherals.

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MICROPROCESSOR

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Microprocessor v Microcomputer
 A Microprocessor
 only is a single-chip CPU
 bus is available
 RAM capacity, num of port is selectable
 Communicate by port
 A Microcomputer
 contains a CPU and RAM,ROM ,Peripherals, I/O
port in a single IC
 internal hardware is fixed
 Communicate by port
 ROM is larger than RAM (usually)
 Small power consumption
 Single chip, small board
 Implementation is easy
 Low cost

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 Microprocessor Or Microcomputers

 Applications

 Microcomputers are suitable to control I/O

devices in designs requiring a minimum
component

 Microprocessors are suitable for processing

information in computer systems.

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 Microprocessor V Microcomputers
• Microcomputer is easy to use and design.
• Only single chip can be a complete system
• interfacing to other devices, for example, motors, displays,
sensors, and communicate with PC.

• In contrast, similar system that builds from

Microprocessor would require a lot of additional units,
• such as RAM, UART, I/O , TIMER and etc.

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 Microprocessor V Microcomputers
• Logic circuit provides limited function for one single
design. In order to change circuit’s functionality, we
need to redesign the circuits.

• Microcomputers can reprogram and change

functionality of every port, input to output or digital to
analog on the fly.

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 The Microcomputers
 All Microcomputers consist of (at least) :
 Microprocessor Unit (MPU)
 Program Memory (ROM)
 Data Memory (RAM)
 Input / Output ports
 Bus System
 (and Software)

 MPU is the brain of microcomputer

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 Microcomputers

 Many microcomputers are existing right now.

 8051, 68HC11, MSP430, ARM series, and etc.
 We may widely divide it with how it is designed
 RISC/CISC architecture.
 What is the main difference between
RISC/CISC?
 Does it make any difference to our application?

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A Microcomputer

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 The Microprocessor (MPU)

• The microprocessor is the ‘brain of the

microcomputer’
• Is a single chip which is capable of
• processing data
• controlling all of the components which make up the
microcomputer system
• µP used to sequence executions of instructions that is
in memory
• µP Fetch , Decode , and Execute the instruction
• The internal architecture of the microprocessor is
complex.

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 The Microprocessor (MPU)

• Microprocessor (MPU) typically contains

• Registers: Temporary storage locations for program instruction or
data.
• The Arithmetic Logic unit (ALU): This part of the MPU performs
both arithmetic and logical operations
• Timing and Control Circuits: that keep all of the other parts of
system (Regs, ALU, memory & I/O) working together in the right
time sequence

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 MICROPROCESSORS

 Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a

microprocessor can perform mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Modern
microprocessors contain complete floating
point processors that can perform extremely
sophisticated operations on large floating
point numbers.
 2. A microprocessor can move data from
one memory location to another.
 3. A microprocessor can make decisions
and jump to a new set of instructions based
on those decisions.

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 Clock speed
• Clock speed, also known as clock rate or clock frequency, is a measure
of how fast a computer’s central processing unit (CPU) can execute
instructions.
• It is typically measured in MHz(MegaHertz) or gigahertz (GHz). Higher
clock speeds generally mean that a CPU can process more instructions
per second, and thus can perform better on tasks that require fast
processing.
Examples :
• A CPU with a clock speed of 4.2 MHz executes 4.2 Million cycles per
second.
• A CPU with a clock speed of 4.2 GHz executes 4.2 Billion cycles per
second.

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HISTORY OF MICROPROCESSORS
 MIPS stands for "millions of instructions per
second" and is a rough measure of the
performance of a CPU.

 Modern CPUs can do so many different things

that MIPS ratings lose a lot of their meaning,
but you can get a general sense of the relative
power of the CPUs from this column.

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4-bit Microprocessors

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Intel 4004 Intel 4004 was the first
microprocessor introduced by
Intel in 1971.
The 4004 instruction set
contained only 45 instructions
It was a 4-bit µP.
16-pin DIP package
Its clock speed was 740KHz.
It had 2,300 transistors.
It could execute around 60,000
instructions per second.

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Intel 4040
After 4004 Intel released The
4040 processor
operated at a higher speed,
although it lacked improvements
in word width and memory size
 It was also 4-bit µP.

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8-bit Microprocessors

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Intel 8008
Intel Corporation released the
8008 an extended 8-bit version
of the 4004 microprocessor.
The 8008 addressed an
expanded memory size (16K
bytes) and contained additional
instructions (a total of 48) that
provided an opportunity for its
application in more advanced
systems.
.

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Intel 8080
Intel Introduced the first of
the modem 8-bit microprocessors
It was also 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 2 MHz.
It had 6,000 transistors.
Was 10 times faster than 8008.
Could execute 5,00,000
instructions per second.

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Intel 8085 In 1977, Intel Corporation introduced an
updated version of the 8080 the 8085.

The 8085 was to be the last 8-bit, general-

purpose microprocessor developed by Intel.
Although only slightly more advanced than
an 8080 microprocessor, the 8085 executed
software at an even higher speed

Its clock speed was 3 MHz.

Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 16-bit.

It had 6,500 transistors.

Could execute 7,69,230 instructions per

second.

It could access 64 KB of memory.

It had 246 instructions.

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16-bit Microprocessors

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 Introduced in 1978.

Intel 8086 It was first 16-bit µP.

Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and

10 MHz, depending on the version.

Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is

20-bit.

It had 29,000 transistors.

Could execute 2.5 million instructions

per second.

This higher execution speed and larger

memory size allowed the 8086 and 8088
to replace smaller minicomputers in
many applications

It could access 1 MB of memory.

It had 22,000 instructions.

It had Multiply and Divide instructions.

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Intel 8088
Introduced in 1979.
It was also 16-bit µP.
It was created as a cheaper
version of Intel’s 8086.
It was a 16-bit processor with an
8-bit external bus.
Could execute 2.5 million
instructions per second.
This chip became the most
popular in the computer industry
when IBM used it for its first PC.

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Intel 80186 & 80188
Introduced in 1982.
They were 16-bit µPs.
Clock speed was 6 MHz.
80188 was a cheaper version
of 80186 with an 8-bit external
data bus.
They had additional
components like:
Interrupt Controller
Clock Generator
Local Bus Controller
Counters

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Intel 80286
Introduced in 1983.
It was 16-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 8 MHz.
Its data bus is 16-bit and
address bus is 24-bit.
It could address 16 MB of
memory.
It had 1,34,000 transistors.
It could execute 4 million
instructions per second.

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32-bit Microprocessors

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 Introduced in 1986.
It was first 32-bit µP.
Intel 80386 Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is
32-bit.
It could address 4 GB of memory.
It had 2,75,000 transistors.
Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 33
MHz depending upon the various
versions.
Different versions:
 80386 DX
 80386 SX
 80386 SL
Intel 80386 became the best selling
microprocessor in history.

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 Introduced in 1989.
Intel 80486
It was also 32-bit µP.
It had 1.2 million transistors.
Its clock speed varied from 16
MHz to 100 MHz depending upon
the various versions.
It had five different versions:
80486 DX
80486 SX
80486 DX2
80486 SL
80486 DX4
8 KB of cache memory was
introduced.

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 Introduced in 1993.
Intel Pentium It was also 32-bit µP.

It was originally named 80586.

Its clock speed was 66 MHz.

Its data bus is 32-bit and address

bus is 32-bit.
It could address 4 GB of memory.

Could execute 110 million

instructions per second.
Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.
8 KB for data.

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Intel Pentium Pro
Introduced in 1995.
It was also 32-bit µP.
It had L2 cache of 256 KB.
It had 21 million transistors.
It was primarily used in server
systems.
Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.
8 KB for data.

It had L2 cache of 256 KB.

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Intel Pentium II
Introduced in 1997.
It was also 32-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 233 MHz to
500 MHz.
Could execute 333 million
instructions per second.
MMX technology was
supported.
L2 cache & processor were on
one circuit.

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Intel Pentium II Xeon
Introduced in 1998.

It was also 32-bit µP.

It was designed for servers.

Its clock speed was 400 MHz to

450 MHz.

L1 cache of 32 KB & L2 cache of

512 KB, 1MB or 2 MB.

It could work with 4 Xeons in

same system.

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Intel Pentium III
Introduced in 1999.
It was also 32-bit µP.
Its clock speed varied from 500
MHz to 1.4 GHz.
It had 9.5 million transistors.

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Intel Pentium IV
Introduced in 2000.

It was also 32-bit µP.

Its clock speed was from 1.3 GHz

to 3.8 GHz.

L1 cache was of 32 KB & L2 cache

of 256 KB.

It had 42 million transistors.

All internal connections were

made from aluminium to copper.

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 Introduced in 2006.
Intel Dual Core
It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
It has two cores.
Both the cores have there own
internal bus and L1 cache, but
share the external bus and L2
cache (Next Slide).
It supported SMT technology.
SMT: Simultaneously Multi-
Threading
E.g.: Adobe Photoshop
supported SMT. 41

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42
64-bit Microprocessors

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Intel Core 2
Introduced in 2006.
It is a 64-bit µP.
Its clock speed is from 1.2 GHz to
3 GHz.
It has 291 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core
and 4 MB of L2 cache.
It is launched in three different
versions:
Intel Core 2 Duo
Intel Core 2 Quad
Intel Core 2 Extreme
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Intel Core i7
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.66
GHz to 3.33 GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache and 8
MB of L3 cache.

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Intel Core i5
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.40
GHz to 3.60 GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache and 8
MB of L3 cache.

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Intel Core i3
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 2 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.93
GHz to 3.33 GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 512 KB of L2 cache and 4
MB of L3 cache.

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 Summary
Table :History of Intel microprocessors

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