A PROJECT REPORT

ON
“(PORTABLE AIR COOLER)”

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF
DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO

GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY, UNIVERSITY POLYTECHNIC

SUBMITTED BY

VIBHU PANDA 19GPTC4010064

RAJAN DUBAY 19GPTC4010055
ATUL BAJPAYEE 19GPTC4010040
DEEPAK TIWARI 19GPTC4010054
PRINCE YADAV 19GPTC4010071

GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY

Plot No.2, Sector 17-A Yamuna Expressway, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddh Nagar,
Uttar Pradesh, India, Session (2019-2022)
 CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that the project report entitled “PORTABLE AIR COOLER”Was Successfully
completed by Student of sixth semester Diploma in mechanical engineering).

VIBHU PANDA 19GPTC4010064

RAJAN DUBAY 19GPTC4010055
ATUL BAJPAYEE 19GPTC4010040
DEEPAK TIWARI 19GPTC4010054
PRINCE YADAV 19GPTC4010071

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Diploma in (Mechanical
Engineering) and submitted to the Department of (Mechanical Engineering) of Galgotias
University, University Polytechnic, work carried out during a period for the academic year 2019-
2020 as per curriculum

Mr. Rashid Khan Mr. Rashid khan

Name of Program Chair Name of Guide

Mr. Mohit Gaharwar

External Examiner (Principal)

GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY

Plot No.2, Sector 17-A Yamuna Expressway, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddh Nagar,
Uttar Pradesh, India, Session (2019-2022)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is done as a semester project, as a part course titled “Portable Air Cooler” We are
really thankful to our Principal Mr. Mohit Gaharwar and the HOD (Mr. Rashid Khan) and the
Project coordinator Mr. Rashid khan Mechanical Engneering Department, Galgotias University,
University Polytechnic for his invaluable guidance and assistance, without which the
accomplishment of the task would have never been possible.

We are also thankful to Mr. Rashid Khan for giving this opportunity to explore into the real world
and realize the interrelation without which a Project can never progress. In our present project we
have chosen the topic-“Portable Air Cooler”

We are also thanksful to our parents, friends and all staff of Mechanical Engneering department
for providing us relevant information and necessary clarifications, and great support.

.
 ABSTRACT
Refrigerator and air conditioners are the most energy consuming home appliances and for this
reason many researchers had performed work to enhance performance of the refrigeration systems.
Most of the research work done so far deals with an objective of low energy consumption and
refrigeration effect enhancement. Thermoelectric refrigeration is one of the techniques used for
producing refrigeration effect. Thermoelectric devices are developed based on Peltier and Seeback
effect which has experienced a major advances and developments in recent years. The coefficient of
performance of the thermoelectric refrigeration is less when it is used alone, hence thermoelectric
refrigeration is often used with other methods of refrigeration. This paper presents a review of some
work been done on the thermoelectric refrigeration over the years. Some of the research and
development work carried out by different researchers on TER system has been thoroughly reviewed
in this paper. The study envelopes the various applications of TER system and development of
devices. This paper summarizes the advancement in thermoelectric refrigeration, thermoelectric
materials, design methodologies, application in domestic appliances and performance enhancement
techniques based on the literature.
Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ iv

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ v

List of Tables............................................................................................................................ vii

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Objective of work ........................................................................................................ 1

2. Theory........................................................................................................................... 2

2.1 Thermoelectric effect .................................................................................................... 2

2.1.1 The Seebeck effect........................................................................................................ 2

2.1.2 The Peltier effect .......................................................................................................... 3

2.1.3 The Thomson effect ...................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Transport properties ...................................................................................................... 5

3. Working and fabrication ................................................................................................ 6

3.1 Working of Peltier cooler .............................................................................................. 6

3.1.1 Peltier cooling with N-type semiconductor ................................................................... 6

3.1.2 Peltier cooling with N-type semiconductor ................................................................... 7

3.1.3 Peltier cooling with P & N type of semiconductors ...................................................... 8

3.2 Fabrication of Peltier cooler......................................................................................... 10

4. Governing Equations and performance parameters...................................................... 13

4.1 Cooling power ............................................................................................................... 13

4.2 Power consumed ........................................................................................................... 13

4.3 Coefficient of performance (COP)................................................................................ 14
4.4 Maximum cooling power ................................................................................................ 14

4.5 Figure of merit ............................................................................................................. 16

5. Literature review.......................................................................................................... 17

5.1 Thermoelectrics material ............................................................................................. 17

5.1.2 Bismuth- Telluride based material[1] ............................................................................ 18

5.2 Heat sink ...................................................................................................................... 19

5.2.1 Phase change materials ................................................................................................ 19

5.2.2 Thermosyphonic heat exchanger in cold side ............................................................. 22

5.2.3 Micro-channels ............................................................................................................ 24

5.3 Comparison of Peltier, Sterling and vapour compression portable cooler .................. 27

6. Applications of Peltier cooler ...................................................................................... 31

6.1 Commercial thermoelectric cooling products .............................................................. 32

7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 34

References .................................................................................................................... 35
 List of Figures

Figure 1 : The Seebeck effect ..................................................................................................... 2

Figure 2 : Peltier effect ............................................................................................................... 3

Figure 3 : The Thomson effect ................................................................................................... 4

Figure 4 : N-type semiconductor Energy band diagram [11] ..................................................... 6

Figure 5 : Peltier cooling with N-type semiconductor [10] ....................................................... 7

Figure 6 : P-type semiconductor Energy band diagram [11] ..................................................... 8

Figure 7 : Peltier cooling with P-type semiconductor [10] ........................................................ 8

Figure 8 : Peltier cooling by couple of N&P [10] ...................................................................... 9

Figure 9 : Peltier cooling by multiple pallets [10]...................................................................... 9

Figure 10 : Fabrication of Peltier module [12] ......................................................................... 10

Figure 11 : Configuration of air-to-air thermoelectric cooler [10] ........................................... 11

Figure 12 : Schematic plot of cooling power against current for a thermoelectric cooler [15]15

Figure 13 : TEC with PCM as a heat sink [6] .......................................................................... 20

Figure 14 : Variation of cold junction and PCM temperatures during the cooling process for
the tests with, and without, PCM material ............................................................................... 21

Figure 15 : Variation of cold cabinet and PCM temperatures for the tests with, and without,
PCM material, after the power was turned off. ........................................................................ 21

Figure 16 : Comparison between performance of thermoelectric refrigeration system, with and

without, PCM material ............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 17 : Operation scheme of TPM device ......................................................................... 23

Figure 18 : Experimental setup of TEC with micro channels as a heat sink............................ 25

Figure 19 : Microchannel geometry ......................................................................................... 25

Figure 20 : Microchannel heat sink configuration ................................................................... 26

Figure 21 : Variations of refrigerated object temperature Tt as functions of time and coolant

flow rate.................................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 22 : Comparison of TEC performances using conventional heat sink and microchannel
heat sink. .................................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 23 : Coefficient of performance: ambient air at (a) 21 C and (b) 32 C....................... 29

Figure 24 : Second law efficiency: ambient air at (a) 21 C and (b) 32 C............................... 30
 List of Tables

Table 1 : Result of experiment for TPM and Finned sink ........................................................ 24

Table 2 : Cooling systems ........................................................................................................ 28

 1. Introduction

Refrigeration is the process of heat-removal from a space in order to bring it to a lower

temperature than surrounding temperature. In this context, my seminar topic, “Peltier cooling
module” which works on thermoelectric refrigeration, aims to provide cooling by using
thermoelectric effects rather than the more prevalent conventional methods like ‘vapour
compression cycle’ or the ‘vapour absorption cycle’.

There are three types of thermoelectric effect: The Seebeck effect, the Peltier effect,
the Thomson effect. From these three effects, Peltier cooler works on the Peltier effect; which
states that when voltage is applied across two junctions of dissimilar electrical conductors, heat
is absorbed from one junction and heat is rejected at another junction.

Peltier coolers are basically used as a cooling element in laser diodes, CCD cameras
(charge coupled device), blood analyzers, portable picnic coolers laser diodes, microprocessors,
blood analyzers and portable picnic coolers.

1
 History

Thermoelectricity was discovered and developed in 1820-1920 in Western Europe, with

much of work centered in Berlin. The first important discovery related to thermoelectricity occurred
in 1823. German scientist Thomas Seebeck found that a circuit made from two dissimilar metals and
junctions of the same kept at two different temperatures, produces thermoelectric force which is
responsible for flow of the current through module. Now this invention is known as Seebeck effect.
In 1834, a French watchmaker and physicist, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier invented thermoelectric
cooling effect also known as Peltier effect. Peltier stated that electric current flows through two
dissimilar metals would produce heating and cooling at the junctions. The true nature of Peltier effect
was made clear by Emil Lenz in 1838, Lenz demonstrated that water could be frozen when placed on
a bismuth-antimony junction by passage of an electric current through the junction. He also observed
that if the current was reversed the ice could be melted. In 1909 and 1911 Altenkirch [6] give the
basic theory of thermoelectric. His work explained that thermoelectric cooling materials needed to
have high Seebeck coefficients, good electrical conductivity to minimize Joule heating, and low
thermal conductivity to reduce heat transfer from junctions to junctions. In 1949 Loffe developed
theory of semiconductors thermo-elements and in 1954 Goldsmid and Douglas demonstrated that
cooling from ordinary ambient temperatures down to below 0°C was possible. Rowe, shortly after
the development of practical semiconductors in 1950's, Bismuth Telluride began to be the primary
material used in the thermoelectric cooling.

2
1.1 Objective of work
The objective of this seminar work is to analyze the working of Peltier cooler. Scope of this
work includes:

 Study of the principles and working of Peltier refrigerator; working parameters;

performance parameters of the same.

 Exploring methods to improve the efficiency of the Peltier cooling systems and study
the advancement in the field of thermoelectrics.

 Studying new heat sink designs, which improves the performance of the Peltier cooler.

3
 2. Theory

2.1 Thermoelectric effect

The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric

voltage and vice versa. A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different
temperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature
difference. At the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the
material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.

The term "thermoelectric effect" encompasses three separately identified effects: the
Seebeck effect, Peltier effect, and Thomson effect.

2.1.1 The Seebeck effect

The Seebeck effect is the conversion of heat directly into electricity at the junction of
dissimilar electrical conductors. It is named for the Baltic German physicist Thomas Johann
Seebeck. [9]

Figure 1 : The Seebeck effect

As shown in Figure 1, the conductors are two dissimilar metals denoted as material A
and material B. The junction temperature at A is used as a reference and is maintained at a
relatively cool temperature (TC). The junction temperature at B is used as temperature higher

4
than temperature TC. With heat applied to junction B, a voltage (Eout) will appear across
terminals T1 and T2 and hence an electric current would flow continuously in this closed circuit.
This voltage is known as the Seebeck EMF, can be expressed as

𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝛼(𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶)

Where:

 α = dE / dT = α A – α B
 α is the differential Seebeck coefficient or (thermo electric power coefficient) between
the two materials, A and B, positive when the direction of electric current is same as the
direction of thermal current, unit is V/K.
 Eout is the output voltage in volts.
 TH and TC are the hot and cold junction temperatures, respectively, in Kelvin.

2.1.2 The Peltier effect

Peltier found there was an opposite phenomenon to the Seebeck Effect, whereby thermal
energy could be absorbed at one dissimilar metal junction and discharged at the other junction
when an electric current flowed within the closed circuit. [9]

Figure 2 : Peltier effect

In Figure 2, the circuit is modified to obtain a different configuration that illustrates

the Peltier Effect, a phenomenon opposite that of the Seebeck Effect. If a voltage (Ein) is applied
to terminals T1 and T2, an electrical current (I) will flow in the circuit. As a result of

5
the current flow, a slight cooling effect (QC) will occur at thermocouple junction A (where heat
is absorbed), and a heating effect (QH) will occur at junction B (where heat is expelled). Note
that this effect may be reversed whereby a change in the direction of electric current flow will
reverse the direction of heat flow.

Joule heating, having a magnitude of I2 x R (where R is the electrical resistance), also

occurs in the conductors as a result of current flow. This Joule heating effect acts in opposition
to the Peltier Effect and causes a net reduction of the available cooling. The Peltier effect can be
expressed mathematically as

𝑄𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐻 = 𝛽 × 𝐼 = (𝛼𝑇) × 𝐼

Where:

 β is the differential Peltier coefficient between the two materials A and B in volts.
 I is the electric current flow in amperes.
 QC and QH are the rates of cooling and heating, respectively, in watts.

2.1.3 The Thomson effect

As per the Thomson effect, when an electric current is passed through a conductor
having a temperature gradient over its length, heat will be either absorbed by or expelled from
the conductor. Whether heat is absorbed or expelled depends on the direction of both the electric
current and temperature gradient. This phenomenon is known as the Thomson Effect.

Figure 3 : The Thomson effect

6
2.2 Transport properties

The thermoelectric phenomena are reversible in the sense that they do not of themselves
give rise to thermodynamic losses. However, they are always, in practice, accompanied by the
irreversible effects of electrical resistance and thermal conduction. It turns out that the
performance of any thermocouple as an energy convertor can be expressed in terms of the
differential Seebeck coefficient and the thermal and electrical resistances of the two branches.
These resistances depend on the thermal and electrical resistivities and the ratios of length to
cross-sectional area.

The electrical resistivity ρ is the reciprocal of the electrical conductivity 𝜎, which is

defined by the relation,

𝜎𝑉𝐴
𝐼=
𝐿

Where, ‘I’ is the electric current through a specimen of constant cross-sectional area A
and length L when a voltage V is applied. Likewise, the thermal conductivity, K is defined by
the equation,

𝐾𝐴∆𝑇
𝑞=−
𝐿

Where, q is the rate of heat flow through a similar specimen that has a temperature
difference T between its two ends. We shall refer to the thermoelectric coefficients and the
electrical and thermal conductivities of a given material as its transport properties. All these
properties will generally be temperature-dependent.

7
 3. Working and fabrication

3.1 Working of Peltier cooler

The Peltier effect occurs whenever electrical current flows through two dissimilar
conductors; depending on the direction of current flow, the junction of the two conductors will
either absorb or release heat. In the world of thermoelectric technology, semiconductors
(usually Bismuth Telluride) are the material of choice for producing the Peltier effect because
they can be more easily optimized for pumping heat. Using this type of material, a Peltier device
(i.e., thermoelectric module) can be constructed in its simplest form around a single
semiconductor “pellet” which is soldered to electrically-conductive material on each end
(usually plated copper). In this configuration, the second dissimilar material required for the
Peltier effect, is actually the copper connection paths to the power supply. [10]

It is important to note that the heat will be moved in the direction of charge carrier
movement throughout the circuit (actually, it is the charge carriers that transfer the heat).

3.1.1 Peltier cooling with N-type semiconductor

In Figure 5, “N-type” semiconductor material is used to fabricate the pellet so that
electrons (with a negative charge) will be the charge carrier employed to create the bulk of the
Peltier effect.

As shown in Error! Reference source not found., N-type semi-conductor has a extra
electron in its Fermi level (higher energy level).

Figure 4 : N-type semiconductor Energy band diagram [11]

8
 With a DC voltage source connected as shown, electrons will be repelled by the negative
pole and attracted by the positive pole of the supply; due to this attraction, electrons at Fermi
level move towards positive terminal by releasing heat and creating the holes in the Fermi level.
Now, due to continuous supply of current, electrons move from valance band (lower energy
band) to Fermi level by absorbing energy from the junction. With the electrons flowing through
the N-type material from bottom to top, heat is absorbed at the bottom junction and actively
transferred to the top junction. [10]

So we can say that, in Peltier cooler using N-type of semiconductor, heat is absorbed at
the junction near negative terminal and heat is rejected at the junction near positiveterminal.

Figure 5 : Peltier cooling with N-type semiconductor [10]

3.1.2 Peltier cooling with N-type semiconductor

In the thermoelectric industry, “P-type” semiconductor pellets are also employed. Figure
6 shows the energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor. In this, holes are at the Fermi level
(higher energy level).

9
 Figure 6 : P-type semiconductor Energy band diagram [11]

Now, when DC current is applied through the circuit as shown in Figure 7; holes get
attracted towards negative terminal of source. By this attraction, holes move to negative
terminal by releasing heat. Due to continuous supply of current, holes from conduction band
moves to Fermi level by absorbing heat from the junction.

Figure 7 : Peltier cooling with P-type semiconductor [10]

So we can say that, in Peltier cooler using P-type of semiconductor, heat is absorbed at
the junction near positive terminal and heat is rejected at the junction near negative terminal.

3.1.3 Peltier cooling with P & N type of semiconductors

By arranging N and P-type pellets in a “couple” (see Figure 8) and forming a junction
between them with a plated copper tab, it is possible to configure a series circuit which can keep
all of the heat moving in the same direction. As shown in the illustration, with the free
10
(bottom) end of the P-type pellet connected to the positive voltage potential and the free
(bottom) end of the N-type pellet similarly connected to the negative side of the voltage.

As we have seen in previous section, for N-type of semiconductor, heat is absorbed from
the junction near to the negative terminal and heat is releases at the junction near to the positive
terminal. For P-type of semiconductor, heat is absorbed from the junction near to positive
terminal and released at the junction near to negative terminal.

Figure 8 : Peltier cooling by couple of N&P [10]

By arranging the circuit as like in Figure 8, it is possible to release heat to the one side
and absorb from another side. Using these special properties of the TE “couple”, it is possible to
team many pellets together in rectangular arrays to create practical thermoelectric modules as in
Figure 9.

Figure 9 : Peltier cooling by multiple pallets [10]

11
3.2 Fabrication of Peltier cooler

As we have seen in previous section, for producing thermoelectric effect couples of P

and N type semiconductors are connected in series by metal plates. By doing this it absorbs
the heat from one side and releases the heat to another side.

So, when solid state P-N materials are connected electrically in series and thermally in
parallel it makes one thermoelectric unit as shown in Figure 10.

12
 Figure 10 : Fabrication of Peltier module [12]

A typical TEC module comprises of two highly thermally conductive substrates (A12O3,
AlN, BeO) that serve as Hot/Cold plates. An array of p-type and n-type semiconductor (Bi2Te3,
Sb2Te3, Bi2Se3, PbTe, Si-Ge) pellets are connected electrically in series sandwiched between the
substrates. The device is normally attached to the cold side of the TEC module, and a heat sink
which is required for enhanced heat dissipation is attached to the hot side. Solder is normally
used to connect the TEC elements onto the conducting pads of
the substrates. The construction of a single stage thermoelectric module is shown in Figure 10.

[12]

13
 Considering a typical thermoelectric system designed to cool air in an enclosure (e.g.,
picnic box, equipment enclosure, etc.) as in Figure 11; this is probably the most common type of
TE application. Here the challenge is to “gather” heat from the inside of the box, pump it to a
heat exchanger on the outside of the box, and release the collected heat into the ambient air.
Usually, this is done by employing two heat sink/fan combinations in conjunction with one or
more Peltier devices. One of the heat sinks is used on the inside of the enclosure; cooled to a
temperature below that of the air in the box, the sink picks up heat as the air circulates
between the fins. In the simplest case, the Peltier device is mounted between this “cold side”
sink and a “hot side” sink. As direct current passes through the thermoelectric device, it actively
pumps heat from the cold side sink to the one on the hot side. The fan on the hot side then
circulates ambient air between the sink’s fins to absorb some of the collected heat. Note that the
heat dissipated on the hot side not only includes what is pumped from the box, but also the
heat produced within the Peltier device itself (V x I). [10]

Figure 11 : Configuration of air-to-air thermoelectric cooler

[10]

Let’s look at this in terms of real numbers. Imagine that we have to pump 25 watts from
a box to bring its temperature to 3 oC from 20 oC (ambient). To accomplish this, we might well
have to take the temperature of the cold side sink down to 0° C. Using a Peltier device which
draws 4.1 amps at 10.4 V, the hot side of the system will have to dissipate the25 watts from
the thermal load plus the 42.6 watts it takes to power the TE module (for a totalof 67.6 watts).
Employing a hot side sink and fan with an effective thermal resistance of 0.148C°/W. The

14
temperature of the hot side sink will rise approximately 10°C above ambient. It should be
noted that, to achieve the 17° C drop between the box temperature and ambient, wehad to create
a 30° c (45°F) temperature difference across the peltier device.

15
 4. Governing Equations and performance parameters

4.1 Cooling power

The cooling capacity Q1 results from the energy balance at the cold side of the
thermoelectric refrigerator.

When a current, I , is passed through the couple, there is Peltier cooling at the source
equal to, (𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛)𝐼𝑇1. 𝛼𝑝 and 𝛼𝑛 are the Seebeck coefficients of the two branches which, of
course, should have opposite signs.

This cooling effect is opposed by heat conduction at the rate (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) * (𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑛),
where Kp and Kn are the thermal conductance of the branches. The cooling is also opposed by
Joule heating within the thermo elements. It is easily shown that half of the Joule heating
𝐼2(𝑅𝑝+𝑅𝑛)
passes to the sink and half to the source, each half being equal to , where R p and Rn
2
are the thermal resistances of the branches. [14,15]

So, the expression for cooling power is,

𝐼2(𝑅𝑝 +
𝑄1 = (𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛)1 − (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) * (𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑛) −
𝑅𝑛)2

4.2 Power consumed

The electrical power consumption W in the thermo element is the Joule resistance
heating plus the power used to create the temperature difference ΔT by applying Peltier voltage.
[14,15]

W = (𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛). 𝐼. (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) + 𝐼2. (𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛)First

term is the power used to create the temperature difference ΔT. Second

term is power used in joule heating

16
4.3 Coefficient of performance (COP)

The quantity of greatest importance for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance

(COP), which is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted from the source to the expenditureof
electrical energy. If the thermocouple were free of losses associated with heat conduction and
electrical resistance, the COP would reach the ideal value; that is, the value for a Carnot cycle.
The ideal COP can be much greater than unity as it is given by 𝑇1/(𝑇2 − 𝑇1), where T1 and T2
are the absolute temperatures of the source and sink, respectively.[15]

The coefficient of performance COP is the ratio between the cooling capacity Q1 and the
electrical power consumption W,

𝑄1
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
W

((𝛼 − 𝛼 )𝐼𝑇 − (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) * (𝐾 + 𝐾 𝐼2(𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛)

)− )
𝑝 𝑛 1 2 𝑝 𝑛 2
1
∴ 𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
((𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛). 𝐼. (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) + 𝐼2. (𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛))

4.4 Maximum cooling power

Referring equation for cooling power from section 4.1,

𝐼2(𝑅𝑝 +
𝑄1 = (𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛)1 − (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) * (𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑛) −
𝑅𝑛)2

As the current is increased, the Peltier cooling rises linearly but the Joule heating
depends on I2. Thus, a plot of cooling power against current has the parabolic form shown in
Figure 12. The cooling power is negative until the Peltier effect is great enough to counteract
both heat conduction and Joule heating. As the current increased, Peltier effect increases and
after some value Peltier effect will be more that sum of heat conduction and joule heating. So,
cooling power will become positive at a certain value of the current. However, as the current is
increased further, there will come a point at which the difference between the Peltier

17
cooling and the Joule heating begins to diminish. In other words, there is a particular currentat
which the cooling power reaches its maximum value. [15]

Figure 12 : Schematic plot of cooling power against current for a

thermoelectric cooler [15]
it to 0, To find the maximum cooling power, differentiating Q1, with respect to I and equating

𝑑𝑄1
=0
𝑑
I

By, solving above equation, we can get current required for maximum cooling power,

(𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛) * 𝑇1
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛

Value of maximum cooling power, corresponding to 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥,

𝛼2 * 𝑇12
𝑄max = − 𝐾 * (𝑇 2− 𝑇 1)
2*𝑅

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛

𝐾 = 𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑛

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛

18
 2
Now, let’s take 𝑧 = 𝛼and substituting in Qmax
𝑅.𝐾

𝑍 . 𝑇2 1
𝑄 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥 [ − 𝑇 ( − 𝑇 ] . )2𝐾
2
1

Here, the term Z is known as the figure of merit, which is explained in upcoming section.

Value of COP at maximum cooling power,

𝑍. 𝑇12
− (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
𝑍. 𝑇2. 𝑇1

4.5 Figure of merit

We can see from the above equations of Qmax and COPmax that, it solely depend on Z and
the temperatures of the source and sink. So, Z is known as the figure of merit for thermocouple.
Z has the dimensions of inverse temperature and it is more usual nowadays to specify the
dimensionless figure of merit, which is equal to ZTm at a mean temperature Tm. [13]

𝛼2 𝛼2. 𝑇𝑚
𝑧= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧𝑇𝑚 =
𝑅. 𝐾
𝑅. 𝐾

Here, R is the electrical resistance, which is equal to 𝜌.𝑙 or 𝑙 .

𝐴 𝜎.𝐴

Since, length l and area A are not material properties, one can write figure of merit as,

𝛼2 *
𝑍=
𝜎

In practice, ZT represents the efficiency of the N-type and P-type materials which
compose a thermoelement. A thermoelectric material having a higher figure of merit ZT is more
convenient, as it can carry out higher cooling power.

19
 5. Literature review

5.1 Thermoelectrics material

Material used in thermoelectrics is largely dependent on Figure of merit. It is advisable

to use the material which has higher value of figure of merit because it leads to higher cooling
power of a module. As we have seen figure of merit in previous section, it depends on seebeck
coefficient, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. So, the properties which are
considered for selection of thermoelectric material are:

Electrical conductivity

For figure of merit to be high, electrical conductivity must be high. Metals are typically
good electrical conductors, but the higher the temperature, the lower the conductivity. This
tendency can be explained in terms of the Drude conductivity formula: [16]

𝑛. 𝑒2.
𝜎= 𝑟

 n is charge carrier density

 e is charge per carrier (elementary charge)
 τ is carrier mean free time between scattering events
 m is carrier mass

For, metals as temperature increases, τ decreases while the other numbers stay constant,
thereby decreasing 𝜎.

In contrast, the electrical conductivity of semiconductors generally increases with

temperature. In semiconductors, carrier mean free time decreases with increasing temperature,
however carrier density increases faster with increasing temperature, resulting in increasing 𝜎.

Thermal conductivity

For figure of merit to be high, thermal conductivity must be low. Thermal conductivityof
any material is the sum of conductivities of electron and phonon. [16]

20
 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑛 + 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

According to the Wiedemann–Franz law, the higher the electrical conductivity, the
higher 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 becomes. Therefore, it is necessary to minimize 𝐾𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑛. In semiconductors,
𝐾𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑛 > 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 so it is easier to decouple K and σ in a semiconductor and K can be
improved by working on Kphonon.

Power factor

In order to determine the usefulness of a material in a thermoelectric generator or a

thermoelectric cooler the power factor is calculated by its Seebeck coefficient and its electrical
conductivity under a given temperature difference: [16]

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ƒ𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜎 * 𝛼2

Where 𝛼 is the Seebeck coefficient and σ is the electrical conductivity.

5.1.2 Bismuth- Telluride based material[1]

The best thermoelectric materials currently available, compounds of doped Bi2Te3, have
ZT  1 at room temperature and attain maximum temperature differential of  82K. Some of the
commonly used conventional thermoelectric materials are as follows:

 Bi2Te3, Bi2Se3 and Sb2Te3 ; ZnSb, PbTe and PbSe

Bi2Te3, this compound has been extensively used in the construction of thermoelectric
modules. The performance of these modules has steadily improved, since the original
observations, due to a number of factors. The thermoelectric figure of merit has increased from
the order of 0.5 to values significantly greater than one.

To increase the ZT value for this material, research is going to decrease thermal
conductivity without affecting electrical conductivity.

As we have seen, The thermal conductivity of the material can be decomposed into
two principle components.[2] The first is the lattice contribution, related to thermal conduction
by phonons (lattice vibrations). The second is the radiative contribution related to thermal
conduction by photons (electromagnetic radiation). Now, decrease in thermal conductivity

21
can be achieved about through a reduction in the lattice component of the thermal
conductivity. Researchers have developed some techniques for doing so, includes : [16]

1. Superlattices
2. Phonon-glass electron crystal materials
3. phonon-liquid electron-crystal

5.2 Heat sink

Performance of thermoelectric cooler can be improved by working on thermal side. By

properly designing the heat sink on hot side and cold side can improve this system. To obtain
the best performance, a Peltier cooler must be designed with heat sink thermal resistance as
small as possible. The conventional heat sink unit utilized at the TEC hot side is composed of
fins and a fan. The fins are employed to increase heat transfer area. The fan conducts heat
transfer through convection. Although the thermal resistance of such a unit can be as low as
[3]
0.1 K/W , it is usually larger in size. The conventional heat sink can only be employed in
situations where space is not restricted. Various researchers are working on designing proper
heat sinks that can be applied to TEC, which includes

1. Phase change materials

2. Thermo-syphonic heat exchanger
3. Micro-channels

Each of this three are described below:

5.2.1 Phase change materials

A Paper by S. Riffat, S.A. Omer and Xiaoli Ma on “A novel thermoelectric refrigeration
system employing heat pipes and a phase change”. [4]

The heat sink should be designed to minimize the thermal resistance. Alternatively, the
heat sink could be designed to have a large heat storage capacity, which would help to keep the
sink temperature low relative to the junction temperature. This latter solution could be achieved
using a phase change material (PCM).

22
 PCMs have long been identified as candidates for thermal storage systems, due to the
high energy densities (MJ/m3). A further advantage of PCMs is that heat transfer normally takes
place at a constant temperature (the transition temperature). The principle of this technique is
that as the temperature rises due to dissipated heat energy, the PCM absorbs energy, first as
sensible heat, and then as latent heat when the phase change temperature is reached. At this
stage, the temperature remains constant until the phase change is complete.

Figure 13 : TEC with PCM as a heat sink [6]

PCMs are available with a large range of phase change temperatures, and thus may be
utilized on both the cold and hot junctions of a TEC and for a range of applications and
environments. By selecting a PCM with suitable transient temperature and large storage
capacity, the temperature difference across the thermoelectric module may be maintained at a
low value, thus improving the performance of the device.

When a conventional heat sink is used on the cold side, the temperature of the cold
junction drops rapidly until the maximum possible temperature difference across TEC is
reached. When the PCM is used, most of the cooling energy is absorbed by the PCM, and
therefore the cold side temperature drops more slowly than when PCM is not used; this is shown
in Figure 14. With PCM, the temperature drops slowly at the beginning until the transient
temperature is reached. During the phase change process, the temperature of the refrigeration
system is almost constant until the phase change process is complete. This helps to keep the
temperature difference across the TEC to a minimum, thus improving its performance.

23
 Figure 14 : Variation of cold junction and PCM temperatures during the cooling process
for the tests with, and without, PCM material

Use of a PCM provides a storage capacity, which helps to overcome peak loads and
cooling losses during periods of door opening. If the electrical power is turned off for any
reason, the refrigeration system employing PCM would have a storage capacity capable of
meeting the cooling load for a longer period. For example, as shown in Figure 15, after the
electrical power was turned off, it took twice as long for the temperature in the cabinet with
PCM to rise to the same value as in the cabinet with no PCM.

Figure 15 : Variation of cold cabinet and PCM temperatures for the tests with, and
without, PCM material, after the power was turned off.

In general, use of a PCM improves the performance of the thermoelectric refrigeration

system, as shown in Figure 16. As can be seen, because the cold junction temperature remains
constant during the phase change process, the rate of cooling is also constant, as is the COP of
the refrigeration system. This is a major advantage of using a PCM compared with a
conventional heat sink.
24
 Figure 16 : Comparison between performance of thermoelectric refrigeration
system, with and without, PCM material

5.2.2 Thermosyphonic heat exchanger in cold side

A paper by J.G. Vian, D. Astrain, “Development of a heat exchanger for the cold side of a
thermoelectric module”. [8]

Authors have developed a heat exchanger for the cold side of Peltier pellets in
thermoelectric refrigeration, based on the principle of a thermosyphon with phase change and
capillary action. This device improved the thermal resistance between the cold side of a Peltier
pellet and the refrigerated ambient by 37% (from 0.513 of the finned heat sink, to
0.323 K/W). It also has been experimentally proved that the COP of thermoelectric refrigerators
can be improved up to 32% (from 0.297 to 0.393) by incorporating the developed device.

The device they have used is called TPM (thermosyphon porous media). This device
(TPM) consists a hermetically closed volume which contains a fluid and a porous material
adhered to its internal surface, as shown in . When absorbing the heat from the room, the liquid
evaporates. The liquid ascends by capillarity due to the porous medium adhered to the surface of
the TPM, achieving this way the evaporation of the fluid in the whole surface of the TPM. This
steam ascends by natural convection reaching the cold side of the TPM, which is in contact
with the cold side of the Peltier pellet where it condenses. The condensed liquid returns to the
lower part of the thermosyphon by gravity, creating a closed, self-feeding cycle.

25
 Figure 17 : Operation scheme of TPM device

Authors performed experimental study of the COP increase obtained in a thermoelectric

refrigerator if TPM is used. Two configurations were tested: one corresponds to the scheme
shown in Figure 17, where the heat exchanger for the cold side of the Peltier pellet is the TPM
device; the other configuration consists on replacing the TPM by a finned heat sink.

These results are shown in Table 1. From result of COP of both refrigerators, TPM
and finned heat sink, It can be appreciated that when introducing the TPM device in a
hermoelectric refrigerator, the COP increases by 32%

26
Table 1 : Result of experiment for TPM and Finned sink

TPM Finned heat

sink
Tamb - 11.2 8.43
Tint
Qc (W) 19.4 14.67
7
We (W) 49.6 49.4

Rtherma 0.32 0.513

l 3
COP 0.39 0.297
3

5.2.3 Micro-channels
Paper by R. Chein, Y. Chen, “Performances of thermoelectric cooler integrated with
microchannel heat sinks”, International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 828–839. [5]

In this study, experimental and theoretical studies on thermoelectric cooler (TEC)

performance for cooling a refrigerated object (water in a tank) were performed. Microchannel
heat sinks fabricated with etched silicon wafers were employed on the TEC hot side to dissipate
the heat.

27
 Figure 18 : Experimental setup of TEC with micro channels
as a heat sink

Figure 18 shows the experimental setup used in this experiment. The TEC used in this
study is a commercially-available unit, Model cp 1.4-127-06L, which has a published
maximum, cooling rate of 51.4W and maximum temperature difference of 67.8 C.

The microchannels of the heat sink used in this study were fabricated using standard
etching process on the orientation silicon wafers. The thickness of the silicon wafer is 500 mm.
A 500 mm-thick glass plate was covered on the top surface of the microchannels to form the
flow passages. Figure 19 shows a typical cross section of a microchannel etched on the silicon
wafer. The channel has a trapezoidal shape with the top width, bottom width and depth denoted
as Wt, Wb, and H, respectively. Figure 20 illustrates the top view of a typical microchannel heat
sink. In addition to the parallel channels, inlet and outlet ports are also required for distributing
the coolant into the microchannels and collecting coolant at the channel exits.

Figure 19 : Microchannel geometry

28
 Figure 20 : Microchannel heat sink configuration

Water was used as the coolant. The water was pumped into the microchannel heat sink
with a gear pump. The coolant temperature was kept at 25.8C before it was entered into the heat
sink with a heat exchanger unit. The coolant flowrate was measured via a digital balance with
the time recorded.

They did experiment on this model by varying coolant flow rates in range of 289-
10702 ml/h. The result of this experiment is shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21 : Variations of refrigerated object temperature Tt as functions of time and coolant

flow rate

29
 Figure shows the temperature of refrigerated space decreases with respect to time. Wecan
also see that, the temperature reduces if the flow rate of water is increased. Figure 22

30
shows the comparison of the microchannels heat sink with fin type heat sink. As we can see, the
difference in temperatures of refrigerated space in both the cases are not much, but here the
advantage is the size of heat sink. Conventional heat sink is not applicable where space is the
restriction, while microchannel require a space in micrometers.

Figure 22 : Comparison of TEC performances using conventional heat sink and

microchannel heat sink.

5.3 Comparison of Peltier, Sterling and vapour compressionportable cooler

A paper by C. Hermes, J. Barbosa, “Thermodynamic comparison of Peltier, Stirling, and

vapor compression portable coolers” [7]

This paper compares the thermodynamic performance of four small-capacity portable

coolers that employ different cooling technologies: thermoelectric, Stirling, and vapor
compression using two different compressors (reciprocating and linear). The refrigeration
systems were experimentally evaluated in a climatized chamber with controlled temperature and
humidity. Tests were carried out at two different ambient temperatures (21 and 32 oC) in order
to obtain key performance parameters of the systems (e.g., power consumption, cooling
capacity, internal air temperature, and the hot end and cold end temperatures).

In this work, author compared performance parameters using a thermodynamic approach

that splits the overall 2nd law efficiency into two terms, namely, the internal and external
efficiencies. In doing so, the internal irreversibilities (e.g., friction in the working fluid in the
Stirling and vapor compression machines, Joule heating and heat conduction in the

31
thermoelectric devices of the Peltier cooler) were separated from the heat exchanger losses
(external irreversibilities), allowing the comparison between different refrigeration technologies
with respect to the same thermodynamic baseline.

Cooling systems used for analysis are as given in Table 1.

Table 2 : Cooling systems

Characteristics Thermoelectric Stirling Recip. Linear

compresso compresso
r r

Cabinetvolume (l) 56 26 31 34

Refrigerant Electrons Helium HFC-134a HFC-134a

Cold end Air Thermosyphon Roll- Roll-

heat source bond, bond,
exchanger , forced natural natural

Hot end Air Air Air Air

heat source source source source
exchanger , forced , forced , forced ,forced

Voltage supply 120 VAC 12 VDC 24 VDC 12 VDC

Temperature Continuous Continuous On–off On–off

control

Results of this experiment are shown below. Figure 23 shows the comparison of COP for
ambient temperature at 21 C and 32 C. As we can see, carnot COP of TEC is highest, but due to
electrical irreversibility its actual COP is much lower that other system.

32
 Figure 23 : Coefficient of performance: ambient air at (a) 21
C and (b) 32 C.

Figure 24 shows the comparison of second law efficiency of all the refrigerators,
which indicates internal efficiency of thermoelectric cooler is very less, means that the internal
irreversibilities in the thermoelectric module can be quite high. Indeed, this combined with the
comparatively large value of its internally ideal coefficient of performance confirms the need for
improvement of the thermoelectric properties of the thermoelectric cooler.

33
Figure 24 : Second law efficiency: ambient air at (a) 21 C
and (b) 32 C.

34
 6. Applications of Peltier cooler

 Thermoelectric cooling is used in medical and pharmaceutical equipment, spectroscopy

systems, various types of detectors, electronic equipment, portable refrigerators, chilled
food and beverage dispensers, and drinking water coolers.
 Requiring cooling devices with high reliability that fit into small spaces, powerful
integrated circuits in today's personal computers also employ thermoelectric coolers.
 Using solid state heat pumps that utilize the Peltier effect, thermoelectric cooling devices
are also under scrutiny for larger spaces such as passenger compartments of idling aircraft
parked at the gate.

Some of the other potential and current uses of thermoelectric cooling are:

Military/Aerospace

 Inertial Guidance Systems, Night Vision Equipment, Electronic Equipment Cooling,

Cooled Personal Garments, Portable Refrigerators.

Consumer Products

 Recreational Vehicle Refrigerators, Mobile Home Refrigerators, Portable Picnic

Coolers, Wine and Beer Keg Coolers, Residential Water Coolers/Purifiers.

Laboratory and Scientific Equipment

 Infrared Detectors, Integrated Circuit Coolers, Laboratory Cold Plates, Cold Chambers,
Ice Point Reference Baths, Dewpoint Hygrometers, Constant Temperature Baths,
Thermostat Calibrating Baths, Laser Collimators.

Industrial Equipments

 C Computer Microprocessors, Microprocessors and PC's in Numerical Control and

Robotics, Medical Instruments, Hypothermia Blankets, Pharmaceutical Refrigerators -
Portable and Stationary, Blood Analyzers, Tissue Preparation and Storage, Restaurant
Equipment, Cream and Butter Dispensers.

35
Miscellaneous

 Hotel Room Refrigerators, Automobile Mini – Refrigerators, Automobile Seat Cooler,

Aircraft Drinking Water Coolers.

6.1 Commercial thermoelectric cooling products:

A varied variety of products based on thermoelectric cooling are now currently available in
the market. These are important because they can be bought off the shelf as per the
requirements. Some of the important listings are as follows:

 PowerChill™ Plus 40-qt Vertical/Horizontal Thermoelectric Cooler (Gray/White) :

Model No. 5642A807 ( Company - Coleman)

 Capacity: 45.5 L
 Price: Rs. 7000
 Voltage Requirement : 110 volts

 16 Quart Gray/Blue Personal Thermoelectric Cooler : Model No. 5615-807

(Company – Coleman)

 Capacity : 18.2 L
 Price : Rs. 4000

36
  Voltage Requirement : 110 volts

 Liquid Chiller Model No. TLC-700 (Company - Thermoelectric cooling America

Corporation)

 Reservoir capacity : .5 L
 Price : Rs. 2000
 Voltage Requirement : 120 volts ; Power Requirement : 500 W

37
 7. Conclusion

Since Peltier cooling is not efficient comparatively and due to its small size applications,
it is not widely used. It found its application only in electronics cooling etc. But, we have seen
that there is a huge scope of research in this field about thermoelectric materials, its fabrication,
heat sink design etc. Researcher are working on reducing irreversibilities in the systems, because
Peltier cooler has more potential which we can see from the vast difference between value of
first law efficiency and second law efficiency.

38
 References

1. H. Julian Goldsmid, Bismuth Telluride and Its Alloys as Materials for Thermoelectric
Generation, Materials 2014, 7, 2577-2592.
2. S. Stackhouse, L. Stixrude, Theoretical Methods for Calculating the Lattice Thermal
Conductivity of Minerals, Mineralogy & Geochemistry Vol. 71 pp. 253-269, 2010.

3. S. Riffat, S.A. Omer, Xiaoli Ma, A novel thermoelectric refrigeration system employing
heat pipes and a phase change, Renewable Energy 23 (2001) 313–323
4. R. Chein, Y. Chen, “Performances of thermoelectric cooler integrated with microchannel
heat sinks”, International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 828–839
5. S. Riffat, X. ma, Improving the coefficient of performance of thermoelectric cooling
systems, international journal of energy research Int. J. Energy Res. 2004; 28:753–768
6. C. Hermes, J. Barbosa, “Thermodynamic comparison of Peltier, Stirling, and vapor
compression portable coolers”, Applied Energy 91 (2012) 51–58
7. J. Vian, D. Astrain, “Development of a heat exchanger for the cold side of a
thermoelectric module”, Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 1514–1521
8. Kaseb S., El-hairy G, Electronics Cooling, Mechanical Power Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt
9. Thermoelectric cooling FAQ, Tellurex Corporation

10. Marc H., Thermoelectric Modules: Principles and Research, InterPACK july 6-8, 2011,
Portland
11. Kaseb S., El-hairy G, Electronics Cooling, Mechanical Power Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 2014, 38:903–916
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