DC MACHINES

Terminal Voltage

Terminal voltage, as applied to DC generators, is defined as the voltage that can be measured
at the output of the generator.

Counter-Electromotive Force (CEMF)

In a generator using a rotating armature, the conductors cut the magnetic lines of force in the
magnetic field. Voltage is induced in the armature conductors. This induced voltage opposes
the applied voltage; it counteracts some of the applied voltage, which reduces the current
flow through the armature. This induced voltage acts counter to applied voltage; therefore, it
is called counter-electromotive force (CEMF).

Applied Voltage

Applied voltage is defined as the voltage that is delivered across the load. This voltage should
be the same as terminal voltage; however, various circuit faults and losses may reduce the
terminal voltage.

Commutation

Commutation is the positioning of the DC generator brushes so that the commutator segments
change brushes at the same time the armature current changes direction. More simply stated,
commutation is the mechanical conversion from AC to DC at the brushes of a DC machine,
as shown in Figure 1.

In a DC generator, commutation provides for the conversion of AC to a DC output that is

Figure 1 AC to DC Conversion with a Commutator generated in the armature windings.
Commutation will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters.
 DC Equipment Construction

Direct current machines are energy transfer devices. These machines can function as either a
motor or a generator. DC motors and generators have the same basic construction, differing
primarily in the energy conversion. To better understand the operation and construction of
DC machines, a few basic terms must be understood.

Armature

The purpose of the armature is to provide the energy conversion in a DC machine (refer to
Figure 2).

In a DC generator, the armature is rotated by an external mechanical force, such as a steam

turbine. This rotation induces a voltage and current flow in the armature.
Thus, the armature converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

In a DC motor, the armature receives voltage from an outside electrical source and converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of torque.

Rotor

The purpose of the rotor is to provide the rotating element in a DC machine (refer to Figure
2).

In a DC generator, the rotor is the component that is rotated by an external force.

In a DC motor, the rotor is the component that turns a piece of equipment. In both types of
DC machines, the rotor is the armature.

Stator

The stator is the part of a motor or generator that is stationary (refer to Figure 2).
In DC machines, the purpose of the stator is to provide the magnetic field. The stator in
Figure 2 is provided by a permanent magnet.

Field

The purpose of the field in a DC machine is to provide a magnetic field for producing either a
voltage (generator) or a torque (motor) (refer to Figure 2).

The field in a DC machine is produced by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.

Normally, electromagnets are used because they have an increased magnetic strength, and the
magnetic strength is more easily varied using external devices. In Figure 2, the field is
provided by the stator.

DC Generators
DC generators are widely used to produce a DC voltage. The amount of voltage produced
depends on a variety of factors.

Voltage Production

Recall from Module 3, DC Circuits, that there are three conditions necessary to induce a
voltage into a conductor.

1. A magnetic field
2. A conductor
3. Relative motion between the two

A DC generator provides these three conditions to produce a DC voltage output.

Theory of Operation

A basic DC generator has four basic parts:

(1) A magnetic field;

(2) A single conductor, or loop;
(3) A commutator; and
(4) Brushes (Figure 3).

The magnetic field may be supplied by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. For
now, we will use a permanent magnet to describe a basic DC generator.
A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles.
As long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion).

If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is
induced into the loop.

When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic
field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is
induced into the conductor.

The magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the rate at which the
flux lines are cut, as given in equation (5-1). The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut
for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF.

Eg = KN

Where

Eg = generated voltage
K = fixed constant
= magnetic flux strength
N = speed in RPM

The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the "left-hand rule" for
generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of your left hand in the direction
of the magnetic field (from North to South) and point the thumb in the direction of motion of
the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of current flow (Figure 4).

In the generator shown in Figure 4, for example, the conductor closest to the N pole is
traveling upward across the field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower corner.

Applying the left-hand rule to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in a counter-
clockwise direction in the loop.
Commutator Action

The commutator converts the AC voltage generated in the rotating loop into a DC voltage. It
also serves as a means of connecting the brushes to the rotating loop. The purpose of the
brushes is to connect the generated voltage to an external circuit. In order to do this, each
brush must make contact with one of the ends of the loop.

Since the loop or armature rotates, a direct connection is impractical. Instead, the brushes are
connected to the ends of the loop through the commutator.
In a simple one-loop generator, the commutator is made up of two semi cylindrical pieces of
a smooth conducting material, usually copper, separated by an insulating material, as shown
in Figure 5.

Each half of the commutator segments is permanently attached to one end of the rotating
loop, and the commutator rotates with the loop. The brushes, usually made of carbon, rest
against the commutator and slide along the commutator as it rotates. This is the means by
which the brushes make contact with each end of the loop.

Each brush slides along one half of the commutator and then along the other half. The
brushes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they will pass from one
commutator half to the other at the instant the loop reaches the point of rotation, at which
point the voltage that was induced reverses the polarity.

Every time the ends of the loop reverse polarity, the brushes switch from one commutator
segment to the next. This means that one brush is always positive with respect to another. The
voltage between the brushes fluctuates in amplitude (size or magnitude) between zero and
some maximum value, but is always of the same polarity (Figure 6). In this manner,
commutation is accomplished in a DC generator.

One important point to note is that, as the brushes pass from one segment to the other, there is
an instant when the brushes contact both segments at the same time. The induced voltage at
this point is zero. If the induced voltage at this point were not zero, extremely high currents
would be produced due to the brushes shorting the ends of the loop together. The point at
which the brushes contact both commutator segments, when the induced voltage is zero, is
called the "neutral plane."

Field Excitation
The magnetic fields in DC generators are most commonly provided by electromagnets. A
current must flow through the electromagnet conductors to produce a magnetic field. In order
for a DC generator to operate properly, the magnetic field must always be in the same
direction. Therefore, the current through the field winding must be direct current. This current
is known as the field excitation current and can be supplied to the field winding in one of two
ways. It can come from a separate DC source external to the generator (e.g., a separately
excited generator) or it can come directly from the output of the generator, in which case it is
called a self-excited generator.

In a self-excited generator, the field winding is connected directly to the generator output.
The field may be connected in series with the output, in parallel with the output, or a
combination of the two.

Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or another DC source. It is

generally more expensive than a self-excited generator. Separately excited generators are,
therefore, used only where self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases
where the generator must respond quickly to an external control source or where the
generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during normal operations.

Terminal Voltage

DC generator output voltage is dependent on three factors (recall equation 5-1):

(1) the number of conductor loops in series in the armature,

(2) armature speed, and
(3) magnetic field strength.

In order to change the generator output, one of these three factors must be varied. The
number of conductors in the armature cannot be changed in a normally operating generator,
and it is usually impractical to change the speed at which the armature rotates.

The strength of the magnetic field, however, can be changed quite easily by varying the
current through the field winding. This is the most widely used method for regulating the
output voltage of a DC generator (Figure 7).
DC Generator Ratings

A DC generator contains four ratings.

Voltage: Voltage rating of a machine is based on the insulation type and design of the
machine.

Current: The current rating is based on the size of the conductor and the amount of heat that
can be dissipated in the generator.

Power: The power rating is based on the mechanical limitations of the device that is used to
turn the generator and on the thermal limits of conductors, bearings, and other components of
the generator.

Speed: Speed rating, at the upper limit, is determined by the speed at which mechanical
damage is done to the machine. The lower speed rating is based on the limit for field current
(as speed increases, a higher field current is necessary to produce the same voltage).

Internal Losses

There are four internal losses that contribute to lower efficiency of a DC generator.

 Copper losses
 Eddy-current losses
 Hysteresis losses
 Mechanical losses
Each of these is described in the paragraphs that follow.

Copper Losses

Copper loss is the power lost as heat in the windings; it is caused by the flow of current
through the coils of the DC armature or DC field. This loss varies directly with the square of
the current in the armature or field and the resistance of the armature or field coils.

Armature: Ia2 Ra

Field: If2 Rf

Eddy-Current Losses

As the armature rotates within the field, it cuts the lines of flux at the same time that the
copper coils of wire that are wound on the armature cut the lines of flux. Since the armature
is made of iron, an EMF is induced in the iron, which causes a current to flow. These
circulating currents within the iron core are called eddy-currents.

To reduce eddy-currents, the armature and field cores are constructed from laminated
(layered) steel sheets. The laminated sheets are insulated from one another so that current
cannot flow from one sheet to the other.

Hysteresis Losses

Hysteresis losses occur when the armature rotates in a magnetic field. The magnetic domains
of the armature are held in alignment with the field in varying numbers, dependent upon field
strength. The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the particles not held in alignment, by
one complete turn during each rotation of the armature. This rotation of magnetic domains in
the iron causes friction and heat. The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic
hysteresis loss.

To reduce hysteresis losses, most DC armatures are constructed of heat-treated silicon steel,
which has an inherently low hysteresis loss. After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to
the desired shape, the laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool. This
process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low value.

Mechanical Losses

Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush friction on the
commutator, or air friction (called windage), which is caused by the air turbulence due to
armature rotation. Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a
minimum. Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of bearing
friction.

Brush friction is reduced by assuring proper brush seating, using proper brushes, and
maintaining proper brush tension. A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction
of brush friction.
 DC Generator Construction

A DC generator may be constructed in a variety of ways depending upon the relationship

and location of each of the fields. Each type of construction contains certain advantages.

Shunt-Wound DC Generators

When the field winding of a generator is connected in parallel with the generator armature,
the generator is called a shunt-wound generator (Figure 8).

The excitation current in a shunt-wound generator is dependent upon the output voltage and
the field resistance. Normally, field excitation is maintained between 0.5 and 5 percent of the
total current output of the generator.

Series-Wound DC Generators

When the field winding of a DC generator is connected in series with the armature, the
generator is called a series-wound generator (Figure 10).
The excitation current in a series-wound generator is the same as the current the generator
delivers to the load. If the load has a high resistance and only draws a small amount of
current, the excitation current is also small. Therefore, the magnetic field of the series field
winding is weak, making the generated voltage low. Conversely, if the load draws a large
current, the excitation current is also high. Therefore, the magnetic field of the series field
winding is very strong, and the generated voltage is high.

Compound Generators

Series-wound and shunt-wound generators have a disadvantage in that changes in load

current cause changes in generator output voltage. Many applications in which generators are
used require a more stable output voltage than can be supplied by a series-wound or shunt-
wound generator. One means of supplying a stable output voltage is by using a compound
generator.
The compound generator has a field winding in parallel with the generator armature (the
same as a shunt-wound generator) and a field winding in series with the generator armature
(the same as a series-wound generator) (Figure 12).

The two windings of the compounded generator are made such that their magnetic fields will
either aid or oppose one another.

If the two fields are wound so that their flux fields oppose one another, the generator is said
to be differentially-compounded. Due to the nature of this type of generator, it is used only in
special cases and will not be discussed further in this text.

If the two fields of a compound generator are wound so that their magnetic fields aid one
another, the generator is said to be cumulatively-compounded. As the load current increases,
the current through the series field winding increases, increasing the overall magnetic field
strength and causing an increase in the output voltage of the generator.

With proper design, the increase in the magnetic field strength of the series winding will
compensate for the decrease in shunt field strength. Therefore, the overall strength of the
combined magnetic fields remains almost unchanged, so the output voltage will remain
constant.
In reality, the two fields cannot be made so that their magnetic field strengths compensate for
each other completely. There will be some change in output voltage from the no-load to full-
load conditions.

DC Motors
DC motors are widely used to drive various equipment. The speed and torque produced in a
DC motor depends on a variety of factors.

DC Motor Theory

Inducing a Force on a Conductor

There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on a conductor.
 The conductor must be carrying current.
 The conductor must be within a magnetic field.

When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied to the conductor, which will attempt
to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic
theory by which all DC motors operate.

Theory of Operation

Every current-carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it. The direction of this
magnetic field may be found by using the left-hand rule for current-carrying conductors.
When the thumb points in the direction of current flow, the fingers will point in the direction
of the magnetic field produced, as shown in Figure 1.

If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the combined fields will be

similar to those shown in Figure 2. The direction of current flow through the conductor is
indicated with an "x" or a "·". The "x" indicates the current flow is away from the reader, or
into the page. The "·" indicates the current flow is towards the reader, or out of the page.

Above the conductor on the left, the field caused by the conductor is in the opposite direction
of the main field, and therefore, opposes the main field. Below the conductor on the left, the
field caused by the conductor is in the same direction as the main field, and therefore, aids the
main field. The net result is that above the conductor the main field is weakened, or flux
density is decreased; below the conductor the field is strengthened, or flux density is
increased. A force is developed on the conductor that moves the conductor in the direction of
the weakened field (upward).

Above the conductor on the right, the field caused by the conductor is in the same direction as
the main field, and therefore, aids the main field. Below the conductor on the right, the field
caused by the conductor is in the opposite direction of the main field, and therefore, opposes
the main field. The net result is that above the conductor the field is strengthened, or flux
density is increased, and below the conductor, the field is weakened, or flux density is
decreased. A force is developed on the conductor that moves the conductor in the direction of
the weakened field (downward).

In a DC motor, the conductor will be formed in a loop such that two parts of the conductor
are in the magnetic field at the same time, as shown in Figure 3.
This combines the effects of both conductors to distort the main magnetic field and produce a
force on each part of the conductor. When the conductor is placed on a rotor, the force
exerted on the conductors will cause the rotor to rotate clockwise, as shown on Figure 3.

You can think of these magnetic lines of force as rubber bands that are always trying to
shorten themselves. The lines of force above the conductor exert a downward force due to the
magnetic lines of force trying to straighten themselves.

The above explanation of how a force is developed is convenient; however, it is somewhat

artificial. It is based on a fundamental principle of physics which may be stated as follows:
"A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field tends to move at right angles to that field."

Another important way to show the relationship between the current-carrying conductor,
magnetic field, and motion, is the right-hand rule for motors, as shown in Figure 4.
The right-hand rule for motors shows the direction in which a current-carrying conductor
moves in a magnetic field. When the forefinger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic
field lines, and the center finger is pointed in the direction of current flow, the thumb will
point in the direction of force (motion).

Torque

Torque is defined as that force which tends to produce and maintain rotation. The function of
torque in a DC motor is to provide the mechanical output or drive the piece of equipment that
the DC motor is attached to.

When a voltage is applied to a motor, current will flow through the field winding,
establishing a magnetic field. Current will also flow through the armature winding, from the
negative brush to the positive brush as shown in Figure 5.
Since the armature is a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the conductor has a
force exerted on it, tending to move it at right angles to that field. Using the left-hand rule for
current carrying conductors, you will see that the magnetic field on one side is strengthened
at the bottom, while it is weakened on the other side. Using the right-hand rule for motors, we
can see that there is a force exerted on the armature which tends to turn the armature in the
counter-clockwise direction. The sum of the forces, in pounds, multiplied by the radius of the
armature, in feet, is equal to the torque developed by the motor in pound-feet (1b - ft).

It is evident from Figure 5 that if the armature current were reversed, but the field were the
same, torque would be developed in the opposite direction. Likewise, if the field polarity
were reversed and the armature remained the same, torque would also be developed in the
opposite direction.

The force that is developed on a conductor of a motor armature is due to the combined action
of the magnetic fields. The force developed is directly proportional to the strength of the main
field flux and the strength of the field around the armature conductor. As we know, the field
strength around each armature conductor depends on the amount of current flowing through
the armature conductor. Therefore, the torque which is developed by the motor can be
determined using Equation below:

T = KIa

where
T = torque, lb-ft
K = a constant depending on physical size of motor
= field flux, number of lines of force per pole
Ia = armature current

Generator Action in a Motor

A generator action is developed in every motor. When a conductor cuts lines of force, an
EMF is induced in that conductor. Current to start the armature turning will flow in the
direction determined by the applied DC power source. After rotation starts, the conductor
cuts lines of force. By applying the left-hand rule for generators, the EMF that is induced in
the armature will produce a current in the opposite direction. The induced EMF, as a result of
motor operation, is called counter electromotive force, or CEMF, as illustrated in Figure 6.

Since the CEMF is generated by the action of the armature cutting lines of force, the value of
CEMF will depend on field strength and armature speed, as shown in Equation below.

ECEMF = KN

Where

ECEMF = counter EMF

K = constant
= field flux strength
N = speed of the armature

The CEMF opposes the applied voltage and functions to lower armature current. The
effective voltage acting in the armature of a motor is the applied voltage, minus the counter
EMF. Armature current can be found by using Ohm’s law, as shown in Equation below.

E t−E CEMF
I a=
Ra

Where

Ia = armature current
Et = terminal voltage
ECEMF = counter EMF
Ra = armature resistance

Types of DC Motors
There are various types of DC motors found in industry today. Each type contains various
characteristics that makes it desirable for certain applications.

DC Motor Connections

Figure 7 shows schematically the different methods of connecting the field and armature
circuits in a DC motor. The circular symbol represents the armature circuit, and the squares at
the side of the circle represent the brush commutator system. The direction of the arrows
indicates the direction of the magnetic fields.

 Figure 7a shows an externally-excited DC motor. This type of DC motor is

constructed such that the field is not connected to the armature. This type of DC
motor is not normally used.

 Figure 7b shows a shunt DC motor. The motor is called a "shunt" motor because the
field is in parallel, or "shunts" the armature.

 Figure 7c shows a series DC motor. The motor field windings for a series motor are in
series with the armature.

 Figures 7d and 7e show a compounded DC motor. A compounded DC motor is

constructed so that it contains both a shunt and a series field. Figure 7d is called a
"cumulatively compounded" DC motor because the shunt and series fields are aiding
one another. Figure 7e is called a "differentially-compounded" DC motor because the
shunt and series field oppose one another.
Shunt-Wound Motor Operation

The speed-torque relationship for a typical shunt-wound motor is shown in Figure 8.

A shunt-wound DC motor has a decreasing torque when speed increases. The decreasing
torque-vs-speed is caused by the armature resistance voltage drop and armature reaction. At a
value of speed near 2.5 times the rated speed, armature reaction becomes excessive, causing a
rapid decrease in field flux, and a rapid decline in torque until a stall condition is reached.

Shunt-Wound Motor Applications

The characteristics of a shunt-wound motor give it very good speed regulation, and it is
classified as a constant speed motor, even though the speed does slightly decrease as load is
increased. Shunt-wound motors are used in industrial and automotive applications where
precise control of speed and torque are required.

Series-Wound Motor

Since the armature and field in a series-wound motor are connected in series, the armature
and field currents become identical, and the torque can be expressed as shown in Equation
below.

T = KIa2

The torque-vs-speed characteristics of a series-wound motor with a constant voltage source

are shown in Figure 9.
As the speed decreases, the torque for a series wound motor increases sharply. As load is
removed from a series motor, the speed will increase sharply. For these reasons, series-wound
motors must have a load connected to prevent damage from high speed conditions.

Series-Wound Motor Applications

The advantage of a series-wound motor is that it develops a large torque and can be operated
at low speed. It is a motor that is well-suited for starting heavy loads; it is often used for
industrial cranes and winches where very heavy loads must be moved slowly and lighter
loads moved more rapidly.

Compounded Motor

The compounded motor is desirable for a variety of applications because it combines the
characteristics of a series-wound motor and a shunt-wound motor. The compounded motor
has a greater torque than a shunt motor due to the series field; however, it has a fairly
constant speed due to the shunt field winding. Loads such as presses, shears, and
reciprocating machines are often driven by compounded motors.

DC Motor Operation

DC motors require special starting resistors for operation due to their unique design. A
knowledge of the operation of these starting resistors is necessary to understand DC motor
operation.

Starting of DC Motors

At the moment a DC motor is started the armature is stationary and there is no counter EMF
being generated. The only component to limit starting current is the armature resistance,
which, in most DC motors is a very low value (approximately one ohm or less), as shown in
Equation below.
 E t−E CEMF
I a=
Ra

In order to reduce this very high starting current, an external resistance must be placed in
series with the armature during the starting period. To show why this is essential, let us
consider a 10-hp motor with an armature resistance of 0.4 ohms. If the motor were supplied
by a 260 VDC source, the resulting current would be as shown below

This large current is approximately twelve times greater than actual full-load current for this
motor. This high current would, in all probability, cause severe damage to the brushes,
commutator, or windings. Starting resistors are usually incorporated into the motor design to
limit starting current to 125 to 200 percent of full load current.

The amount of starting resistance necessary to limit starting current to a more desirable value
is calculated using Equation below
Et
R s= −R a
Is
Where:

Rs = starting resistance
Et = terminal voltage
Is = desired armature starting current
Ra = armature resistance

Example: If the full load current of the motor mentioned previously is 50 amps, and it is
desired to limit starting current to 125% of this value, find the required resistance that must
be added in series with the armature.
The starting resistors are used in a DC motor by placing them in the starting circuit of the
motor controller that is used to start the DC motor. Starting resistors are normally of variable
resistances, with the value of resistance in the circuit at any time being either manually or
automatically controlled. The maximum amount of resistance will always be inserted when
the motor is first started. As the speed of the motor increases, counter EMF will begin to
increase, decreasing armature current. The starting resistors may then be cut out, in
successive steps, until the motor reaches full running speed.

DC Motor Ratings

The nameplate ratings of a DC motor refer to the conditions of voltage, current, speed, and
power at which the motor is normally operated. The principal rating is known as the
continuous rating, which is the rating described on the nameplate of a motor. The continuous
power rating is a thermal rating. At this power, the motor can be operated for long periods of
time without a large rise in temperature and beyond the limits of the conductor insulating
material, bearings and other components, which are greatly affected by temperature.

The speed rating of a DC motor is often given on the nameplate. This speed is the upper limit
at which a motor can be operated without mechanical damage occurring.