Lithium Ion Battery Recycling Opportunities SA

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T H E
T M C K E L L
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Capitalising on
the lithium-ion waste
resource challenge in
South Australia
J U N E 2 02 1
About the McKell Institute
The McKell Institute is a public policy institute
dedicated to identifying innovative solutions to
meet contemporary policy challenges.
www.mckellinstitute.org.au
About the Authors

EDWARD CAVANOUGH
Edward Cavanough is the Director of Policy of the McKell Institute.
LILIANA TAI
Liliana Tai is an Economist at the McKell Institute.
About the Report

This report is funded by Green Industries SA.
The McKell Institute and the authors would like to thank all who have
contributed feedback, information and data to support this project.
THE
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The opinions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views
of the McKell Institute’s members, affiliates, individual board members or research committee
members. Any remaining errors or omissions are the responsibility of the authors. Institu
McKellte
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T HEM C K E L L I N S T I T U T E
Capitalising on
the lithium-ion waste
resource challenge in
South Australia
J U N E 2 02 1
4 T H E M C K E L L I N S T I T U T E
Capitalising on the lithium-ion waste resource challenge in South Australia 5
Contents
Terminology and Abbreviations 6
Figures and Tables 7
Foreword 8
Executive Summary 10
Key Findings 12
Recommendations 14
Part 1: The LIB Waste Resource Challenge 16
1.1: The Coming Wave of Lithium-Ion Waste.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
1.2: The Electric Vehicle Revolution................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
1.3: Sizing the LIB Waste Resource Challenge in South Australia........................................................................................................................................ 27
Part 2: Managing LIB Waste Resources in Australia 33

2.1: How LIB Waste is Handled Today...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.2: Managing LIB Waste is a Three Step Process...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Part 3: Identifying South Australia's Role in LIB Waste Management 56

3.1: Identifying South Australia’s Opportunity..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
3.2: Market Dynamics for Resources Extracted from LIBs................................................................................................................................................................... 60
3.3: Envisaging a South Australia-Centric LIB Waste Hub..................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Part 4: Best Practice Guidelines 73

4.1 Best-Practice LIB Waste Management Principles...................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Conclusion 77
References 78
FOOTNotes 80
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LEFT: IMAGE COURTESY GREEN INDUSTRIES SA Institu
Terminology
AND Abbreviations
2LB.........................Second-life Battery
BESS......................Battery Energy Storage System
BSC........................Battery Stewardship Council
EBU........................Equivalent Battery Unit
EOL........................End of Life.
EV...........................Electric Vehicle
HEV........................Hybrid Electric Vehicle
ICE..........................Internal Combustion Engine
KT............................Kilotons
LIB..........................Lithium-ion Battery
MT...........................Metric Tonnes
OEM.......................Original Equipment Manufacturer
PHEV.....................Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

FIGURES AND TABLES

Part 1
Figure 1.1: Diagram of a lithium-ion battery.
Table 1.1: LIB value chain.
Table 1.2: Most common types of LIBs, their valuable materials, and applications.
Figure 1.2: The cost reduction in LIB packs, USD, 2010-2018.
Figure 1.3: EV sales are expected to continue to grow in Australia over the coming decade.
Figure 1.4: Total investments in EVs by automotive firms globally ($b).
Figure 1.5: The various types of passenger vehicles and their fuels.
Figure 1.6: Various estimates of global EV fleet by 2030.
Table 1.3: Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and EV lithium-ion battery flows in 2017/18.
Table 1.4: Battery sales by chemistry in Australia, 2017/18.
Figure 1.7: Total LIB waste forecast in South Australia to 2036.
Figure 1.8: LIB waste forecast in Australia and South Australia, by LIB waste category, to 2036.
Part 2
Table 2.1: Australia’s existing LIB recycling ecosystem.
Table 2.2: Bloomberg NEF’s 2020 ranking of nation’s by control of the raw materials that supply LIB value chains.
Figure 2.1: Global cobalt production and reserves.
Figure 2.2: Global lithium production and reserves, MT, 2019.
Figure 2.3: Global aluminium production, MT, 2019.
Figure 2.4: Global graphite production and reserves, MT, 2019.
Figure 2.5: Global manganese production and reserves, MT, 2019.
Figure 2.6: The hierarchy of waste, ranked from most preferable to least preferable.
Table 2.3: Various second life battery initiatives globally.
Figure 2.7: The end-end process for recycling LIBs.
Figure 2.8: Volumes of composite materials containing lithium required to source 1 ton of usable lithium.
Figure 2.9: The metals and materials composition of a typical EV LIB.
Table 2.4: LIB recycling processes in various private sector applications.
Part 3
Figure 3.1: South Australia’s circular economy framework.
Figure 3.2: Forecast global revenue in 2018 and 2025 in the second-life battery and LIB recycling industries.
Figure 3.3: Estimated recoverable value of LIB waste in SA, 2020-2036.
Figure 3.4: Estimated recoverable value of LIB waste in Australia, 2020-2036.
Figure 3.5: Market price of cobalt, 10 years to May 2020.
Figure 3.6: Market price of battery grade lithium, 2015-2020.
Figure 3.7: Nickel price, 2011-2021, USD/T.
Figure 3.8: Global demand for lithium.
Figure 3.9: Global demand for cobalt.
Table 3.1: Potential revenue from the ACCC approved battery stewardship levy.
Figure 3.10: Financial assessment of the LIB battery recycling process.
Figure 3.11: The “Intermediary Model”: South Australia acting as a waste stream management hub.
Figure 3.12: FTE created by weight of LIB waste processed.
Table 3.2: FTE created by weight of LIB waste processed.
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Foreword
Already ubiquitous in modern life, LIBs
are expected to proliferate even further as
In 1991, a team of Sony engineers
passenger vehicles transition from internal-
in Japan first brought to market a combustion-engines (ICE) to electric
radical new technology: the lithium- vehicles (EVs), powered by advanced LIBs.
ion battery (LIB). Today, most of us use
Incorporating EVs into the global vehicle
multiple devices on a daily basis that
fleet is essential if the world is to meet
depend on the technology: our mobile its emissions targets, and avert the worst
phones, laptops, charging banks, TVs, impacts of climate change. However, the
other household devices, and home rapid infusion of EVs onto global markets,
coupled with the near exponential growth
energy storage systems are typically
in demand for consumer electronics,
dependent on rechargeable LIBs. creates new environmental challenges:
in particular, responsible management and
recycling of LIB waste.
Waste management is important for all

materials, but perhaps especially so for LIBs.
End-of-life (EOL) batteries are challenging
items to process. They present fire risks,
contain hazardous materials, and established
recycling processes are often expensive,
highly technical, and energy intensive.
In an Australian context, these challenges

have largely stood in the way of
developing a domestic recycling or
processing capacity for LIB waste. Instead,
LIBs are either often stockpiled, sent
offshore for processing, and in many
cases end up in landfill – which presents
a genuine safety risk for existing waste emerging sector, and implement
management authorities and businesses. forward thinking policy that positions
the state to achieve this aim and become
This inadequate status quo is not just bad a policy leader in this critical area of
for Australia’s environment, it comes at a waste management.
cost: the CSIRO estimates this LIB waste
management sector in Australia could be This report outlines a vision for SA
worth $3 billion, were it to emerge, by to emerge as an Australian LIB waste
the mid 2030s, with low case estimates resource management hub. It describes
still predicting a recoverable value of over how the state can capitalise on its clean-
$700 million. The size of this market is energy credentials and circular economy
significantly less in South Australia, but leadership to become the natural home for
still presents a unique opportunity for a burgeoning industry, ultimately creating
the state’s economy – particularly in the over 300 local jobs in the process.
context of a post-COVID recovery.
To date, little research aimed at

identifying a path towards a LIB
recycling or management sector has
been undertaken in Australia. This
report, however, attempts to outline how
South Australia specifically could take
advantage of this challenge, and emerge
as a national and regional leader in LIB
reuse, recycling, and repurposing.
While Australia’s LIB waste stream remains

relatively modest, it is expected to grow
substantially in coming years. This gives
South Australia the time to identify how Michael Buckland
the state can capitalise on the economic CEO, McKell INSTITUTE
prospects found in developing this
THE
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executive summary
The shift towards cleaner forms of energy and EVs are vital if Australia and the
world are to mitigate the worst aspects of climate change, but the reliance of these
technologies on lithium-ion batteries creates a challenging externality: battery waste.
It’s not just EVs and home energy storage in developing a local capacity to engage in
systems that are composed of LIBs. Since their various LIB waste management practices – a
commercialisation in 1991, LIBs have become a $3 billion national industry yet to be developed
ubiquitous feature of the modern world. LIBs significantly in Australia, and which provides
are found in smartphones, computers, and South Australia a unique opportunity.
other consumer electronics. And the growth
in demand for LIBs presents new challenges PART 1 explores the LIB waste challenge,
and opportunities for the waste management offering a snapshot into the drivers of LIB
sector, which is explored in this report. waste, such as the growth in handheld devices,
Today, Australia has only a modest capacity to

Institute
home energy storage devices, and the forecast
growth in the EV market. It highlights the
recycle LIB waste domestically. Currently, LIB market dynamics at play that are driving this
waste is collected by a patchwork of private
sector actors who often export it for processing
McKell
waste stream globally and in Australia. It also
quantifies the scale of this challenge in South
mainly to South Korea for recycling. While Australia, forecasting that the total LIB waste
TH
challenging to precisely identify the quantity
E
stream in the state is expected to reach around
of LIB waste that is collected in Australia, it is 10,000 tonnes per year by the mid-2030s.
estimated that just 3-5 per cent of Australia’s While this waste stream is likely too modest to
LIB waste is collected for responsible end-of- sustain a local recycling industry alone, SA is
life processing in Australia – a rate similar to the well positioned to emerge as a centralised hub
United States. This compares with an estimated for managing Australia’s national LIB waste
(and mandated) 45 per cent in the European stream in the years ahead.
Union, and similar rates in East Asian markets
like South Korea and Japan. Given the national PART 2 explores the nature of LIB waste
volume of LIB waste is growing by 20 per cent management in Australia. It is clear that,
every year, government action on dealing with while there is growing attention being paid
this challenge is well overdue. to the LIB waste challenge in Australia, there
is still much that needs to be done to ensure
This report explores this challenge through governments have the right policy settings in
a South Australian lens, identifying the place, and industry has the support required,
opportunities for South Australia’s economy to responsibly handle this issue onshore. Part 2
details the complex recycling processes involved in handling LIB waste, and
outlines how second-life batteries – batteries which are re-used for secondary
storage applications before being recycled – are being creatively utilised in
international settings. It also comments on the importance of developing
markets for LIB waste to enable a sustainable and self-reliant recycling
ecosystem to emerge, and how China’s dominance in the raw-material
supply chain for LIBs should compel Australian policymakers to prioritise the
extraction of raw materials from LIBs to create new exportable commodities.
PART 3 works to identify the role South Australia should seek in LIB waste
processing in Australia. South Australia is in a strong position to emerge
as a national and regional LIB waste management hub, an opportunity
that could create over 300 jobs in the medium term for the state in
reprocessing LIB waste resources alone. However, there are real market
considerations that need to be factored into any incentives or support
measures provided by the Government of South Australia. An industry
focused solely on recycling LIB waste to extract metals such as cobalt
is highly vulnerable to international commodity prices. To ensure
its economic viability, a future South Australian LIB recycling
industry would be safeguarded by consolidating a majority
of Australia’s (and the region’s) LIB waste resource, as well
as diversifying its output to include not only raw materials,
but second-life batteries, too. This section also notes
that, while the global battery manufacturing
market is contested, there is a considerable
opportunity for South Australia in
fostering second-life battery
innovation.
PART 4 then tables

a best practice
framework for LIB
waste management in Australia.
Adherence to these principles has
guided six recommendations addressed
to the Government of South Australia
below. This section emphasises the
need to address South Australia’s poor
LIB collection rates, in order to prepare
for the growing waste challenge that is
emerging. It also highlights the range of
measures that need to be adopted at a
national level to best realise the LIB waste
management potential of Australia, but the
Government of South Australia can also
take considerable steps forward to position
itself as the home for Australia’s LIB waste
management sector.
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Key FIndings
FINDING 1: FINDING 3:
Australia’s LIB waste resource Forecast growth in EV use
stream is growing. requires policy to ensure end-
The proliferation of LIBs in consumer of-life EV LIBs are adequately
electronics, EVs, and household storage
handled. Though the EV fleet in
devices creates a significant waste
Australia remains modest, it is expected
resource challenge. Consumer practices
to exceed 450,000 vehicles by 2030, with
and industry capabilities needs to be
over 30,000 EVs in South Australia alone.
developed to manage the existing LIB
The growth in this fleet creates new LIB
waste stream, in anticipation of growing
waste resource management challenges.
future volumes. By 2035, it is expected
that 137,000 tonnes of LIB waste will be
generated annually across Australia, with
close to 10,000 tonnes generated in South
FINDING 4:
Australia alone. LIB recycling is complex and
expensive – but potentially
lucrative. LIB handling, collection,
FINDING 2: processing and recycling can be labour,
There are economic energy and capital intensive. However, if
performed at scale, it can create highly
opportunities for SA in LIB
valuable export products, strengthening
waste resource management.
South Australia’s economy.
While LIB waste creates a challenge, there
are considerable economic opportunities
for the state in processing LIB waste and
repurposing second-life LIBs. The CSIRO
FINDING 5:
has forecast that the recoverable value of South Australia has existing
end-of-life LIBs could exceed $3 billion by assets that could be expanded
2035. to process LIB waste. South
Australia’s existing refining and metals
processing infrastructure could be
expanded upon to develop new processes
aimed at recycling LIB waste resources.
FINDING 6: FINDING 8:
South Australia can position South Australia cannot
itself as a national LIB waste solve the LIB waste resource
resource management hub. challenge alone. South Australia,
South Australia is well positioned to through the combined efforts of the
emerge as a national LIB recycling hub. Its government and industry, can take
geographic location and reputation as a meaningful steps to position itself as a
clean-tech leader positions the state well leader and a natural home for LIB waste
to work to attract talent, innovation and management in Australia. But significant
investment into the state. policy steps need to be taken at federal
and international levels. South Australia
should aspire to serve as a leader in LIB
FINDING 7: waste management policy and innovation.
A South Australian LIB

recycling industry could
generate over 300 local jobs.
A South Australian LIB recycling industry
would likely create over 300 local
jobs, if the industry positioned itself
to capture a significant portion of the
growing LIB waste stream from other
Australian jurisdictions, and potentially
internationally.
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Recommendations
RECOMMENDATION 1 RECOMMENDATION 2 RECOMMENDATION 3
Explore the establishment In collaboration with Incentivise international
an Australian LIB Waste industry, improve the start-ups in second-
Resource Management coordination of EV and life battery industry to
Hub in the state. LIB waste management establish themselves in
South Australia could emerge as in the state, focusing on South Australia, offering
the epicentre of Australia’s LIB educating and working industry connections, start-
waste resource management with the sector to develop up capital, and work with
industry. While a modest LIB
best-practice collection, Australia’s automotive
recycling capacity has emerged
in Victoria, the current national pre-treatment and sector to secure second
recycling capacity is around 3000 disassembly of LIB waste. life battery supply to
tonnes of waste per year – around develop novel solutions to
Participants in this study made it
2 per cent of the expected LIB
clear there was little coordination EV and LIB waste.
waste stockpile forecast to be
over tackling the LIB waste
circulating in Australia by 2035. The Government has made
challenge in the state. While
As South Australia considers its significant steps towards the
there is a growing understanding
post-COVID recovery, it should creating of a start-up ecosystem
of the problem, there is little
explore ways to capitalise on in South Australia. This should
certainty over how the issue will
future-facing industries such as be extended to realising
be managed when the volume
LIB waste resource management, opportunities in the EV and
of LIB waste grows by 2035. The
in close consultation with industry LIB waste sectors, including
Government of South Australia
and the battery peak bodies, and integration of second-life
should play a facilitating role
seek financial assistance where batteries into electric vehicle
in overcoming this challenge,
necessary from national bodies charging networks and remote
working with the sector to
such as the Clean Energy Finance area energy supplies. There is a
identify the skills and equipment
Corporation. growing international community
required to improve the collection
of start-ups utilising second-life
and pre-treatment of SA’s existing
batteries for applications such
LIB waste, in preparation of
as portable storage devices,
large waste flows in the future.
home energy storage systems,
Additional LIB waste collection,
public infrastructure, furniture
and public awareness raising over
with in-built device charging,
the need to responsibly handle
developing-world focused
end-of-life LIB waste, would also
energy storage, outboard motor
help achieve a greater rate of
replacements, and more. South
recycling of existing LIB waste,
Australia should aspire to be a
and prepare the community to
home for this innovation stream.
responsibly handle increase LIB
waste streams in the future.
RECOMMENDATION 4 RECOMMENDATION 5 RECOMMENDATION 6

Work to leverage SA’s Work through the Working with industry,
existing industrial and National Cabinet to develop guidelines over
manufacturing assets to harmonise regulations LIB labelling, which
develop LIB recycling regarding the could be harmonised
capacity. transportation of at a national level.
The Government of South
dangerous goods in
LIB labelling remains a challenge
Australia could work with industry each state, to lower for the recycling industry. LIB
to understand the recycling compliance costs for waste must be labelled in a clear,
capabilities or investment colour-coded manner which
transporting LIBs and LIB
requirements of existing metal makes the identification clear
processing assets, including large waste within Australia. for consumers and LIB waste
smelters in Port Pirie and Whyalla, handlers. The Government
Despite a growing degree
to incorporate end-of-life LIB and of South Australia should
of uniformity in various
other battery metal processing. work closely with the Battery
jurisdictions’ approach to
e-waste management, there Stewardship Council to ensure
is still confusion over differing LIB appropriate labelling
waste management regulations regulations are adopted in
in each state and territory, the state, and use its seat in
particularly with regards to the the National Cabinet to help
transportation of hazardous advance a nationally consistent
waste, including LIBs. For labelling framework. Particular
South Australia to emerge as a attention should be payed to
national processing hub for LIB similar initiatives that have been
waste, it needs to contribute proposed in the European Union,
to a process that streamlines with any South Australian scheme
hazardous waste transportation ideally achieving consistency with
regulations nationally that will international best practice.
lower compliance costs for
transportation firms delivering
waste streams to South
Australian processers.
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Part 1:
the lib waste
resource
challenge
1.1: The Coming Wave of Lithium-Ion Waste
Key Points
1 The looming growth in EVs, and rapid
growth of personal devices utilising
LIBs, has created a significant waste
management problem no Australian
jurisdiction has sufficiently tackled.
2 Trends suggest the LIB waste

management challenge will continue to
grow in Australia and internationally.
3 A priority for governments should be

managing the existing LIB waste flow, in
preparation for the forecast growth in LIB
waste as a result of the EV revolution.
4 Australia’s inability to collect, process,

reuse and recycle LIB waste comes
at a cost, with the CSIRO estimating
a $3 billion industrial opportunity
is being missed.
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What are LIBs and how do they work?

Lithium-ion batteries are part of everyday life. Every South Australian
What is a with a smartphone, laptop, home battery energy storage system

(BESS), electric vehicle (EV) and other devices are consumers of
Lithium-Ion lithium-ion batteries, or LIBs. The proliferation of LIBs has facilitated

rapid technological advances, and enabled policymakers to aspire to an
emissions free transport future with EVs. But the increasing uptake in LIBs
Battery? creates new challenges for waste management. LIBs do not last forever –
and they are difficult to dispose of responsibly. They are also technically
challenging to recycle. This report explores the nature of this waste
Lithium-ion batteries challenge, while articulating opportunities for South Australia’s economy
(LIBs) are energy in making the state a national hub for LIB waste management.
storage devices
found in a range of FIGURE 1.1 DIAGRAM OF A LITHIUM-ION BATTERY.
modern applications,
from smartphones to
tablets, computers,
household appliances,
and more recently,
electric vehicles.
LIBs are ‘secondary

batteries’, which
means they are able
to be re-charged.
There are a large

range of LIBs,
each with different
applications and
composed of different
raw materials.
However, all LIBs Source: CivilsDaily.1
are produced with
a diverse number LIBs create electricity by generating a flow of electrons caused by a
valuable commodities, chemical reaction. The electrons exit the negative terminal (the anode) of
many of which retain the battery before being transferred through a device, and re-entering the
their utility, and are battery through its positive terminal (the cathode).
recyclable, once
It is the lithium itself that kick-starts this chemical process. The lithium in the
an LIB is extracted anode is predisposed to releasing individual electrons, which flow from the
from its original anode through the electronic device, before re-entering the cathode.
application.
The term ‘lithium-ion’ battery is derived from this chemical reaction
caused by the lithium component of the battery, but in actuality, LIBs are
composed from a diverse range of highly valuable commodities, which
through complex processes can be harvested from disused LIBs, and re-
integrated into the LIB supply chain.
LIB production is a five step process

Australia does not currently manufacture LIBs, nor add significant value domestically to the raw materials it
exports which are refined and utilised for LIB manufacturing offshore. A major 2018 Australian Government
study into the LIB value chain broke down the process, explaining that Australia’s role is concentrated to the
mining phase of the LIB value chain:
TABLE 1.1 LIB VALUE CHAIN.
PHASE 1 Mining Identify and extract ore
(Australia) Mill spodumene concentrate into a powder

Roast to create a concentrate
EXTRACT Export (Australia)
AND
PROCESS
Processing Spodumene is mixed with sulphuric acid
and subjected to water leaching to extract
lithium sulphate
Sulphate is purified into lithium hydroxide
Further processes to create lithium
hydroxide
PHASE 2 Electrochemical Manufacturers utilise raw material for

patented processes designed for customers
processes
Cathode material is applied to aluminium
MANUFACTURE foil collector
AND Graphite anode material applied to cooper

foil collector
ASSEMBLE Lithium-based electrolyte is produced
Cell production Stack cathode, separator, and anode

Insert into casing
Insert electrolyte
Seal and prime the cell by charge and
discharging
Assemble Assemble cells into battery packs

Connect cells electrically
Attach battery management system
Source: Austrade.
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The LIB waste stream is diverse

This report places significant attention on the challenges faced with the forecast growth in EV LIB waste in
both South Australia and nationally. The LIB waste challenge is, however, already evident due to the rapid
proliferation of LIBs. These different applications also demand different types of LIBs. Indeed, the growing
diversification of LIBs and battery products more broadly is one of the major obstacles to streamlining the
recycling and recovery process, given the logistical complexity associated with isolating specific batteries
before proceeding to pre-treatment and processing.
Of course, the core recyclable materials within the cathode, anodes and electrolyte of LIBs – the valuable
metals, like cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese and graphite – are often housed in a range of casings, many of
which are themselves recyclable. To date, most LIB recycling processes do not focus on extracting recyclable
casings, instead opting to focus primarily on extracting the most valuable material, which as of November
2020 is typically cobalt.
TABLE 1.2
MOST COMMON TYPES OF LIBS, THEIR VALUABLE MATERIALS, AND APPLICATIONS.
Common Valuable
Type of LIB Application
Abbreviation components
Lithium Cobalt Lithium, cobalt, Handheld devices,

NMC
Oxide (LiCoO2) graphite, aluminium laptops, cameras
Lithium Some EV batteries,

Manganese LMO Lithium, manganese medical devices,
Oxide (LiM2O4) power tools
Lithium Nickel E bikes and scooters,

Manganese Lithium, manganese, EVs, medical devices
NMC
Cobalt Oxide nickel, cobalt and various industrial
(LiNiMnCoO2) applications
Lithium Iron
Lithium, iron, Various stationary
Phosphate LFP
phosphate, graphite storage applications
(LiFePO4)
Lithium Titanate Lithium, titanate,

LTO Some EV powertrains
(Li2TiO3) manganese
Source: Battery University.2

The LIB waste challenge is receiving Tesla. Gaines (2014) describes a working system
more research attention for recycling such batteries, using lead-acid
battery recycling as a model.11 While Gaines
A growing literature in Australia has identified concedes recycling lithium-ion batteries is more
the LIB waste management challenge State complicated, many of these batteries will not
and Federal Governments are facing, as well as require recycling for another decade.
the inherent value of that waste stream that is
being forgone by disposing valuable waste, and While the challenge of LIB waste is increasingly
exporting much of it overseas for processing. understood, and steps are being taken to
The CSIRO identified an estimated $813m to improve resource recovery, there remains
$3bn worth of valuable components currently considerable room for improvement across the
ending up in landfill in a major 2018 study.3 The world. This presents opportunities for countries
report estimates 3,300 tonnes of LIB waste is like Australia to emerge as leaders in LIB end-
produced each year and that this figure will grow of-life management, particularly within the Asia
by 20 per cent each year.4 Pacific region.
Much of the innovation in LIB waste policy and

technology is located within the European Union
Future LIB waste streams present an
(EU). The EU waste collection and recycling opportunity – but today’s LIB waste
industry revenue is valued at US$150bn, issue must be addressed as a priority
approximately 75 per cent of worldwide revenue,
As this report highlights, there are considerable
an achievement that has been driven by the EU’s
opportunities for South Australia in developing
more stringent laws regarding battery recycling.5
a local LIB recycling capacity. However, in order
In 2016, more than 45 per cent of batteries were
to best position the state for that opportunity,
recovered under the EU scheme. While some
the Government of South Australia should
EU Member States did not meet their targets,6
also work to improve the state’s handling of
the EU still oriented around 50 per cent of its
existing LIB waste flows mainly from handheld
battery mass towards recycling.7 It has pushed
devices, such as mobile phones. While there are
for stronger targets and compliance measures
national schemes in place to handle this waste
with new recycling ambitions for 2030 and 2035
stream with relative efficiency, it is clear that a
detailed by the EU in late 2020.8
significant portion of today’s LIB waste stream is
Across Asia, there is also considerable research still ending up in landfill.12 Improving community
into the viability of lithium-ion battery recycling, understanding of the importance of LIB waste
particularly in South Korea. Dewulf et al. (2010) management, and working with stakeholders
report that recycling lithium-ion batteries can throughout the recycling value chain to improve
result in a 51.3 per cent natural resource savings, recycling rates of today’s LIB waste streams,
not only because of decreased mineral ore will be an important step in preparing the state
dependency but also because of reduced fossil to successfully capitalise on the economic
resource and nuclear energy demand.9 In South opportunities future LIB waste streams present.
Korea, the first electric vehicle battery recycling
organisation has already been established in
Yeongwang County, South Jeolla Province.10 The
facility will be in charge of disassembling EVs and
recycling used batteries.
There is also growing research into automotive

lithium-ion battery recycling given the growing
consumer demand in many places in the world
which is being met by large corporations like
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1.2: The Electric Vehicle Revolution
Key Points
1 Australian consumers have been slow to embrace EVs, but they are here to stay.
2 LIBs are getting cheaper, which will see EVs become cost-competitive with
traditional internal-combustion engine passenger vehicles by the mid-2020s.
3 The automotive sector is responding with transformative investments: a clear trend

towards EV production is coming, and Australia needs to have policies in place to embrace
that switch while safeguarding the environment through EV waste management.
The automotive industry is embracing an EV future
FIGURE 1.2 THE COST REDUCTION IN LIB PACKS, USD, 2010-2018.
1,400
Lithium-Ion Pack Price (USD)
$1,160
1,200
1,000
$US DOLLARS
800
600
400
$176
200
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Source: BloombergNEF.
Market trends are exacerbating the LIB waste management challenge. In the past decade, the price of
LIBs has fallen dramatically for EVs, but also for any other device incorporating LIBs (Figure 1.2). At the
same time, automotive firms globally have been investing billions into EV research and development to
drive down costs, all but ensuring the future of mobility will be electrified.
EVs will contribute significantly

to future LIB waste volumes
Currently there are 22 types of electric vehicles – 9 are
battery run and 13 are plug-in hybrid models – in the
Variations
Australian passenger vehicle market.13 Electric vehicles
sales have increased over the past few years, with 2,284
sales in 2017, 2,216 in 2018 and a significant jump to
in Electric
6,718 sales in 2019.14 Currently, however, there are less
than 20,000 vehicles across Australia – constituting Vehicles
just 0.1 per cent of the 19.8 million registered passenger
vehicles in Australia.15 The CSIRO, however, expects EVs EV (Electric Vehicle):
to continue to enter the Australian market over the Powered solely by
coming decade. By 2030, it forecasts over 450,000 EVs LIBs.
will be driving on Australian roads, with at least 30,000
expected in South Australia alone. PHEV (Plugin-Hybrid
Electric Vehicle):
Power by both fuel
FIGURE 1.3
and LIBs. The LIB’s
EV SALES ARE EXPECTED TO CONTINUE TO GROW
IN AUSTRALIA OVER THE COMING DECADE.
can be charged
by plugging in the
vehicle.
500,000
30,345 Hybrid: Powered by
450,000 both fuel and LIBs
with the battery
425,000
400,000 being re-charged by
the engine.
350,000
NUMBER OF EV SALES, FORCAST
Hydrogen Fuel Cell

(FCEV): Powered by
300,000
LIBs that are charged
by reacting hydrogen
250,000
to release electrons.
200,000
150,000
7,140
100,000
100,000
50,000 1,428
142.8
0
2016 2020 2025 2030
Australia South Australia
Source: CSIRO.16
THE
McKellte
Institu
EVs rely on powerful LIB chains. In some vehicles, the

performance of the LIBs are sustained over extended periods
of time – with regulators in California even mandating EV
batteries meet performance standards for up to 10 years.17 In
some instances, however, batteries do deteriorate quicker –
whether as a result of owner behaviour or the quality of the
battery. Often, an EV LIB that is removed from the vehicle
can be refurbished. Alternatively, many manufacturers and
third parties are utilising these batteries for second life
purposes, such as stationary energy storage before needing
to be recycled and eventually disposed of.18 However, there
is no framework in place within Australia to capitalise on the
opportunities second-life batteries offer, leaving Australia
potentially ill prepared for this looming waste challenge .
EV growth trend remains clear

The embrace of EVs in Australia has been low for various
reasons. While State Governments, including the Government
of South Australia, advance EV strategies, this hasn’t occurred
at a federal level, leaving a policy void which has arguably
slowed the integration of EVs into the Australian market.
Beyond government policy, however, real market challenges

have also dampened Australian consumers’ appetite for
EVs. Compared with traditional internal combustion engines
vehicles (ICEs), EVs of all varieties remain expensive, though
this is expected to change in coming years. As Ethan Zindler,
head of Bloomberg NEF testified to a US Senate Committee
into critical minerals in February 2019,
“ By the mid 2020s, consumers will

choose EVs purely based on price”.19
Given Australia’s nascent EV market, no second-hand market

for EVs of substance has emerged, limiting the purchase
of EVs to a relatively niche subset of consumers. Despite
this, most forecasts expect the uptake of EVs to increase in
Australia. This reflects the transition by the industry itself. As
Figure 1.4 demonstrates, all major automotive firms are now
investing significantly into EV production and development,
which the International Monetary Fund predicts will see 250
million EVs in the global fleet by 2030 (Figure 1.5). While the
global economic downturn from COVID-19 has affected sales
forecasts for EVs in Australia and elsewhere the trend remains
clear: EVs are here to stay, will continue to expand into the
Australian market, and are a set to compound an already
difficult LIB waste challenge.
THE
McKellte
Institu
FIGURE 1.4 TOTAL INVESTMENTS IN EVS BY AUTOMOTIVE FIRMS GLOBALLY (US$B).
35
30
30
25 23
$US BILLIONS
20
20
15.5 15.27
15
11.5
10 10 10 10
10
5
2.34
0.565 0.31 0.3
0
en
ia
ta
rd
at
an
sla
er
da
M
ud
le
ul
BM
/K
G
ov
Fi
yo
Fo
iss
ag
on
na
Te
A
ai
To
dr
ai
N
sw
Re
H
nd
D
an
lk
yu
/L
Vo
ar
gu
Ja
Source: Author analysis of data compiled by the Electric Vehicles Council of Australia.
FIGURE 1.6 VARIOUS ESTIMATES OF GLOBAL EV FLEET BY 2030.
300,000,000
250,000,000
250,000,000
200,000,000
200,000,000
150,000,000 130,000,000
125,000,000
100,000,000
100,000,000 85,000,000
50,000,000
50,000,000 30,000,000
0
t
ie
F
rg
BP
on
en
ch
IM
nz
IE
be
Ex
m
Sa
ke
m
ee
ac
an
oo
gr
dm
Bl
d
ris
ol
oo
Pa
G
W
UN
Source: Electric Vehicles Council of Australia.

Consumers expect the “ CO2 emissions during the production of

environmental risks of EV batteries are significant, while the full life
production to be mitigated cycle emissions of batteries including its
The environmental benefits of use phase are lower compared to traditional
running an EV verses an ICE vehicles. Reducing the production footprint is
vehicle is unquestionable. However,
a significant opportunity and major obligation
there remain concerns over the
environmental costs associated to address. Improvements in the CO2 footprint
with the original production of EVs can help make arguments for switching to
– particularly, LIBs that power EVs. battery applications even more compelling.”20
Further, there is evidence consumer
demand for EVs is not only curtailed Participants in this study also noted that EV consumers are
by price, but also by the concerns highly conscious of the environmental profile of their purchase.
of some that the environmental Many consumers have ‘done their research’ before buying EVs,
benefits of operating an EV don’t and are knowledgeable about the waste challenges associated
outweigh the environmental with LIBs. It is, therefore, important for EV firms to be able to
concerns of manufacturing them. As demonstrate their compliance with sustainability guidelines for
has been highlighted by the World LIB waste to meet customer demands – a goal which Australian
Economic Forum, governments should help the industry realise.
1.3: Sizing the LIB Waste Resource Challenge in South Australia
Key Points
1 By 2035, South Australia is expected to be generating almost 10,000 tonnes of
LIB waste per year. A majority of this waste is, and will continue to be, originate
from handheld devices.
2 While this quantity represents a significant waste management challenge, it is unlikely

to be large enough a quantity to sustain a viable local recycling industry alone.
3 SA’s LIB waste will need to be coupled with waste streams from interstate and
across the region to allow for the scale required to sustain a South Australian
based recycling industry.
While it is challenging to precisely predict the volume of recoverable LIB waste that will be circulating in
South Australia in the years to come, a growing evidence base enables estimates of waste volumes.
TABLE 1.3 BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (BESS) AND EV LITHIUM-ION BATTERY FLOWS IN 2017/18.
Battery Battery Battery EOL Collection Collection

Chemistry Sales Sales sales arisings to recovery Rate
(tonnes) (units) (EBUs) (tonnes) (tonnes)
Lithium-Ion 4,150 90,000 170,000,000 180 40 21 per cent
Source: Battery Stewardship Council.21
THE
McKellte
Institu
Modelling from the CSIRO has forecast LIB waste LIB waste will be produced in Australia annually
streams nationally to 2036. Using this modelling by 2035. Were South Australia to see a quantity
as a base, in addition to the forecasts of growth of this waste proportionate to its population, it is
of individual LIB waste streams (i.e., mobile expected that South Australia will produce slightly
devices, EV batteries, and home energy storage over 8985 tonnes of LIB waste per year by 2035.
systems) by Randell (2015), this report can The expected quantity of South Australia’s LIB
estimate the likely growth in LIB waste specific to waste presents a genuine waste management
South Australia. challenge, but is also unlikely to be large enough
to sustain a localised LIB recycling facility
Using the CSIRO’s estimates as a base, it is
without incorporating waste from interstate and
projected that approximately 120,000 tonnes of
potentially international waste streams.
TABLE 1.4 BATTERY SALES BY CHEMISTRY IN AUSTRALIA, 2017/18.
Battery Chemistry Weight (Tonnes) Number

Lead acid 159,690 10,160,000
Lithium ion 13,010 35,830,000
Alkaline 8,040 276,600,000
Nickel metal hydride 600 6,320,000
Other 310 42,520,000
Nickel cadmium 190 2,140,000
Lithium primary 90 24,480,000
Zinc air 10 25,910,000
Silver oxide 4 4,050,000
TOTAL 181,944 428,010,000

Source: Battery Stewardship Council.22
FIGURE 1.7 TOTAL LIB WASTE FORECAST IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA TO 2036.
12,000
Total SA 8,985
10,000
8,000
TONNES
6,000
5,000
4,000
2,000 405
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Source: Author analysis.

FIGURE 1.8 LIB WASTE FORECAST IN AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA, BY LIB WASTE CATEGORY, TO 2036.
Handheld Aus EV PVS (Storage for Solar, Household BESS etc)

Handheld SA EV SA PVS SA Total SA Total
140,000
137,168
120,000
100,000
80,000
TONNES
67,912
60,000
55,655
40,000
20,000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Source: Author analysis of King, S., Boxall, N., & Bhatt, A. (2018).
FIGURE 1.9 LIB WASTE FORECAST IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA, BY LIB APPLICATION, TO 2036.
10,000 10,227
Handheld Devices Other LIBS
EV LIBS Total SA
8,000
6,000
TONNES
4,848
4,000 3,973
2,000
1,405
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Source: Author analysis of King, S., Boxall, N., & Bhatt, A. (2018).
THE
McKellte
Institu
There are a number of electronic devices been around since 1998.24 The program aims to
containing elements of lithium-ion batteries keep old mobiles out of landfill and to recycle
across Australia and South Australia that are them in a safe and secure way. The program
currently not being recycled. To value the is voluntarily funded and managed by mobile
size of this market, we must break down the handset manufacturers, service providers,
components and various items that contain network carriers and distributors. The program
these materials. The largest of these categories has collected and recycled over 1,323 tonnes
are mobile devices and electric vehicles which of mobile phone components, equivalent to
will subsequently be explored. approximately 11.9 million individual handsets
and batteries as at 30 June 2017.25 The program
There are just under 18.5 million smartphone
claims that over 96 per cent of the materials
users in Australia,23 and the number is projected
in mobile phones, batteries and chargers
to grow to as high as 19.3 million by 2022. With
collected by MobileMuster are recovered. This
the increasing use of smartphones across all
demonstrates that, with adequate community
segments of society, there is a largely untapped
education, labelling and recycling, solving LIB
market of phone recycling that is only starting
waste streams is possible within Australia.
to emerge. Programs such as MobileMuster have
RECOMMENDATION 1
Explore the establishment an Australian LIB Waste
Resource Management Hub in the state.
South Australia can become the Australian hub for LIB recycling. The
Government of South Australia should explore the feasibility of establishing an
Australian LIB Waste Resource Management Hub in the state as a pillar of its
multiyear COVID-19 economic recovery.
THE
McKellte
Institu
Part 2:
Managing LIB
Waste Resources
in Australia
2.1: How LIB Waste is Handled Today
Key Points
1 It is estimated that between 3-6 per cent
of LIB waste in Australia is recycled, with
much of that recycling occurring offshore,
not within Australia.
2 The current framework depends on

overseas demand, and the risk-tolerance
of international shipping firms charged
with transporting waste – both vulnerable
to disruption.
3 The solution to LIB waste management

is three fold: LIBs should first be reused,
then upcycled where possible into second
life applications, before proceeding to
end-of-life recycling.
4 Recycling LIB waste is expensive and

energy intensive, requiring a stable and
sizeable supply of LIB waste to make
operations economically viable.
THE
McKellte
Institu
Some of Australia’s LIB waste the company’s temporary closure imposed by

is recycled, but most is stockpiled, regulators in late September 2020, citing safety
concerns.27
sent offshore or inadvertently
entering landfill
There is no consistent approach
The current regime for handling and processing
to end-of-life EV LIBs
LIB waste in Australia, including South Australia,
is of mixed efficacy. While there are some However, for emerging LIB waste streams
successful recovery programs in place for such as EVs, there is no consistent approach
certain LIB waste streams, such as MobileMuster, to handling and collection. Major auto
which focuses in mobile phone recovery, there manufacturers, for example, engage in their own
is concern that large amounts of LIB waste practices, ranging from stockpiling EV batteries
continue to end up in landfill. Of the volume of to reincorporating EOL batteries into their own
LIB waste that is collected, much continues to manufacturing streams, and handing unusable
be shipped offshore for processing. As Buckley LIB stock to third party recyclers who typically
(2019) writes, export the waste. One major EV supplier
continues to house end-of-life batteries in a
warehouse facility in Adelaide.
“ Australia lags far behind…with
respect to battery recovery, Some firms are in ongoing negotiations with
local waste management firms about processing
achieving a low 6% recycling rate
waste, presenting an opportunity to process
compared to the 45% targeted much of this waste stream in Australia, but the
by the European Union. This is primary motivation of firms appears to be a low
indicative of poor regulation; no cost option to sustainably recycle LIB waste,
without a preference to whether that waste is
government incentivisation; a lack
processed onshore or offshore.
of recycling infrastructure; careless
Some EV firms have focused on second-life
consumer behaviour and low waste
battery applications, partnering with research
volumes. To correct this situation, institutions such as Flinders University, which
an immediate effort to improve is exploring second-life battery applications at
recycling is required via a complete Tonsley Innovation District. Flinders University
researchers have successfully incorporated
collection to market system to
second-life batteries into fast-charging stations –
future-proof the LIB industry.” which appears to be one of the most promising
and achievable second-life applications for
Encouragingly, a small onshore capacity for
EV batteries, given the need for additional
LIB recycling has emerged since mid-2019,
charging stations and the potential cost savings,
with two Victorian firms, PF Metals and
electricity grid benefits and additional revenue
Envirostream, each developing a modest scale
streams of co-located energy storage.
LIB recycling in Melbourne. These applications
have demonstrated the technical capacity There is a clear understanding, particularly in the
of Australian firms to innovate and find EV sector but across the LIB waste stream more
economically viable solutions to the problem. In broadly, of the need to sustainably handle LIB
September 2020, Envirostream announced its waste. The industrial capacity to do so, however,
intention to proceed with the recycling of 3000 remains in its infancy, and there is considerable
tonnes of EV waste per annum.26 It is unclear, room to shape it to ensure more waste is
however, how these plans will be affected by processed in Australia.
Slow EV uptake in Australia is

dissuading innovation on recycling
There are cases in Europe and other
RECOMMENDATION 2
markets of EV manufacturers willing to
In collaboration with industry,
incorporate recycling of LIB materials into
their manufacturing process to save on improve the coordination of EV
raw materials. Volvo, for example, have and LIB waste management in
committed to keeping LIB recycling in-house,
while working with third-parties to develop the state, focusing on educating
second-life applications for their batteries.28 and working with the sector to
Given the size of Australia’s EV market, it
is improbable that any one EV distributor
develop best-practice collection,
will commit to developing its own recycling pre-treatment and disassembly
capacity in Australia.
of LIB waste.
This scenario presents a challenging policy
conundrum for Australian Governments.
While there are clear advantages in
developing localised LIB waste processing
capacity, mandating stringent recycling
requirements on an emerging industry
might dissuade EV suppliers from seeking a
foothold in the Australian market.
There is some concern by the EV sector

about the appetite for EVs in the Australian
market,29 with a perception that the Federal
Government has signalled to the industry
that it will advance a national policy
encouraging EV use. Given this context, the
imposition of additional regulatory burdens
could stifle uptake even further.
South Australia’s leadership in EV policy,

however, has been welcomed by the industry.
Given its strong reputation as a clean-energy
leader, the Government of South Australia
has a unique role to play in facilitating
best-practice EV policy, including LIB waste
management guidelines, which can be
adopted on a national scale.
THE
McKellte
Institu
There are many Australian LIB waste collectors, but onshore recycling is nascent
Two Australian based firms, Envirostream and PF Metals, have commenced modest scale LIB recycling in
Australian, though it is expected that these firms will only have the capacity to recycle a fraction of the
forecast LIB waste stream. Most of the incumbents listed in Table 2.1 are industrial scale recycling firms
that already process other waste streams, and have leveraged their existing market positions to capture
modest portions of the LIB waste stream primarily for export. While these firms do not yet process
significant quantities of LIB waste in Australia, such processing services could be implemented with the
assistance of government.
TABLE 2.1
AUSTRALIA’S EXISTING LIB RECYCLING ECOSYSTEM. MOST RECYCLERS THAT TARGET LIB WASTE
EXPORT THE WASTE OFFSHORE FOR PROCESSING, WITH ONLY ONE FIRM, PF METALS, CLAIMING IT
HAS FULL ONSHORE RECYCLING CAPACITY FOR LIB WASTE.
LIB Recycler Location Method
Branches across Collects and sorts batteries in Australia,

CMA Ecocycle Australia, including ships some batteries overseas for further
in Adelaide processing.30
National collection, up to 3000 tonnes of

Envirostream Melbourne, mixed battery processing capacity onshore
Australia Victoria including LIBs,31 exports to South Korean
battery recycler SungEel.32
Campbellfield, Collection of e-cycle; export LIBs offshore for

MRI
Victoria processing.33
Headquartered
Powercell Trading in Dudley Park, Collection, recycling process unspecified.34
South Australia
Melbourne, Onshore resource recovery of 95% of metals.35

PF Metals
Victoria No collection service.
Works with MobileMuster to collect mobile

phone waste. Engages in physical disassembly
Villawood, New
TES ANZ Pty Ltd and onshore pyrometallurgical processing to
South Wales
extract metals from all phone components.
Volume of LIB-specific recycling unspecified.
Legislation typically bans LIB waste coupled with mandatory reporting requirements
from landfill, but active support for by manufacturers to ensure they’re in compliance.39
Recycled component quotas have, however, been
recycling is also needed
called into question given the rapid evolution of
As the LIB waste issue has become more apparent, battery technology, which may render specific
Australian jurisdictions have begun implementing targets legislated in 2021 redundant when they
specific regulations banning the disposal of LIB come into force.40 What is clear is that any targets
waste in landfill. On 1 July 2019, the Government need to be realistic, enforceable, and backed in by
of Victoria became the first to amend e-waste capital – be that from government or private sector
legislation to add specific regulations focused on actors – to achieve their intended goals.
safely handling LIB waste.36 E-waste more broadly
is banned from landfill across Australia, including in
Offshoring waste leaves Australia
South Australia. Bans and regulations are important
measures, but need to be coupled with active
vulnerable to market shocks
support of recycling capacity to ensure that those Australia’s tendency to offshore recyclable
bans are able to be complied with by LIB waste commodities, rather than nurture local recycling
producers. For Governments, this means providing capacity, has proven a vulnerability. In 2017, this
financial support for firms focused on collecting, risk was demonstrated with China’s decision to
handling and sorting LIB waste streams. ban the imports of waste plastics, which Australia,
like much of the world, had relied upon.41 China’s
A potential regulatory model for the Government
snap decision caused ripples through Australia’s
of South Australia to explore replicating is that
recycling sector, which was suddenly faced with
adopted in the European Union. A Batteries
stockpiling mixed plastics and mixed paper/
Directive, first legislated in the European Parliament
cardboard waste with nowhere to export for
in 2006, was amended in 2012 to include a
processing. The inevitable result was an increase
recycling target of 25 per cent of LIB waste. A
in recyclable material entering Australian landfill
majority of EU member states have achieved that
unnecessarily.
target, with a 2016 revision expanding the recycling
target to 45 per cent.37 Though the success of the A similar dynamic is emerging with LIB waste.
EU’s battery directive varies across jurisdiction, the Given the challenges and expenses associated
mandates coincided with increased commercial with developing an onshore LIB recycling
and government investment in recycling, from capacity, it is understandable that recycling firms
collection through to processing. The EU’s update have established EOL LIB collection services that
on the 2012 directive, published in late 2019, depend on exporting the waste for processing.
documented the large number of collection
This model, however, exposes Australia’s LIB
points that had emerged in the EU since the
waste stream to similar vulnerabilities that were
directive came into force. Ireland, for example, had
exposed by China’s 2017 waste import ban. Were
developed 10,500 battery collection points under
policy shocks like this to emerge in the future
the directive – around one for every 440 citizens.
with regards to LIB waste, Australia would not
This infrastructure enabled Ireland to achieve a
have the capacity to safely handle, stockpile,
battery collection rate of 48 per cent across all
process or dispose of the growing amount of
battery streams.38
LIB waste. Indeed, it is probable that existing
In addition, the European Union have also flagged collectors of LIB waste, which are typically the
the introduction of compulsory recycling targets firms that also export the waste for processing,
for manufacturers of batteries. The EU Commission may cease collecting LIB waste if they have
for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries announced nowhere to handle it. Simply, the status quo
their intentions to mandate a certain portion leaves Australia’s LIB waste stream highly
of recycled components in battery products vulnerable to international policy makers, and the
manufactured within the EU, which would be decisions of international investors.
THE
McKellte
Institu
At scale LIB recycling and LIB value chain. China continues to dominate
reprocessing could further improve the market, however, controlling up to 80 per
cent of the raw material supply for LIB value
Australia’s critical minerals position
chains globally. Bloomberg NEF forecast that,
Australia is currently a leading supplier of the while there will be significant volatility in the
raw materials that supply the LIB value chain, rankings of other nation’s that contribute to the
behind only China. This is a strong position LIB supply chain, Australia and China’s market
for the country to drive investment into the dominance will continue well into the decade.42
TABLE 2.2
BLOOMBERG NEF’S 2020 RANKING OF NATION’S BY THEIR CONTROL OF THE
RAW MATERIAL THAT SUPPLIES LIB VALUE CHAINS.
Country 2020 2025 Change

China 1 1 -
Australia 2 2 -
Brazil 3 7 -4
Canada 4 3 +1
South Africa 5 4 +1
Chile 6 5 +1
Indonesia 7 4 +3
DRC 8 10 -2
Philippines 9 13 -4
India 10 13 -3
Finland 11 10 +1
Argentina 12 8 +4
Japan 13 8 +5
US 14 13 +1
Vietnam 15 17 -2
“ Both cobalt and lithium are highly concentrated in a few countries. For example,
from 2014 through 2016, an average of 53% of global mined cobalt production
came from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), while an average of 47% of
global cobalt refining took place in China” – IGOGO ET AL, 2017.43
China dominates most LIB raw components of LIBs. While Australia has a
material supply chains – Australia is dominant position in terms of lithium supply,
the Commonwealth Government has stated its
close behind
desire for Australia to see more value adding on
Figures 2.1 to 2.5 illustrate the origins of the these raw materials occur within the country.
various raw materials that are essential for Such a focus would also be complementary to
the creation of LIBs. Australia is a leading the associated development of a LIB recycling
producer of raw lithium, but its dominance is capacity, which would see the Australian
less apparent in other resource stocks. Australia economy benefit from selling increasingly
does not mine any graphite, for example, but sought after LIB raw materials that it derives
exports considerable sums of more common from the recycling process.
raw materials, such as copper, which are also
FIGURE 2.1 GLOBAL COBALT PRODUCTION AND RESERVES, MT, 2019.
120,000 4,000,000
Mine Production (MT) 2019 Australia Mine Production (MT) 2019
100,000 3,500,000
Lithium Carbonate
3,000,000
MT PRODUCTION
80,000
MT RESERVES
2,500,000
60,000
1,500,000
40,000
1,000,000
20,000
500,000
0 0
RC
ld
ia
co
na
ia
S
ca
ne
si
ub
ad
ic
U
PN
al
on
or
oc
hi
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fr
D
as
tr
pi
an
C
W
ed
A
or
R
us
ag
ip
h
e
al
M
A
ill
ut
ad
th
C
Ph
So
M
of
ew
st
N
Re
Source: USGS.
THE
McKellte
Institu
FIGURE 2.2 GLOBAL LITHIUM PRODUCTION AND RESERVES, MT, 2019.
45,000 100,000,000
Mine Production (MT) 2019
40,000 90,000,000
Australia Mine Production (MT) 2019
Reserves (MT) 80,000,000
35,000
MINE PRODUCTION (MT)
70,000,000
30,000
MT RESERVES
60,000,000
25,000
50,000,000
20,000
40,000,000
15,000 30,000,000
10,000 20,000,000
5,000 10,000,000
0
0
ia
le
na
al
il
es
az
bw
tin
ad
al
ug
hi
at
hi
Br
tr
an
en
St
C
ba
rt
us
Po
C
rg
d
A
te
A
Zi
ni
Source: USGS.
U
FIGURE 2.3 GLOBAL ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION, MT, 2019. DATA ON RESERVES UNAVAILABLE.
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
na
ld
ia
ia
ay
es
d
di
ad
ai
UA
an
ss
al
or
at
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hi
hr
In
tr
Ru
an
el
W
or
St
C
Ba
us
Ic
C
N
of
d
A
te
Source: USGS.
st
ni
Re
U
FIGURE 2.4 GLOBAL GRAPHITE PRODUCTION AND RESERVES, MT, 2019.
800,000 100,000,000
Mine Production (MT) 2019
Reserves (MT) 90,000,000
700,000
80,000,000
600,000
70,000,000
500,000
MT RESERVES
60,000,000
400,000 50,000,000
40,000,000
300,000
30,000,000
200,000
20,000,000
100,000
10,000,000
0 0
am ile
ag zil
C ar
Ru a
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ki y
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Vi key
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ia
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an
Zi ma
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ai
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In
as
Ko
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et
M
M
N
M
Source: USGS.
FIGURE 2.5 GLOBAL MANGANESE PRODUCTION AND RESERVES, MT, 2019.
40,000 300,000
35,000 Mine Production (MT) 2019

250,000
Australia Mine Production (MT) 2019
30,000 Reserves (MT)
200,000
25,000
MT RESERVES
20,000 150,000
15,000
100,000
10,000
50,000
5,000
0 0
ia
ia
on
na
na
il
ld
ne
ia
an
as
az
di
si
rm
ic
al
al
rg
or
ha
hi
st
ai
av
ay
Co
ex
n
Br
tr
tr
eo
W
Bu
kr
kh
C
I
G
G
us
us
al
M
U
za
M
of
A
or
Ka
h
st
Iv
Source: USGS.
ut
Re
So
THE
McKellte
Institu
2.2: Managing LIB Waste is a Three Step Process
Key Points
1 LIB waste management is challenging, and can be expensive and labour intensive.
2 While LIBs should always be reused and incorporated into second-life

applications when possible, every LIB will reach EOL at some point, and require
recycling or safe disposal.
The conventional hierarchy of waste applies to LIBs

Best practice recycling of LIBs broadly follows the existing hierarchy of waste that guides recycling of other
materials. While Australia has a poor LIB waste management framework, private firms are cognizant of the need
to adhere to the recycling hierarchy. Best practice waste management aims to follow the Government of South
Australia’s waste hierarchy outlined in Figure 2.6, with the disposal of waste typically avoided where possible.
The status quo in Australia, unfortunately, sees between 94-96 per cent of LIB waste being disposed – the least
desirable outcome. While Australia is yet to develop a holistic LIB waste management capacity, there is a clear
three step process to managing LIB waste which can form the basis of a regulatory approach to the challenge .
FIGURE 2.6 THE HIERARCHY OF WASTE, RANKED FROM MOST PREFERABLE TO LEAST PREFERABLE.44
MOST PREFERABLE
Avoid/Reduce
Reuse
Recycle
Recover
Treat/Dispose
litter? marine litter?

LEAST PREFERABLE
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McKellte
Institu
IMAGE COURTESY GREEN INDUSTRIES SA
While not all LIBs can be re-used for future

STEP 1 energy storage applications, the key emerging LIB
REUSING LIBS FOR applications, like EVs and home energy storage
THEIR ORIGINAL PURPOSE systems, often have the capacity to be applied to
The waste management hierarchy prioritises secondary storage applications after their original
re-use or repurposing above recycling. Where use. This is most common with LIBs from EVs.
possible, LIBs – especially EV LIBs – should EVs rely on powerful energy storage systems
be repurposed into existing applications. that can rapidly discharge the energy required to
Refurbishment and reuse is common in many propel a vehicle. For this reason, LIBs in some EVs
LIB devices, such as laptops and mobile phones. are extracted once the batteries deteriorate in
Often, retailers serve as a place where faulty LIBs performance. There is a high degree of variability in
can be returned and replaced, allowing consumers the performance of batteries in different EVs.46 Many
to dispose of end-of-life LIBs at the point of sale. EVs are expected to see only modest deterioration
in battery performance over the expected lifetime
In the case of EVs, faulty LIBs are typically of the vehicle,47 while other models may see a more
returned to an auto retailer, which in Australia rapid deterioration. While many of these EV LIBs will
typically stockpile the faulty battery, and replace be extracted, refurbished and re-used in EVs once
the faulty device with a new LIB.45 At times, they are unable to be re-used, some can be also be
LIB batteries will not be able to be refurbished, applied to second-life storage applications.
particularly if damaged in motor accidents. But
the EV industry is aware of this need, and has
Second-life batteries installations
some capacity to refurbish and reuse batteries for
their original purpose before proceeding to the are becoming more common
next step of the waste management process. Second life battery installations have
transitioned from being merely a proposed
solution to EV waste, to be actively installed
STEP 2 across the world. For most EV companies, or
GIVING LIBS A SECOND LIFE traditional ICE manufacturers developing EVs,
the integration of 2LB projects is an essential
step in both delaying the EOL recycling
What is a requirements of their LIBs, and adding
maximum value to LIBs, which are composed
Second-Life Battery? of expensive materials. Every major EV firm
now has pilot projects in place internationally,
LIBs are often removed from their
ranging from experimental projects like
original application with storage
Nissan’s Streetlight initiative, to re-integrating
capacity still remaining. This is likely
2LBs into storage systems within the firms’
to be true of LIBs extracted from EVs,
own manufacturing facilities.
which may be removed once the LIBs
have declined in their performance. On occasions, EV manufactures partner with
third-party firms to advance and implement
A second-life battery is a battery
2LB technology. Within Australia, one 2LB
that has been extracted from its company, Relectrify, has secured supply deals
original application, re-purposed with major international EV manufacturers,
for a second-life application, like who deliver used LIBs to the company to be
household energy storage, instead implemented into future applications. This
of being recycled or discarded in model presents a novel industrial opportunity
landfill. for South Australia that is likely less risky
than the development of an industrial-scale
recycling capacity within the state.
Innovative 2LB installations are

occurring globally, including in SA
TONSLEY INNOVATION HUB’S

SOLAR GARAGE
South Australia has already entered the second-
life battery space with an installation at Tonsley
Innovation Hub, in Adelaide’s south. Utilising
second-life batteries received from Mitsubishi,
Flinders University researchers have installed
them into fast charging stations for EVs, which are
themselves charged by solar. Fast chargers are
a logical second-life application for LIBs, and the
Tonsley Solar Garage provides a window into the
future of EV charging infrastructure in Australia.
CASE STUDY
AMSTERDAM’S
JOHAN CRUIJFF ARENA
In 2016, Nissan announced it would be partnering
with Ajax Amsterdam, a professional soccer team,
to utilise second-life batteries in a new lighting
installation at Johan Cruijff Arena in Amsterdam.
The installation has seen second-life batteries
from 148 Nissan Leaf utilised to create 2.8MWh of
storage, which is charged by solar.48
CASE STUDY
RENAULT’S SMART ISLAND
INITIATIVE IN PORTUGAL
Renault have incorporated 2LBs into a major
circular economy initiative in Madeira, Portugal.
The Smart Island initiative has seen 2LBs
incorporated into grid storage applications,
and form part of an energy solution for the
island that enables its transportation and
grid electricity to be run off wind energy and
storage. The Smart Island initiative incorporates
existing Renault Zeo EVs into household storage
devices, and then incorporate 2LBs designed by
UK energy storage firm Powervault to deploy
storage aimed at grid stabilisation.
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RIVIAN
NISSAN
RELECTRIFY MAN GRID
CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

RIVIAN’S PROJECTS NISSAN’S
IN PUERTO RICO STREETLIGHTS IN JAPAN
US auto manufacturer Rivian have demonstrated Nissan’s Reborn Light initiative as seen
the power of 2LBs in a major off-grid solar storage prototype streetlights developed that
application in Adjuntas, Puerto Rico. The system incorporate second-life storage from used
is designed to provide energy stabilisation to a Nissan Leaf batteries. The initiative has seen
poorly functioning grid, and is charged by solar. The the streetlights installed in the town of Namie,
project is designed to demonstrate both the power creating solar-powered street lighting that is
of second-life batteries to provide energy security, highly scalable.49
but also to demonstrate the technology’s capacity
to serve as a viable energy storage solution in
CASE STUDY
developing world applications.
MAN GRID ENERGY STORAGE
TRIAL IN HAMBURG50
CASE STUDY
German truck manufacturer MAN have
AUSTRALIA’S RELECTRIFY
developed second-life charging infrastructure
Relectrify are an Australian firm that has for commuter buses in the suburb of Bergedorf,
designed novel technology integrating second- Hamburg. The installation s in partnership with
life batteries with an in-build inverter, creating Volkswagen, and has created 495 kwh of stored
an affordable energy storage system for grid grid-sourced energy.
and microgrid sized applications. Relectrify have
received funding from ARENA to advance their
technology, and have independently secured 2LB
supply from major EV manufacturers.
As Table 2.3 demonstrates, 2LBs are being used in a disparate array of applications, some of them experimental,
such as the BIEV EV-charging initiative in Beijing. Given the breadth of innovation in this space, disparate commercial
applications for this technology are likely to emerge.
TABLE 2.3 VARIOUS SECOND LIFE BATTERY INITIATIVES GLOBALLY.
EV Manufacturer Nature of Second-Life Battery Initiative Location

BJEV EV-charging Beijing, China.51
Uppsalla, Sweden; Union City,

BMW Grid scale storage; EV charging
California, USA.
Daimler Grid scale storage,52 commercial storage53 Shenzen, China;54 Beijing, China.55
GM Remanufacturing Michigan, USA.
Great Wall Motor Backup power China.
Hyundai Grid scale storage for commercial application Seoul, South Korea; Helsinki, Finland.
Remanufacturing, commercial energy storage, EV

Nissan Warwick, UK;57 Tokyo, Japan.
charging; streetlights56
Mitsubishi Commercial energy storage (in Mitsubishi plant) Oakazaki, Japan.58
EV charging, residential energy storage, grid scale

Renault Madeira, Portugal.
energy storage
Tesla Remanufacturing California, USA.
ableToyota Commercial energy storage, grid scale energy storage Across Japan.59
Volkswagen Remanufacturing Saltzgitter, Germany.60
Volvo Residential energy storage Gothenberg, Sweden.61
The State Government could identify

and support South Australian based
second-life battery pilot projects
RECOMMENDATION 3
In line with Australia’s modest EV market, 2LB projects Incentivise international
are yet to be deployed in any significant way in Australia.
start-ups in second-life battery
While various individual projects within universities have
occurred, and private sector firms such as Relectrify have industry to establish themselves
significantly advanced 2LB technology within Australia,62 in South Australia, offering
no grid scale or commercial scale 2LB projects have yet
to be developed in the Australian market. This provides an
industry connections, start-up
obvious opportunity for South Australia to help nurture capital and collaboration
the sector through State Government procurement which
with Australia’s automotive
accommodates novel and experimental applications for
2LBs, be it grid scale energy storage, mini-grid scale sector to secure a second life
energy storage for diesel-dependent communities, or the battery supply.
integration of 2LBs into public infrastructure such as EV
charging stations and streetlights.
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STEP 3
RECYCLING ALL EOL LIBS
FIGURE 2.7 THE END-END PROCESS FOR RECYCLING LIBS.
Metal Metal resale of

Generation Collection transport sorting recovery refinement Metal
Source: Buckley, 2019
All LIBs, even those reused and utilised in LIBs almost always have residual energy,
second-life applications, require responsible which when they arrive at a recycling plant,
disposal at their end-of-life (EOL). But the require discharging, or they could lead to fires.
recycling of lithium-ion waste is a complex, Deactivating LIBs can be done in various ways,
expensive and time-consuming process, yet but is a prerequisite to any further handling of
to be scaled in Australia (Bhatt et. al, 2018).63 the devices. As Diekman et al explain,
There are also environmental considerations
that need to be made when establishing “ Deactivation can be carried out
advanced recycling capacity which can be by discharge of the whole battery
energy intensive, as is the case with certain system, battery modules, or battery
forms of LIB recycling. While there are a range
of applications for the materials found in LIBs,
cells. To avoid relaxation behaviour,
these complex and costly processes present namely the rise of voltage after
a significant challenge to the emergence of a discharge of the batteries, short-
native recycling industry in Australia or South
circuiting is required. Another
Australia. However, given the nascent state of
the LIB waste problem in Australia, there is
deactivation method consists of a
likely a window of time for the Government thermal pre-treatment. During this
of South Australia to begin proactively taking process the batteries are heated up
steps to ensure it is best placed to house
to maximum temperatures around
any future LIB waste management capacity
in Australia, and potentially isolate individual
300°C. At this temperature gas
aspects of the recycling process to specialise generation and evaporation of the
in within the state. solvents take place, which opens
the battery cells, combusts the
Pre-treatment & charge deactivation electrolyte solvents, and therefore
Pre-treatments are aimed at ‘separating inactivates the batteries. Although
components and materials according to a disassembly of the battery
different physical properties such as shape,
systems does not deactivate them,
density, conductivity, magnetic property, etc’
(Huang et al, 2018).64 This process is important it lowers the attached energy by
at improving overall recovery rates. This process decreasing the size. Normally, all
is still evolving and being made more efficient in further processing steps require a
terms of both energy use and labour costs.
disassembly process.”
– DIEKMAN ET AL, 2019.
LIBs also require relatively basic pack and module disassembly. This process is performed in various ways,
depending on the type of LIB. Harper et al (2019) highlight that much of this work is still performed by
hand, particularly for second-life reuse.65 Hand processing has some advantages, but is dangerous and
highly-skilled work, to which it is near-certain Australia does not have the labour-market capacity to meet
at this stage. A study of the UK motor technicians workforce found that less than 2 per cent of the 170,000
motor technicians in the country were qualified to perform technical services on EVs – a rate which would
be expected to be found in a similar study in the Australian context.66 This would suggest that the work of
physically handling or dismantling batteries should not be conducted through crash repairs or the existing
repair industry in South Australia without dedicated training campaigns to ensure mechanics have the
requisite skills to safely handle EV batteries. Rather, batteries would likely be handled by specifically skilled
technicians at centralised recycling depots.
FIGURE 2.8
VOLUMES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS CONTAINING LITHIUM REQUIRED TO SOURCE 1 TON OF
USABLE LITHIUM.67 WHILE THE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PROCESS IS RADICALLY
DIFFERENT, THERE IS AN OPPORTUNITY TO EXTRACT VAST QUANTITIES OF LITHIUM
THROUGH THE RECYCLING PROCESS.
250 T of ore (spodumene)

1 Ton
of
Lithium = 50 T of brine
28 T of LIBs from devices
~256 EV batteries
Just as the cell composition of EV LIBs and other LIBs vary, so too do the casing and modules in which
the LIBs are found, depending on their function, application and source of manufacture. Given Australia’s
relatively modest size in comparison to advanced LIB markets (particularly EV markets: the European
Union, the United States, and China), it will always be a challenge for Australian regulators to mandate or
recommend any uniformity that may streamline EOL recycling, Such considerations would likely dissuade
investment into Australian markets by OEMs.
THE
McKellte
Institu
FIGURE 2.9 THE METALS AND MATERIALS COMPOSITION OF A TYPICAL EV LIB.
Copper, 2.8
8
,1
Al
es
um
bl
in
Ca
9. ium
2 , Anode
Cell Battery
Housing System
Plast
ics, 2 Periphery
.3
Aluminium,
Steel, 5.2 5.7
Module
Periphery
Plastic
s, 2.7
,
luminium
A
5.7 Ni,
Other Cathode 5.5
.8
s,5
Li
ic
,3
ast
.3
Pl
Mi
,
n,
ents
Oxy
Com latile
3.1
gen
pon
8.2
Vo
, 3.1
Source: Author interpretation of Diekman et al, 2017.68

Pyrometallurgical processes materials including cobalt and lithium. Close

to 100 per cent of all other materials in LIBs
Pyrometallurgical processes use furnaces to
can also be recovered through this process.
isolate the recyclable components of LIBs, and
A broad literature has identified numerous
is primarily focused on the extraction of cobalt
methods of extracting raw materials through
rather than lithium. Less valuable commodities,
myriad hydrometallurgical processes, including
including copper and nickel, can also be
bioleaching, which utilises fungus and bacteria in
recovered form LIBs during this process. This
the extraction process, as well as acid leaching.
process uses blast furnaces to incinerate any
plastic remanence of LIBs, before heat of up to
700 degrees Celsius is employed to isolate the Direct recycling processes
desired materials. Huang et al (2018) note that While pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical
this form of LIB recycling is a high-risk economic processes are utilised to extract raw materials
proposition, heavily dependent on the price from EOL LIBs, not all LIBs have to go through
of cobalt, as well as affordable energy inputs complex and expensive chemical processes to
associated with creating the heat required. be responsibly handled. More direct, physical
Some studies have demonstrated that it is handling and extraction of materials can be an
technically possible to extract lithium from the important and less invasive method of handling
slag created by the pyrometallurgical process, LIBs which may have some further utility. Again,
(Li et al, 2019),69 but this remains to be tested at there are numerous methods of direct recycling
a commercial scale. of LIB waste. After being discharged, these
Given its inability to isolate and extract lithium, processes can range from physical disassembly
pyrometallurgical processes may not be the of LIBs and cell components within LIBs, to
most economically viable recycling method more technically complex and novel recycling
in South Australia, given its resource intensity, approaches, such as heat treatment which is less
which make the process less profitable. Further, invasive than cobalt-focused pyrometallurgical
the quantity of cobalt in LIBs is decreasing, processing, and the extraction of electrolytes
and given the early stage of LIB technology, utilising subcritical CO2. (Rothermal et al.
will likely continue this trajectory. Huang et 2016).70 Direct processes often include the
al (2018) argue that, while cobalt recovery physical dismantling and separation of core
is still environmentally advantageous over components, such as the cathode and anode
discarding LIBs, “recycling technologies should plates, and may create further employment
be moved away from cobalt recovery to the opportunities than alternative recycling or
comprehensive utilization of spent LIBs”. Given reprocessing methods.
the long-term challenge of lithium supply, a As Huang et al argue, the ‘direct physical
recycling industry that focuses more on the recycling process has the advantages of short
reutilization of lithium rather than the short-term recycling route, low energy consumption,
economic opportunities associated with cobalt environmental friendliness and a high recovery
recovery is most viable. rate’. The long-term health of the recovered
assets, however, is yet to be determined given
Hydrometallurgical processes the novel nature of the technology (Huang et al,
2018).
Hydrometallurgical processing of LIB waste is
a more common form of waste management,
able to extract 99 per cent of both lithium
and cobalt. (Huang et al, 2018). This processes
uses leaching, which applies a solution to the
materials to isolate and extract desirable raw
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There are multiple methodologies There remains no consistent or best-practice

deployed to recycle LIB waste recycling process for LIB waste, with various firms
globally engaging in contrasting recycling methods
“ Some lithium batteries are similar aimed to creating different end products. The
determination of individual firms with regards to
in shape and form to others, the method of recycling they adopt is dependent
such as lead acid batteries, on economic decisions relating to the forecast
value of certain commodities, and local input prices
which comprise different such as energy and labour. Each major operation
chemistry, and if mixed into internationally adopts differing processes, leading
to a lack of uniformity in the recycling of LIB waste
lead acid waste streams can abroad. Many of the existing waste processes are
create significant safety issues or energy intensive, particularly pyrometallurgical
processes, which at scale may somewhat negate
chemical incompatibility issues the positive emissions reductions associated with
during the recycling process.” widespread EV uptake. What is consistent in
literature exploring the LIB recycling challenge is
– ANAND BHATT, 2019.71
the need for innovation in the sector.
TABLE 2.4 LIB RECYCLING PROCESSES IN VARIOUS PRIVATE SECTOR APPLICATIONS
FIRM COUNTRY OF OPERATION MAIN LIB RECYCLING METHOD
Batrec Industrie AG Switzerland Mechanical recovery focused on lithium recovery.72
Pyro & Hydrometallurgical processes focused on nickel

Umicore Belgium & Sweden
and cobalt recovery. Not capacity to recover lithium.73
OnTo Technology USA Mechanical pulverisation extracting electrolytes.
Mechanical ‘valibat’ process aimed at recovering all LIB

Recypyl France components, from plastics to steel and copper, to cobalt,
nickel and lithium.74
Pyrometallurgical process at scale aimed at cobalt

Sony Japan
recovery.
Mechanical treatment and subsequent hydrometallurgical

Accurec GmbH Germany process aimed at cobalt, with some lithium extracted
from slag through acid leaching.
Hydrometallurgical process focused on harvesting li-ion

Retrieve fluff which can be a source of lithium. This process also
Canada
(formerly Toxco) isolates plastics, which can be recycled, and cobalt. Some
mechanical pre-treatment.
Patented hydrometallurgical process aimed at recovering

AEA Technology UK
all resources from LIBs.
A novel process combining “electrical, mechanical, mild

LithoRec
- thermal and hydrometallurgical treatment” designed to
(Uncommercialised)
recover “nearly all valuable materials of battery systems”.
Source: Mersham et al, 2014; Diekman et al, 2019.
THE
McKellte
Institu
The raw materials in LIBs The economics of LIB recycling remains a hurdle,
can be utilised in a variety particularly in Australia which currently has a
modest uptake of EVs. However, there remains
of advanced applications
an opportunity to harmonise EV LIB and other
There are many end applications to which LIB LIB waste streams in Australia, particularly if
waste can be applied. Huang et al (2018) identify much of that industry is concentrated to a single
three broad categories of re-usable waste from jurisdiction. South Australian policymakers
LIBs: metals and chemicals, electrode materials, should be cognizant about the challenges and
and other functional materials. Metals and opportunities presented by the growing lithium-
chemicals extracted through LIB processing, such ion waste stream. While the volume may not
as cobalt, copper, electrolytic manganese dioxide, be there today to sustain a native recycling
each of which have been found to have a high industry, there is time available to government
degree of purity after being extracted from EOL to take proactive steps to ensure that, when the
LIBs. Electrode materials can be extracted from volume of LIB waste is inevitably available to
the cathode materials of EOL LIBs, and can be create an economically viable recycling capacity
reincorporated into LIB value chains. within Australia, that South Australia is the
logical home for that industrial capacity.
Other functional materials, including ferrite,
MnCo2O4 (which can be used in nanocarbon South Australia is also fortunate to already
materials which themselves are incorporated be a participant in industrial scale metals
into novel battery storage technology),75 and processing. The lead smelter at Port Pirie,
graphite are also able to be extracted through owned and operated by Nyrstar, is illustrative
hydrometallurgical LIB recycling. Each of of South Australia’s existing role in the refining
these materials and chemicals have existing of metals that are essential contributors to
market value, and existing demand in value international battery supply chains. Where
chains around the world. A challenge for possible, the Government of South Australia
Government in incentivising the development of should explore collaboration with existing
a native recycling and processing industry is in private sector actors in metal processing to
proactively identifying, and potentially working see where existing industrial capacity can be
with Federal authorities to open, international expanded to incorporate at-scale LIB recycling
markets for raw LIB materials. and processing.
The economics of LIB recycling

remains a hurdle – but present
a first mover advantage
RECOMMENDATION 4
" At present there is little hope that Work to leverage SA’s existing
profitable processes will be found industrial and manufacturing
for all types of current and future assets to develop LIB recycling
types of electric-vehicle LIBs without capacity.
substantial successful research and
development, so the imperative to
recycle will derive primarily from the
desire to avoid landfill and to secure
the supply of strategic elements.” –
HARPER ET AL, 2019.
Markets need to be developed to This report has identified the critical minerals
sustain a recycling export industry that compose lithium-ion batteries, and the
inherent value in those materials. But given
One of the key challenges in developing the complexity and the expenses involved
sustainable recycling schemes within any in processing LIB waste, a degree of market
jurisdiction is in identifying and opening certainty is required if investors are to develop
markets for the recycled products. For many private recycling capacity in South Australia.
South Australians, recycling household waste Part of the Government of South Australia’s
is merely a matter of responsibly disposing response to this challenge could go beyond
of materials which are then collected and drafting regulations and guidelines to actively
processed elsewhere. But for the organisations leveraging its convening, procurement, and
responsible for recycling any material – be it intergovernmental negotiation capacities to
paper waste, plastic waste, or more technically identify and potentially open new markets
complex materials such as LIB waste – it is for recycled LIB materials. Government
essential that the recycled product, or materials procurement power can play an important role
extracted through the recycling process – are in creating markets for recycled LIB materials,
directed towards a willing consumer of those in particular encourage the development of a
recycled materials. fast-charging network for EVs that prioritises
the integration of second-life batteries.
THE
McKellte
Institu
Part 3:
Identifying
South Australia’s
Role in LIB Waste
Management
3.1: Identifying South Australia’s Opportunity
Key Points
1 While there are considerable opportunities
for the South Australian economy in handling
LIB waste, the State Government should be
cognizant of the myriad challenges associated
with nurturing a local LIB waste management
capacity.
2 South Australia can act now to get ahead

of the curve, investing in skilling the South
Australian workforce, identifying and
developing markets for LIB waste, and
preparing existing waste management actors,
for the growing challenge that is LIB waste.
This section highlights the challenges that may prevent the

emergence of a LIB recycling industry in South Australia.
Given market volatility associated with lithium, cobalt, nickel
and manganese and the high expenses involved in the
recycling process, the State Government should strategically
identify where South Australia can best position itself within
the LIB waste ecosystem.
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South Australia’s strong environmental Each of these initiatives breathe confidence

credentials position it well to foster a into investors’ minds . The development of a LIB
waste management strategy in the state would
LIB waste processing industry
help to further SA’s clean energy and circular
Over the past decade, South Australia has built economy credentials, adding to the state’s
upon its international waste management reputation reputation and attractiveness for both investors
and emerged as a leader in clean-technology and and future residents.
environmentally positive legislation aimed at making
the state’s economy more sustainable. The highly
South Australia’s Circular Economy
publicised policy achievements, such as the state’s
high penetration of renewables into the energy
goals will create jobs
mix, and successful integration of battery storage In 2017, South Australia published a study
into the energy grid, are complimented by a largely estimating potential benefits of a circular economy
bi-partisan approach to environmentally sustainable in South Australia, which would see the creation
policy. This has been demonstrated by the success of over 27,000 jobs within the state if the State
of the Home Battery Storage scheme, as well as were to move towards a more circular economy by
the Government’s facilitation of circular economy 2030. The circular economy benefits report aspired
initiatives advanced through Green Industries to a state economy that would become a “self-
SA. The Department for Energy and Mining have sustaining system driven by renewable energy”
also been forward movers in terms of fostering a with an “imperative to keep material resources in
hydrogen strategy for the state. use, or circulating for as long as possible”.
FIGURE 3.1 SOUTH AUSTRALIA’S CIRCULAR ECONOMY FRAMEWORK.

South Australia should carve a new niche in the LIB value chain
South Australia’s approach to realising the economic opportunities associated with LIB waste
management must be shaped by identifying practical but ambitious role for South Australia in a growing
international market. As with any new and emerging market, there is considerable opportunity for first
movers. But despite the LIB recycling and second-life battery market’s forecast exponential growth in the
coming years (Figure 3.2), South Australia still requires a strategic approach to consolidate a corner of
this growing market.
FIGURE 3.2 FORECAST GLOBAL REVENUE IN 2018 AND 2025 IN THE SECOND-LIFE BATTERY
AND LIB RECYCLING INDUSTRIES.
2025
2018
$1,280m
2LB
$51m
$7,800m
Recycling
$61m
0 2,000,000,000 4,000,000,000 6,000,000,000 8,000,000,000 10,000,000,000

US DOLLARS
Source: Bloomberg NEF.
The value of LIB waste in South Australia is modest, but growing

The estimated recoverable value of the LIB waste in South Australia is modest. In 2020, total recoverable
LIB waste within South Australia is likely valued between $1.85 million and $7 million. Under high value
scenarios outlined by the CSIRO, it is likely the total recoverable value of LIB waste in South Australia will
reach $176 million per annum by 2036, but could be as low as $46 million per annum (Figure 3.3). These
are not insignificant waste streams, but the modest value when compared with the high Capex and OpEx
requirements of recycling this waste stream does render it unlikely that a private sector LIB recycling
industry will emerge independently without State Government leadership.
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McKellte
Institu
FIGURE 3.3 ESTIMATED RECOVERABLE VALUE OF LIB WASTE IN SA, 2020-2036.
200,000,000
$176.5m
180,000,000
Recoverable Value (Low)
Recoverable Value (High)

160,000,000
140,000,000
AUSTRALIAN DOLLARS
120,000,000
100,000,000
80,000,000
60,000,000
$46.5m
40,000,000
20,000,0000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Source: Author analysis of Bhatt et al (2018).
Viable LIB recycling in Australia likely requires national and regional supply
The economic viability of recycling in South Australia becomes more apparent when looking at the value
of recoverable waste expected nationally. The CSIRO predicts overall value of LIB waste to exceed $3
billion in the 2030s, with low case estimates still predicting a recoverable value of over $700 million.
However, under low EV uptake and low cobalt price scenarios, the overall recoverable value by 2025
remains modest, at approximately $60 million nationally. While there is potential for a LIB recycling
industry in South Australia, any recycler would require a significant share of the national supply to be
viable. More room for competitors may emerge if Australia actively pursues the importation of regional
waste streams, particularly from New Zealand and the Pacific, and potentially South East Asian and
South Asian markets without local LIB waste management capacity.
FIGURE 3.4 ESTIMATED RECOVERABLE VALUE OF LIB WASTE IN AUSTRALIA, 2020-2036.
2,500,000,000
$2,374,323,354
Recoverable Value (Low)
Recoverable Value (High)
2,000,000,000
AUSTRALIAN DOLLARS
1,500,000,000
1,000,000,000
$626,161,900
500,000,000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Source: Author analysis of Bhatt et al (2018).
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3.2: Market dynamics for resources extracted from LIBs
Key Points
1 To date, LIB recycling has been focused largely on cobalt recovery, given cobalt’s high value.
2 Spikes in prices for both lithium and cobalt in 2017/18 have largely subsided, demonstrating a
degree of volatility in price forecasting for these commodities.
3 While demand for lithium is growing, so too is supply, negatively impacting price. A raw
lithium-recovery focused recycling industry may be economically unviable in Australia, without
a consolidation of national and regional LIB waste streams in a centralised hub like SA.
Lithium and cobalt pricing industry, Australia must position itself to be a

regional LIB waste recycler, harvesting the LIB
The economic viability of a sustainable LIB
waste of neighbouring countries and producing
recycling industry is pinned to the value of the
high purity product-specific outputs that secure
dominant commodities, lithium and cobalt,
economically viable and sustained pricing.
that are found in LIBs. While Geosciences
Australia identifies both commodities as 'critical', “ For almost all Li-ion battery
the market price for both cobalt and lithium
materials, the product required is
has continued to decline since peaks in late
2017. There are numerous underlying market highly specific, calling on a particular
dynamics associated with the 2017 spike, corner of the wider commodity
followed by a flattening of the commodities’ market concerned; dynamics for
prices. Recent production spikes in both lithium
particular battery-grade products
and cobalt in China have driven prices below
their historic peaks (industrial grade lithium is might be quite different from those
still well above historical averages pre-2015 and of the commodity overall”
a premium market has emerged for very low – ROSKILL INFORMATION SERVICES.76
impurity, battery quality chemicals).
While cobalt remains a highly valuable
The flattening of lithium and cobalt commodity, industrial grade lithium’s value is
unlikely to dramatically increase in the near
prices highlights the need to scale,
future, despite the expected growth in demand
and focus on high purity product- for lithium-ion batteries. Other forms of lithium,
specific outputs however, have more potential to achieve high
With the recent flattening of both cobalt and returns. Product-specific grades of lithium or
lithium prices (Figures 3.5; 3.6), the economic other refined materials have different market
viability of LIB recycling in Australia is impacted. dynamics to raw commodities, and may achieve
What this demonstrates, however, is not that a more predictable rate of return than simply
Australia has no role to play in LIB recycling, recreating a product, like unrefined lithium, of
but that in order to maximise the economic which there is ample global supply.
sustainability of a domestic LIB recycling
FIGURE 3.5
MARKET PRICE OF COBALT, 10 YEARS TO MAY 2020 (MOST RECENT DATA ASCERTAINABLE).
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
USD/TONNE
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
May 10
Oct 10
Mar 11
Aug 11
Jan 12
Jun 12
Nov 12
Apr 13
Sep 13
Feb 14
Jul 14
Dec 14
May 15
Oct 15
Mar 16
Aug 16
Jan 17
Jun 17
Nov 17
Apr 18
Sep 18
Feb 19
Jul 19
Dec 19
May 20
Source: LME.
FIGURE 3.6
MARKET PRICE OF BATTERY GRADE LITHIUM, 2010-2020.
20,000
Lithium Carbonate
18,000
Lithium Hydroxide
16,000
14,000
USD/TONNE
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Source: Piedmont Lithium.77
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As Figures 3.8 to 3.9 demonstrate, there is currently a significant global supply of lithium that currently
meets demand. This has led to modest market price volatility, which is expected to remain the case until
2025. However, according to industry forecasters, these prices will stabilise at approximately USD$13,000/
tonne.78 The cobalt market also offers a lucrative supply/demand dynamic, with forecast demand to 2025
outstripping supply. This dynamic suggests that recyclers should not just focus on lithium extraction, but
also harvesting cobalt in the near future. Recyclers should also consider the opportunity in focusing on
nickel extraction in any LIB recycling process. Nickel is a valuable commodity (Figure 3.7) with less market
volatility than other raw commodities, and focusing on extracting nickel provides additional opportunities
for diversifying the recycled-LIB export stream.
FIGURE 3.7 NICKEL PRICE, 2011-2021, USD/T.
30,000
25,000
20,000
USD/TONNE
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Mar 11
Aug 11
Jan 12
Jun 12
Nov 12
Apr 13
Sep 13
Feb 14
Jul 14
Dec 14
May 15
Oct 15
Mar 16
Aug 16
Jan 17
Jun 17
Nov 17
Apr 18
Sep 18
Feb 19
Jul 19
Dec 19
May 20
Oct 20
Source: IndexMundi
FIGURE 3.8
GLOBAL DEMAND FOR LITHIUM IS EXPECTED TO BE OUTMATCHED BY GLOBAL SUPPLY
FOR SOME TIME, EVEN WITH HIGH EV UPTAKE SCENARIOS, BUT THERE PRICES
ARE EXPECTED TO STABILISE AFTER 2025.
1400
Industrial All batteries (EV low uptake)
Glass & ceramics All batteries (EV high uptake)
1200
1000
800
KT
600
400
200
0
2017 Demand 2025 Demand 2017 Production 2025 Production
Source: Azevedo et al, 2018.79
FIGURE 3.9
GLOBAL DEMAND FOR COBALT IS EXPECTED TO OUTPACE THE TOTAL SUPPLY OF COBALT BY 2025,
NECESSITATING AN INCREASE IN RECYCLING OF LIBS.
300
250
200
150
KT
100
50
RECYCLED RECYCLED
0
2017 Demand 2025 Demand 2017 Production 2025 Production
Other Tools & hard materials Superalloys

All batteries (EV low uptake) All batteries (EV high uptake)
Source: Azevedo et al, 2018.80
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LIBs may not always require cobalt The expected introduction of a Battery
While the existing broad market dynamics Stewardship Scheme improves the
suggest that a recycling strategy focused economics of collection and recovery
primarily on cobalt extraction is more
In September 2020, the ACCC approved the
economically viable in the long term than one
Battery Stewardship Council’s (BSC) proposed
focused on lithium, LIBs without cobalt are also
levy on battery units imported into Australia.83
beginning to be developed, which may call into
Since 2015, stakeholders within the Australian
question the long-term viability of focusing on
battery industry have been deliberating on the
cobalt extraction. The current price of cobalt
best way to introduce battery stewardship in
is one of the drivers of the high price in LIBs,
Australia. The ACCC approval allows the BSC to
and therefore in consumer products as well
implement a new levy on all imported batteries
as EVs. A pinnacle of battery research has
into Australia.
been in identifying ways to manufacture high
performance LIBs without requiring cobalt, The levy is proposed to sit at $0.04 per
which will ultimately minimise the cost of LIBs in equivalent battery unit (EBU), which equates to
numerous applications. around $1.67 per kilogram of imported battery.
As currently proposed, the BSC levy is voluntary
Svolt, a Chinese battery company, announced
for participating stakeholders, but its adoption
in May 2020 it will be releasing ‘zero cobalt’
is expected to be widespread given the
batteries in 2021, which it claims can be
extensive consultation the BSC had undertaken
incorporated into EV power trains that deliver
throughout the five year period prior to the
ranges of over 600 kilometres on a single
ACCC approval.
charge.81 Similar technology is already being
incorporated into EVs manufactured by The BSC forecasts that, in its initial year, the
Daimler, with Ford also experimenting with the scheme could, from 2020, inject $22 million of
technology.82 Such innovations demonstrate capital into the national recycling industry – a
the rapid advances in battery technology, and significant sum that can enable some of the cost
the need to develop a recycling capacity that barriers of collection and disassembly of battery
is flexible enough to accommodate changing stock to be overcome, and encourage actors
technology and market dynamics. into the industry. If the levy was applied to the
future forecasts of LIB stock in Australia, the
sum is increased significantly. A $0.04/BCU levy
on incoming LIB stock could, by 2035, inject
over $200 million annually into the stewardship
scheme, if the levy was universally applied
(Table 3.1).
While the levy is yet to be implemented, its

approval suggests the industry is already
working to solve the cost barriers associated
with recycling and reprocessing battery waste,
which paves the way for governments like
South Australia to work alongside the industry
to facilitate the emergence of a larger national
recycling capacity. The Battery Stewardship
Council’s adoption of a levy of $0.04 /BCU
reflects the Council’s expectation of the costs of
handling under forecast recovery rates. Should
this significantly increase, there may be room for
that levy to be adjusted.
TABLE 3.1 POTENTIAL REVENUE FROM THE ACCC APPROVED BATTERY STEWARDSHIP LEVY
POTENTIAL REVENUE FROM BSC LEVY
1 EBU $0.04
1 kg $1.67
1 tonne $1,667
1000 tonnes $1,666,667
SA 2035 LIB Waste Forecast $16,833,333
National 2035 LIB Waste Forecast $ 216,666,667
Source: Author estimates based upon Battery Stewardship Council analysis.
Collection and disassembly are loss-making,

but can be offset by selling processed waste resources
The Battery Stewardship Council’s proposed levy paves the way for a much more viable domestic LIB
recycling industry. As Figure 3.10 demonstrates, the collection and disassembly process within the broader
LIB recycling process is a significant cost, but can be offset by the profit (~$448 per tonne) made by the
on-sale of reprocessed LIB raw materials. The emergence of a viable battery stewardship scheme will see
an inflow of capital into the system, improving the costs effectiveness of LIB recycling.
FIGURE 3.10 FINANCIAL ASSESSMENT OF THE LIB BATTERY RECYCLING PROCESS. COLLECTION
AND DISASSEMBLING IS A COSTLY AND UNPROFITABLE PRACTICE, REQUIRING SCALE AND
POTENTIALLY GOVERNMENT SUPPORT.
1,500 $1,308
1,000
AUSTRALIAN DOLLARS
$448
500
Collection &
Disassembling
($/Tonne)
0
Reprocessing Net $/Tonne
(300)
Lithium-ion, Nickel-cadmium, Nickel-metal hydride
(1,000) ($860)
Source: Battery Stewardship Council
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3.3: Envisaging a South Australia-Centric LIB Waste Hub
Key Points
1 While no formal plans have been put forward aimed at developing a national LIB waste
management industry, a growing literature identifying how to make an LIB recycling
industry viable in Australia is emerging.
2 Two primary models are plausible: a ‘centralised hub’, or a ‘state centric’ national capacity.
3 South Australia is well positioned to emerge as a ‘centralised hub’ for Australia, New
Zealand and the Pacific’s LIB waste processing, if national barriers are removed.
4 A South Australian LIB Processing Hub could see LIB waste imported from the east,
extracting metals in Adelaide which can then be transported west to export internationally.
Australia is the world’s largest lithium producer. Figure 3.11, permits direct overland access to all
But so far, much of the lithium that is extracted, Australian states. This would permit the state to
predominately in Western Australia, is shipped serve as a central hub in which LIB waste flows
internationally before being incorporated into any from all Australian jurisdictions could be directed.
value-added products in Australia. A much quoted In a future scenario where Australia enables the
statistic, highlighted by the Federal Government international importation of recyclable LIB waste,
in its development of a lithium roadmap for South Australia’s ports infrastructure, and the
Australia, is that 99 per cent of the end-value of proximity of that infrastructure to existing industrial
the lithium Australia produces is sent offshore, environments, would serve as an advantage. South
to be incorporated into manufactured products Australia also has among the lowest commercial
abroad, which are sold into international markets.84 property prices in Australia, lowering the overall
It is clear that Australia has, so far, been unable to cost burden on any private sector investor that
expand its participation in the lithium-ion supply is seeking to scale its LIB recycling capacity in
chain beyond resource extraction. But developing Australia. Further, South Australia’s existing skills
a domestic LIB recycling capacity would help to base and industrial capacity would allow any
address this deficit. investor engaged in LIB recycling to tap into
an existing local skills pool, with experience in
advanced manufacturing and metals processing.
South Australia has a competitive
Additionally, the state has developed a strong
advantage over other states in bipartisan commitment to green industries and
developing at-scale recycling capacity the pursuit of a circular economy initiatives. This
South Australia is a logical jurisdiction in which political stability offers investors certainty. By
nascent recycling technology can be adopted. making clear its commitment to implementing
Firstly, its location within Australia enables the circular economy practices to battery recycling,
state to offer prospective investors a centralised the Government of South Australia can leverage its
location in which operate. The geographic existing advantaged to encourage private capital
advantage of South Australia, as highlighted in into the state’s nascent sector.
South Australia could aspire to be an intermediary LIB waste processing hub

Australia’s lithium export industry is concentrated to Western Australia, which is working on capitalising
on its lithium dominance to grow a localised battery manufacturing sector. South Australia is well placed
to serve as an intermediary between LIB waste streams from Australia’s populous eastern seaboard, and
Australia’s existing mineral export capacity in Western Australia. In this ‘Intermediary Model’ (Figure 3.11),
South Australia could harness low cost renewable energy and green hydrogen to position itself as not only
a sustainable processor of LIB waste, but also as a remanufacturer, working to secure LIB waste streams
from the growing EV market and electronic waste streams for South Australian firms specialising in
resource recovery, and second-life battery processing and remanufacturing.
FIGURE 3.11
THE “INTERMEDIARY MODEL”: SOUTH AUSTRALIA ACTING AS A WASTE STREAM MANAGEMENT
HUB FOR LIB WASTE EMERGING FROM AUSTRALIA’S POPULOUS EASTERN SEABOARD, THE NZ AND
PACIFIC, BEFORE TRANSPORTING EXPORTABLE LIB RAW MATERIAL WASTE THROUGH EXISTING
EXPORT CHANNELS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Asian
Export
Markets
East Coast
LIB Waste
Streams
Australian
Lithium NZ & Pacific
Rare Earths Australian
LIB Waste LIB Waste
Export hub Streams
Processing
Hub
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Existing recycling capacity and LIB A SA-based battery recycling

waste transportation a hurdle to the hub could create over 300 South
intermediary model Australian jobs
Though South Australia is well positioned to South Australia is emerging as a premier
realise the Intermediary Model (Figure 3.11), jurisdiction for environmentally conscious jobs
considerable steps would need to be taken to creation, and the centralisation of an Australian
bring this vision to life. The first steps would LIB recycling industry would further that
be identifying the various policy impediments reputation.
that stand in the way of SA LIB recycling
Given the mechanisation of battery recycling,
hub, and working with other jurisdictions to
however, a significant consolidation of the
overcome them. This includes the challenges
overall supply of recyclable LIB material would
for transporting LIB waste in Australia, as well
need to be concentrated in order to facilitate
as securing waste streams from interstate and
a sustainable local industry and a high level
internationally. Ideally, a nationally consistent
of associated employment. The Battery
approach to waste management should be
Stewardship Council, in its 2020 Australian
legislated through the National Cabinet process.
Battery Market Analysis, identified that for every
However, even in lieu of a nationally consistent
10,000 tonnes of reprocessed batteries, 26.4
hazardous waste transportation framework,
direct full-time equivalent jobs are created. This
South Australia – which borders each Australian
estimate is derived from existing survey data
mainland jurisdiction but the ACT – is uniquely
that has identified current employment levels in
positioned to design a regulatory framework
comparable recycling facilities around Australia.
that facilitates the inward delivery of reusable
and recyclable waste into South Australia. While this is a modest direct level of
employment, this figure ignores that broader
South Australia should aspire to be a economic dividends associated with the on
selling of recycled or reprocessed battery
second-life battery innovation hub
materials, or the sale or remanufacturing of
The battery cell market is becoming increasingly second life batteries. It also fails to account for
crowded and focussed upon China, Japan, the indirect employment impacts associated
Korea, Europe and North America. South with freight and handling of the materials.
Australia is yet to see considerable battery
The analysis suggests that, by 2030, the direct
innovation or manufacturing within the local
jobs created by lithium-ion battery recycling
market. There is a gap, however, in the second-
Australia-wide could reach around 300 full-
life battery market. Existing innovation hubs,
time equivalent positions. By 2035, the industry
such as Western Australia’s Future Battery
would be creating 365 FTEs before considering
Industries CRC, are large scale initiatives with a
associated employment in freight, and the
broad focus on the new battery chemical and
indirect jobs created by the 365 FTEs (Figure
cell industry. Western Australia’s approach has
3.12). As Table 3.2 illustrates, the greater the
been borne out of its dominance of the lithium
resource consolidation, the higher the jobs
supply, understanding that it is missing out on
expected within the state.
the opportunities associated with value adding to
its raw lithium before exporting the commodity
to the world. Given WA’s advances in this space,
South Australia needs to identify a niche in the
battery industry which it can support. Given
the need for second life battery innovation and
commercialisation, active State Government
support for the second life battery industry
would be a logical focal point in South Australia.
FIGURE 3.12 FTE CREATED BY WEIGHT OF LIB WASTE PROCESSED.
160,000 400
Total
TONNES OF WASTE PROCESSED
140,000 Direct FTE

350
JOBS (FTE) CREATED

120,000 300
100,000 250
80,000 200
60,000 150
40,000 100
20,000 50
0 0
TABLE 3.2 FTE CREATED BY WEIGHT OF LIB WASTE PROCESSED UNDER VARIOUS
LIB WASTE RESOURCE CONSOLIDATION SCENARIOS.
EST. TONNES DIRECT

PROCESSED ANNUALLY RECYCLING FTES
South Australian LIB Waste Only 8000 22
Australian LIB Waste 120,000 317
Australia + Oceania LIB Waste 150,000 396
Oceania + South East Asia Waste 250,000 660
The path to high employment in battery stewardship levy will ameliorate some
recycling LIB waste depends on of the high costs associated with collecting
and disassembling LIB stock, waste resource
regional waste resource consolidation
processors require large volumes of recyclable
“ Smaller firms have significantly waste to generate enough revenue to sustain a
local industry.
lower revenues from reprocessing
compared with that earned Indeed, the emergence of such a stewardship
scheme positions Australia well to incentivise
by those employing 20 or
prospective recyclers to establish a foothold
more in reprocessing.” in Australia, and presents South Australia with
– BATTERY STEWARDSHIP COUNCIL an increased opportunity to expand upon
its already established reputation as a clean
The key goal for the Government in shaping a technology leader. Further leadership is required
LIB waste resource management industry in to shift consumer behaviours towards very high
South Australia is exploring ways for such an levels of consumer product recycling.
industry to reach scale. While the proposed
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Part 4:
Best Practice
Guidelines
4.1: Best-Practice LIB Waste
Management Principles
Key Points
1 While there are reforms South
Australia can make within its
borders, the Government will
also need to advocate for best
practice LIB waste management
reform at a Federal level.
2 There are seven urgent priorities

that need to be addressed
before investment certainty
in the LIB waste management
sector can be delivered.
While there are clear actions that the

Government should adopt to grasp the
opportunities associated with EV and LIB
waste, there are significant national barriers
that also need to be addressed. However,
given a current disengagement from Federal
authorities on the issue of EV policy and
LIB management, there is room for the
Government to lead on developing best
practice guidelines, identifying the national
policy challenges that all jurisdictions need
to address, and proceed to work through the
National Cabinet or other national bodies to
affect change beyond South Australia.
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PRIORITY 1 detailed understanding of the manufacturing

process of the batteries they are transporting,
Improve collection and recycling of including cell composition and the date of their
today’s battery waste to build the manufacture. Some participants have noted
foundations for tomorrow’s industry challenges in complying with these regulations,
in addition to different regulations in each state
This report has looked to the future of South
Australia’s LIB waste resource challenge. But a and territory. While regulations regarding the
battery resource challenge continues to impede safe transportation of LIBs are essential, there
the viability of a future LIB recycling sector. As is a case for modernising and streamlining the
this report has noted, battery recycling – across existing regulations.
all battery streams - in Australia is inadequate.
This is highly evident with the sizeable existing
LIB waste streams that come from consumer
electronics in Australia. Despite this waste stream
being prohibited from entering landfill, it is RECOMMENDATION 5
estimated that a majority of LIBs from consumer
electronics in Australia still end up in landfill. This The Government of South
creates a significant environmental problem – Australia, in should work with
but it also signals the difficulty of collection and
recycling of this waste stream in Australia. the National Cabinet to identify
While governments should always work to
how to harmonise regulations
position themselves to take advantage of regarding the transportation of
emerging economic opportunities, existing dangerous goods in each state,
challenges at times need to be addressed in
to lower compliance costs for
order for those larger opportunities to emerge.
This is the case with LIB recycling. Although transporting LIB within Australia.
there are considerable opportunities for the
South Australian economy in developing an
advanced LIB waste resource processing
capacity, it must first address the fundamental PRIORITY 3
issues of today’s LIB waste flowing into landfill.
A nationally consistent LIB
labelling framework needs to
be implemented, guided by the
PRIORITY 2
industry-led Battery Stewardship
National regulations for
Scheme’s recommendations
the transportation of LIBs
Inadequate labelling of LIBs is a major roadblock
must be streamlined to developing an economically viable recycling
There are significant challenges and expenses industry in Australia. While LIBs are often
associated with the transportation of lithium- labelled with a generic ‘Li-Ion’ label, this is not
ion waste across Australia. The Australian Code universal, nor does it provide any information
to the chemical composition of the LIB that is
for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road
labelled. No single jurisdiction within Australia
and Rail (Page 165) has complex guidelines for
can advance and legislate a labelling system
transporting LIBs.85 These guidelines expect
unilaterally; rather, the state’s need to coordinate
transportation firms to be able to demonstrate or work with the Federal Government to
implement a nationally consistent labelling FIGURE 4.1 AN LI-ION LABEL.

system. Such a system could be built upon
the existing ‘Li-Ion’ label, with colour-coded
labels specific to LIBs with certain chemical
compositions. See Figure 4.1.
Mandating labelling isn’t as simple as

passing legislation. Given that LIB products
entering Australia are typically manufactured
overseas, Australian governments need to
work with actors throughout the supply
chain to implement requisite labelling. The
Government of South Australia, and other
Australian jurisdictions, should work closely
with the Battery Stewardship Council, which has
developed a stewardship scheme that considers
best practice labelling requirement.
Labelling systems also need to be simple

enough to allow consumers to responsibly
dispose of their EOL LIBs, while providing
access to information for recyclers to isolate
LIBs by their composition to expedite the
recycling process. A simple solution to
Li-ion
incorporating complex technical information
into labelling would be to ensure LIB casings
have QR codes printed on the device, enabling
PRIORITY 4
EOL handlers to scan the device and ascertain Development of a localised
its precise chemical composition and other discharging, sorting and dismantling
important information before recycling. As infrastructure nationally
Buckley (2018) outlines, best-practice labelling
While a modest size ecosystem of LIB waste
would not only include the metal composition
handlers have emerged nationally, there is still
of LIBs, but also display information including
a need to improve the national capacity to
the size, power rating, and voltage of the device,
sort, handle, discharge and manually dismantle
as well as a label specifying that the LIB is a
LIB waste in Australia. In some instances, this
‘dangerous good’.86
will require the expansion of existing waste
management facilities. In other instances, it
will require the waste sector designing new
RECOMMENDATION 6 tools and techniques to automate the complex
process of sorting different battery waste
Working with industry, develop streams. The battery stewardship levy will aid
guidelines over LIB labelling, in reducing the capital costs for some private
which should ideally be sector actors engaged in this process, but
government engagement at state and federal
harmonised at a national level.
levels would be welcome.
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Consideration could be given to international

PRIORITY 5 schemes that have proven successful or a
A nationally consistent LIB recycling refundable levy similar to South Australia’s
target needs to be legislated, with system of container deposits that is embraced
by consumers, successful in diverting material
distinctions made between each
and has now been largely adopted nationally.
LIB waste stream
This report has highlighted Australia’s poor
capacity to recycle LIB waste. While targets PRIORITY 7
alone won’t overcome the myriad challenges
Working with industry to ensure
associated developing LIB waste markets,
the BSC’s battery stewardship
such guidelines can help shape investment
and internal policy decisions by industry. It is
scheme is successful
important, however, to recognise the various There is a need to develop oversight of LIB
points of development different LIB waste waste by LIB manufacturers themselves.
streams are in. While the waste from mobile While onerous regulations today could stifle
devices is significant, for example, EV LIB waste the uptake of EVs, battery stewardship will
is nascent and currently not occupying landfill. inevitably be required to ensure the task of
These different waste streams require different recycling EOL LIBs is conducted responsibly.
timelines for any recycling targets, but broadly, The LIB waste in Australia that doesn’t enter
there should be an aspiration to achieve an landfill is often being handled responsibly,
ambitious recycling rate for LIBs by 2030. exported to reputable firms engaged in LIB
Governments should work with the Battery recycling predominately in South Korea, though
Stewardship Council to implement its recycling some firms have been warehousing batteries,
targets nationwide. unsure of what the most economical and
environmentally friendly way of disposing of
them is. There is some concern over the nature
PRIORITY 6 of battery recycling in other locations, such
as Indonesia, where exposés have uncovered
Consumers need to be made more
dangerous and environmentally destructive
aware of LIB recycling options and
practices in the local battery ‘recycling’
encouraged to modify behaviours industry.87 The industry-led work by the Battery
There remains a need for consumers to receive Stewardship Council to develop a battery
more educational material about LIB waste at stewardship scheme in Australia provides an
the point of sale. The estimates of only 3-6 per ideal framework for governments to adhere to
cent of Australia’s LIB waste being responsibly ensure best practice LIB waste management.
recycled demonstrates not only that Australia
does not yet have the capacity to recycle large
volumes of LIB waste, but that consumers
are also contributing to the mismanagement
of LIB waste. There is a need to improve
consumer education regarding LIB recycling,
and encourage behaviour change across all
LIB waste streams including handheld devices.
Conclusion
As South Australia emerges from the COVID-19 pandemic, creative
and future-facing ideas from Government are required to rebuild
the state’s economy. SA is uniquely positioned to capitalise on the
need for bold and productivity-enhancing policy to implement new
programs that benefit the economy, create local jobs, and remain true
to the state’s world-class reputation as a circular economy leader.
The emerging waste stream of lithium-ion batteries presents a unique opportunity

for SA to step up, take control of a looming national environmental challenge and
establish a LIB waste resource management hub in the state. The CSIRO predicts this
waste resource stream to be valued at up to $3 billion by 2035. And while a modest
LIB recycling capacity has emerged in Victoria, South Australia remains well position
to lead from the front, drive national reforms in LIB waste resource management, and
ultimately incentivise private sector investment in LIB waste resource management
into South Australia.
But a focus on responsible end-of-life management of lithium-ion battery waste

shouldn’t just consider recycling. It should also explore the opportunities associated
with the repurposing if lithium-ion batteries. The second-life battery market is
forecast to be a $1.3 billion global industry by 2030, and few jurisdictions have taken
advantage of this economic opportunity. Fostering local innovation, South Australia
could emerge as a national leader in creatively repurposing second-life batteries into
a variety of applications, potentially including a fast-charging network for EVs, home
storage applications, and other public infrastructure.
The rapid growth in consumer electronics and the forecast expansion of EVs into
Australia’s fleet presents a significant waste management challenge. But there is still
time for the Government of South Australia to consultatively design practical and
ambitious policy that aims to capture the value from this growing waste stream,
benefiting the state economy, creating hundreds of local jobs, and further bolstering
the state’s clean-technology reputation.
This report has outlined how South Australia can realise these opportunities, and
emerge from COVID-19 as a more vibrant, more productive and environmentally
sustainable economy.
THE
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Footnotes
1. Civilsdaily, 2019. ‘Nobel prize in chemistry: for lithium-ion 16. King, S., Boxall, N., & Bhatt, A. 2018. ‘Lithium battery
battery’. Accessed online: https://www.civilsdaily.com/ recycling in Australia - Current status and opportunities
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2. Battery University, 2020. ‘Types of lithium-ion’. Accessed https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/pub?pid=csiro:EP181926
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3. King, S., Boxall, N., & Bhatt, A. 2018. ‘Lithium battery long-live-batteries/#:~:text=In%20California%2C%20
recycling in Australia - Current status and opportunities automakers%20are%20required,in%20their%20
for developing a new industry’. CSIRO. Accessed online: technology%20more%20broadly
https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/pub?pid=csiro:EP181926 18. Lewis, H. 2016. ‘Lithium-ion battery consultation report’.
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Science for Energy Technologies, 2:1
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THE

About the Authors

About the Report

1.2: The Electric Vehicle Revolution................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

1.3: Sizing the LIB Waste Resource Challenge in South Australia........................................................................................................................................ 27

Part 2: Managing LIB Waste Resources in Australia 33

2.2: Managing LIB Waste is a Three Step Process...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Part 3: Identifying South Australia's Role in LIB Waste Management 56

3.2: Market Dynamics for Resources Extracted from LIBs................................................................................................................................................................... 60

3.3: Envisaging a South Australia-Centric LIB Waste Hub..................................................................................................................................................................... 68

Part 4: Best Practice Guidelines 73

BESS......................Battery Energy Storage System

BSC........................Battery Stewardship Council

EBU........................Equivalent Battery Unit

HEV........................Hybrid Electric Vehicle

ICE..........................Internal Combustion Engine

OEM.......................Original Equipment Manufacturer

PHEV.....................Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

FIGURES AND TABLES

Waste management is important for all

In an Australian context, these challenges

To date, little research aimed at

While Australia’s LIB waste stream remains

Today, Australia has only a modest capacity to

PART 4 then tables

A South Australian LIB

RECOMMENDATION 4 RECOMMENDATION 5 RECOMMENDATION 6

2 Trends suggest the LIB waste

3 A priority for governments should be

4 Australia’s inability to collect, process,

What are LIBs and how do they work?

What is a with a smartphone, laptop, home battery energy storage system

Lithium-Ion lithium-ion batteries, or LIBs. The proliferation of LIBs has facilitated

LIBs are ‘secondary

There are a large

LIB production is a five step process

TABLE 1.1 LIB VALUE CHAIN.

PHASE 1 Mining Identify and extract ore

(Australia) Mill spodumene concentrate into a powder

PHASE 2 Electrochemical Manufacturers utilise raw material for

AND Graphite anode material applied to cooper

Cell production Stack cathode, separator, and anode

Assemble Assemble cells into battery packs

The LIB waste stream is diverse

Lithium Cobalt Lithium, cobalt, Handheld devices,

Lithium Some EV batteries,

Lithium Nickel E bikes and scooters,

Lithium Titanate Lithium, titanate,

Source: Battery University.2

Much of the innovation in LIB waste policy and

There is also growing research into automotive

1.2: The Electric Vehicle Revolution

3 The automotive sector is responding with transformative investments: a clear trend

The automotive industry is embracing an EV future

FIGURE 1.2 THE COST REDUCTION IN LIB PACKS, USD, 2010-2018.

EVs will contribute significantly

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

EVs rely on powerful LIB chains. In some vehicles, the