Battery Technology

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 Battery Technology
• Introduction to batteries

• Basic concepts

• Battery characteristics

• Classification Lead-acid, Nicad- & lithium ion batteries

• Fuel cells, Construction & working of alkaline FC & proton

exchange membrane FC
Battery is a chemical reactor that convert chemical energy in to electrical energy on
demand.

Device that stores chemical energy that can be used as a source of direct current when
required
Dry Cell

Components of Battery
* Container
* Separator
* Electrolyte
* Active materials
* Terminals
 Battery characteristics
Voltage: measure of amount of electrons flow from a negative to positive electrode
Current: measure of the rate at which battery is discharging
Capacity: amount of electricity that may be obtained from the battery
Electricity storage density or Energy density: electricity per unit weight of the battery (Watt-
hours/kilogram (W-hr/kg)
Power density: Power per unit weight of the battery
Cycle life: number of complete charging/discharging cycles a battery can perform
Shelf life: Life time of the battery, to what extent the current can be stored for many years without self
discharge or the duration of storage under specified condition at the end of which a battery retains the
ability to give specified performance
Design life: It is the elapsed time before a battery becomes unusable whether it is in active use or
inactive
Classification & comparison of commercial cells –
Differences & similarities
Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries
1.Cell reaction is irreversible Cell reaction is reversible
2. Must be discarded after its May be recharged a number of
active elements have times from an external d.c. source
been
consumed during its useful life
Have very long shelf life
3. Have relatively short shelf life
4. Function only as galvanic cells
Function as galvanic cells during
discharge & as electrolytic cells
during charging process.
5. Cannot be used as energy Can be used as energy storage
storage devices devices (e.g. solar/ thermal energy
converted to electrical energy)
6. Cannot be recharged Can be recharged.
e.g. Dry cell, Li-MnO2 battery e.g.Lead acid battery, Ni-cd battery
Basic requirements of cells

Primary cell Secondary cell

• Compact, light weight & • Long shelf-life in both
fabricated easily charged & discharged
• High energy density & conditions
constant voltage • Longer cycle life & design
• Benign environmental life
properties • High power to weight ratio
• Longer shelf life & discharge • Short time for recharge.
period • High voltage & high energy
• Leak proof containers & density
variety of design options.
• Economically priced
 Secondary Cells
§ Generation of electric energy, that can be restored to its original charged condition
after its discharge by passing current flowing in the opposite direction.

§ large number of cycles of discharging & charging.

§ known as rechargeable cells, storage cells, or accumulators.

e.g. Lead storage cell.
Nickel- cadmium cell.
Lithium- ion batteries.
Lead Storage Battery

• Anode: Spongy lead on lead grid.

• Cathode: Porous PbO2.
• Electrolyte: H2SO4(aq)( 20 %)
(density 1.21-1.30g/ml)

• Cell Scheme:
Pb/PbSO4;H2SO4(aq);PbSO4;PbO2/Pb
O.C.V. = 2V (Pair of plates)

https://rampages.us/chhabran01/wp-
content/uploads/sites/14076/2015/12/Lead-storage.png
 Reactions during discharging

} Anode: Pb (s) → Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-

Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s)
Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(aq) + 2e-

} Cathode:PbO2(s)+ 4H+(aq)+2e- →Pb2+(aq)+ 2H2O(l)

Pb2+(aq)+SO42-(aq)→PbSO4(s)

PbO2(s)+4H+(aq)+SO42-(aq)+2e- → PbSO4(s)+ 2H2O(l)

} Overall: Pb (s)+PbO2 (s)+4H+(aq)+ 2SO42-(aq) → 2PbSO4 (s)+2H2O(l)

 Reactions during Charging:
Cathodic reaction: PbSO4(s) + 2e- → Pb(s)+ SO42- (aq)

Anodic reaction: PbSO4(s)+2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4H +(aq) +2e-

Net reaction: 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O(e) → Pb(s) + PbO2(s) +2H2SO4

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 Limitations
• Self discharge: They are subject to self discharge with H2 evolution at negative plates
and O2 evolution at positive plates.

Pb +H2SO4 PbSO4 + H2
PbO2 + H2SO4 PbSO4 +H2O +1/2 O2

Electrolysis of water: Due to overcharging electrolysis of water takes place. Hence water
content must be regularly checked and distilled water must be added.
2H2O (l) + electrical energy → 2H2 (g) + O2(g)

Consequences of overcharging:
(i)Reduce the acid level and damage the exposed electrode grids
(ii)Dangerous high-pressure build-up that can lead to a serious risk of explosion.
 • Modern maintenance-free batteries:

• without a gas – release vent. Gassing is controlled by using

• 1. Pb-Ca (0.1 % ) as the anode which inhibits the electrolysis of water.

• 2. a catalyst (e.g. a mixture of 98% ceria (cerium oxide) & 2% platinum) that

combines the hydrogen & oxygen produced during discharge back into water

Applications
*Automotive: For starting, lighting and ignition of IC engine driven vehicles.
*Consumer Applications: Emergency lighting, security and alarm system.
*Heavy duty Application: Trains, lift trucks, mining machines, stationary back–up
power applications such as telecommunication systems, etc.
Lead Storage Battery
Advantages Disadvantages
• highly efficient • Sulfation
• low energy storage to weight ratio
• good service for • CP decreases with decrease in conc. of
several years sulfuric acid
• low internal self – • not efficient at LT
discharge • Overcharging may damage the exposed
• provide a large electrodes & may also lead to
current explosion in extreme cases
• Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive liquid
• Lead is toxic & hence environmental &
health problems
• corrosion of the lead grid at the lead
dioxide electrode
Nickel Cadmium Cell
• Anode: spongy cadmium metal
• Cathode: nickel (III) compound, Ni(OH)3 or NiO(OH) mixed with 20% graphite
powder
• Electrolyte: concentrated solution of KOH (compatibility with the various electrodes,
good conductivity & low freezing point) 20-28% Aq. KOH
• Separator: Thin plastic pins / Layers of cellulose felt
• Container: Steel case
Cell Scheme:
Cd/Cd(OH)2,KOH,Ni(OH)2, Ni(OH)3/Ni
O.C.V. = 1.25V
 Working: Discharging
Anode: Cd(s)+2OH-(aq) → Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e-
Cathode: 2NiO (OH) (s) + 2 H2O + 2 e- → 2Ni (OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq)
________________________________________________
Cd(s) + 2NiO (OH) (s) + 2H2O → 2 Ni(OH)2 (s) + Cd(OH)2(s)
____________________________________________________

Charging reactions:

ØAnode (cathode during discharging)

2 Ni(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) → 2 NiO(OH) (s) + H2O+2e-

ØCathode: (anode during discharging)

Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e-→ Cd(s) + 2OH-(aq)

ØOverall reaction: 2 Ni(OH)2 (s) + Cd(OH)2(s) → 2 NiO(OH) (s) + Cd(s) +2H2O(l)

Nickel Cadmium Cell

Advantages Disadvantages
• Long cycle life • Environmental pollution
• Constant voltage hazard
• Long shelf life • Increased weight
• No gassing • High overall capital cost
• Long design life • KOH is a corrosive
• Good performance at LT hazardous chemical
• Produce large instantaneous
currents
Lithium ion cells

Different configurations of Li ion batteries

 Lithium ion cells
Ø Cathode: metal oxides are inserted which can intercalate lithium ions
(LiCoO2, LiV2O5, LiMn2O4)

Ø Anode: made up of graphite, in to which lithium ion is intercalated

Ø Separators: polyolefin’s (PP/PE/PP or just PE) using 3- to 8- μm layers with

50% porosity.

Ø Electrolyte: 1-molar solution of a lithium salt in an organic solvent

Eg: 1)Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) in the solvent
propylene carbonate
2)Lithium tetrafluoroborate(LiBF4 ) in the solvent ethylene carbonate
Lithium ion cells
 Discharge reaction:-

The main principle is based on the movement of lithium ions

between anode and cathode through the electrolyte occurs
during charge and discharge process.

Anode reaction: Li ( C ) Li+ + e-

Cathode: Li+ + e- +CoO2 LiCoO2

The overall cell reaction is as follows:

Overall: CoO2 + Li ( C ) LiCoO2

Charging reaction:-

The main principle is based on the movement of lithium ions

between anode and cathode through the electrolyte occurs
during charge and discharge process.

Anode: LiCoO2 Li+ + e- + CoO2

Cathode reaction: Li+ + e- Li ( C )

The overall cell reaction is as follows:

Overall: CoO2 + Li ( C ) LiCoO2

Working of Li- ion cell https://youtu.be/VxMM4g2Sk8U

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 Lithium - ion Cell
Advantages Disadvantages
• Designed to overcome safety problems • Poor charge retention
• Long cycle life • Self discharge rate is
about 10% per month
• Small, light & provide high energy density
• High cost
• Can be operated in a wide temperature range
(Good low temperature performance)
• High average voltage
• Li-highest oxidation potential
• High energy density due to low atomic
mass
Manufacture of Battery https://youtu.be/CqUFLaKEIgQ
 Fuel cells
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy of a fuel – oxidant system is
converted directly into electrical energy in a continuous electrochemical process

The reactants (i.e. fuel + oxidant) are constantly

supplied from outside and the products are removed
at the same rate as they are formed.
Anode:
Fuel → Oxidation products+ ne-
Cathode:
Oxidant + ne- → Reduction products

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Fuel cells

Micro fuel cell Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge

Advantages:

High fuel to electricity conversion efficiency of 70-75% is observed in

fuel cells compared to thermal power plants (35-40% )

Fuel cells do not cause noise pollution, chemical pollution & thermal
pollution normally associated with conventional power plants.

A fuel cell produce a steady electric current as long as fresh reactants

are available.
Disadvantages

• Degradation or malfunction of components limits the practical operating life and

working of fuel cells on a large scale.

• Sensitive to fuel contaminants such as CO,H2S, NH3 & halides, depending on the type
of fuel cell. These contaminants must be minimized in the fuels to enhance the cells’
efficiency

• High initial cost because of the expensive noble metals and catalysts are required in the
construction of certain fuel cells.
 Alkaline fuel cell

Anode: Porous graphite / porous nickel electrode

coated with finely divided Pt/Pd.
Cathode: Porous graphite electrode/porous nickel
electrode coated with finely divided Pt/Pd.
Fuel: Hydrogen
Oxidant: oxygen
Electrolyte: 35-50% KOH.
Operating Temperature: 20 to 90oC.
O.C.V. =1.20V
 Alkaline fuel cell

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 Alkaline fuel cell
Working:
At Anode:
• H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) + 2e-
At Cathode:
1
• O2(g) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2OH-(aq)
2
1
Overall: H2+ O2 H2O(l)
2

*Water should be removed from the cell.

*O2should be free from impurities.
Alkaline fuel cell

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 Alkaline fuel cell
Advantages Disadvantages

qActive O2 electrode kinetics qElectrolyte sensitive to CO2

qFlexible to a wide range of electro- qReformer with a highly effective
catalysts CO & CO2 removal system

Applications

As energy source in space shuttles e.g. Apollo spacecraft.

In submarines and other military vehicles.
Suitable in places where, environmental pollution and noise are objectionable.
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

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Proton exchange membrane cell
Construction

• Electrolyte:- Ion exchange polymeric membranes.

• Electrodes:- Typical gas diffusion electrodes, made up of

porous C coated with Pt catalyst.

• Fuel:- Hydrogen

• Oxidant:- Air

• Catalyst:- Platinum

• Operating temperature:- 30 – 80oC.

• Charge-carrier:- H+
 Perflourinated membrane by DuPont.

F F F F F F F F F

C C C C C C C C
Role of conducting membrane
C
F F F F O F F F F

F C F

F C F
1. It acts as electrolyte to provide ionic conduction
O
b/w anode and cathode
F C F
2. It serves as a separator for two reactant gases
F C F

O=S=O
-
O
+
H
PERFLUOROSULFONIC ACID MEMBRANE
• Working
Anode reaction:
H2 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode reaction:
O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O

Overall reaction:-
H2 + O2 H2O

v Optimized proton and water transport properties of

membrane are crucial for efficient fuel cell operation
 PEMFC
Advantages Disadvantages:-
• solid electrolyte provides excellent • Dehydration of membrane reduces proton
resistance to gas crossover. conductivity and excess water can lead to
flooding of the electrolyte. Both the conditions
leading to poor performance.
• low operating temperature allows
rapid start-up • Perflourinated membranes have high cost

• sensitive to poisoning by trace levels of

• capable of high current densities contaminants including CO, sulfur species and
ammonia.
 Differences and Similarities
Fuel cell Galvanic Cell
• Do not store chemical energy • Store chemical energy
• Reactants fed from outside the cell • Reactants form an integral part of its
continuously construction.
• Need expensive noble metal catalysts • These special conditions are not required
& optimum operative conditions • Get-discharged when stored – up energy is
• Do not get discharged & no need of exhausted.
• Limited life span in use
charging
• Never becomes dead as long as fresh
reactants are available • Useful as portable power services.
• Useful for long-term electricity
generation. • No such problem
• Reaction products must be
continuously removed • Pollutants are generated after their useful
• No pollutants generated life
• Significantly higher power densities • Lower power density
Summary

• Battery - device consisting of several galvanic cells that convert stored

CE into EE.
• Batteries – primary or secondary types.
• The construction, working & applications of lead acid battery, nicad
cell, lithium copper sulfide cell have been discussed .
• Fuel cell - converts the CE from a fuel into EE by oxidation process.
• Fuel cells require a constant source of fuel & oxygen /air to sustain the
oxidation reaction.