Brem SST Rah Lung

The radiation of an accelerated charged particle
J.J. Thomson’s treatment (1906, 1907)

Consider a charge q stationary at the origin O of
some inertial frame of reference S at time t = 0.
The charge then suffers a small acceleration to
velocity ∆v in the short time interval ∆t. After a
time t, we can distinguish between the field
configuration inside and outside a sphere of
radius r = ct centred on the origin of S. Outside
this sphere, the field lines do not yet know that
the charge has moved away from the origin and
so the field lines are radial, centred on O. Inside
this sphere, the field lines are radial about the
origin of the frame of reference centred on the
moving charge. Between these two regions,
there is a thin shell of thickness c ∆t in which
we join up corresponding electric field lines.
Dr. A. Roman-Lopes Radiative Process in Astrophysics PhD and Master degree Astronomy Programs
Page 2
There must be a component of the electric field

Radiation of an in the iθ direction. This ‘pulse’ of
accelerated charged electromagnetic field is propagated away from
the charge at the speed of light and is the
particle (2) energy loss of the accelerated charged particle.
The increment in velocity ∆v is very small,
∆v c, and therefore it can be assumed that
the field lines are radial at t = 0 and also at
time t in the frame of reference S.
Consider a small cone of electric field lines at
angle θ with respect to the acceleration vector of
the charge at t = 0 and at some later time t
when the charge is moving at a constant velocity
∆v. We join up electric field lines through the
thin shell of thickness c dt as shown in the
diagram.
Page 3
The radiation of an accelerated charged particle (3)

The strength of the Eθ component of the field is given by number of field lines per
unit area in the iθ direction. From the geometry of the diagram, the Eθ field
component is given by the relative sizes of the sides of the rectangle ABCD, that is
Eθ /Er = ∆v t sin θ/c∆t. (2)

Er is given by Coulomb’s law,
Er = q/4πε0r 2 where r = ct, (3)

and so
q(∆v/∆t) sin θ
Eθ = . (4)
4πε0c2r
∆v/∆t is the acceleration r̈ of the charge and hence
qr̈ sin θ
Eθ = 2
. (5)
4πε0c r
Page 4

Notice that the radial component of the field decreases as r−2, according to
Coulomb’s law, but the field in the pulse decreases only as r−1 because the field
lines become more and more stretched in the Eθ -direction, as can be seen from (2).
Alternatively we can write p = qr, where p is the dipole moment of the charge with
respect to some origin, and hence
p̈ sin θ
Eθ = 2
. (6)
4πε0c r
This is a pulse of electromagnetic radiation and hence the energy flow per unit area
per second at distance r is given by the Poynting vector E × H = E 2/Z0, where
Z0 = (µ0/ε0)1/2 is the impedance of free space. The rate loss of energy through
the solid angle dΩ at distance r from the charge is therefore
dE |p̈|2 sin2 θ |p̈|2 sin2 θ

− dΩ = 2
r dΩ = dΩ. (7)
dt rad 2
16π Z0ε0c r2 4 2 2
16π ε0c 3
Page 5

To find the total radiation rate, we integrate over all solid angles, that is, we integrate
over θ with respect to the direction of the acceleration. Integrating over solid angle
means integrating over dΩ = 2π sin θ dθ and so
dE
π |p̈|2 sin2 θ
Z
− = 2π sin θ dθ. (8)
dt rad 0 16π 2 ε0 c3
We find the key result
dE |p̈|2 q 2|r̈ |2

− = = . (9)
dt rad 6πε0c3 6πε0c3
This result is sometimes called Larmor’s formula – precisely the same result comes
out of the full theory. These formulae embody the three essential properties of the
radiation of an accelerated charged particle.
Page 6
The Properties of Dipole Radiation

1. The total radiation rate is given by Larmor’s formula.
The acceleration is the proper acceleration of the
dE q 2|r̈ |2 particle and the loss rate is measured in its

− = 3
.
dt rad 6πε0c instantaneous rest frame.
2. The polar diagram of the radiation is of dipolar form,
that is, the electric field strength varies as sin θ and
the power radiated per unit solid angle varies as
sin2 θ, where θ is the angle with respect to the
acceleration vector of the particle. Notice that there
is no radiation along the acceleration vector and the
field strength is greatest at right angles to the
acceleration vector.
3. The radiation is polarised with the electric field
vector lying in the direction of the acceleration
vector of the particle, as projected onto a sphere at
distance r from the charged particle.
Page 7
Example - Thomson Scattering

Thomson scattering is the scattering of
electromagnetic waves by free electrons in the
classical limit. Thomson first published the
formula for the Thomson cross-section in 1906
in connection with the scattering of X-rays.
We seek the formula describing the scattering of
a beam of radiation incident upon a stationary
electron. We assume that the beam of incident
radiation propagates in the positive z-direction.
Without loss of generality, we arrange the
geometry of the scattering so that the scattering
angle α lies in the x − z plane. In the case of
unpolarised radiation, we resolve the electric
field strength into components of equal intensity
in the ix and iy directions.
Page 8
Thomson Scattering
The electric fields experienced by the electron in the x and y directions,
Ex = Ex0 exp(iωt) and Ey = Ey0 exp(iωt) respectively, cause the electron to
oscillate and the accelerations in these directions are:
r̈x = eEx/me r̈y = eEy /me. (10)

We can therefore enter these accelerations into the radiation formula (9) which
shows the angular dependance of the emitted radiation upon the polar angle θ. Let
us treat the x-acceleration first. In this case, we can use the formula (9) directly with
the substitution α = π/2 − θ. Therefore, the intensity of radiation scattered through
angle θ into the solid angle dΩ is
dE e2|r̈x|2 sin2 θ e4|Ex|2

− dΩ = dΩ = cos2 α dΩ. (11)
dt x 16π 2ε0c3 16π 2m2
e ε0 c
3
Page 9
Thomson Scattering
We have to take time averages of Ex2 and we find that Ex2 = Ex0 2 /2, where E
x0 is
the maximum field strength of the wave. We sum over all waves contributing to the
Ex-component of radiation and express the result in terms of the incident energy per
unit area upon the electron. The latter is given by Poynting’s theorem,
S x = (E × H ) = cε0Ex2iz . Again, we take time averages and find that the
contribution to the intensity in the direction α from the x-component of the
P
acceleration is Sx = i cε0Ex0 2 /2. Therefore
dE e4 cos2 α X 2 e4 cos2 α

− dΩ = 2 2 3
Ex dΩ = 2 2 2 4
Sx dΩ. (12)
dt x 16π me ε0c i 16π me ε0c
Page 10
Thomson Scattering
Now let us look at the scattering of the Ey -component of the incident field. From the
geometry of the previous diagram, it can be seen that the radiation in the x − z
plane from the acceleration of the electron in the y-direction corresponds to
scattering at θ = 90◦ and so the scattered intensity in the α-direction is
dE e4

− dΩ = 2 2 2 4
Sy dΩ. (13)
dt y 16π me ε0c
The total scattered radiation into dΩ is the sum of these components (notice that we
add the intensities of the two independent field components).
dE e4 2 α) S dΩ

− dΩ = (1 + cos (14)
dt 16π 2m2 2 4
e ε0 c 2
where S = Sx + Sy and Sx = Sy for unpolarised radiation. We now express the
scattered intensity in terms of a differential scattering cross-section dσT in the
following way. We define the scattered intensity in direction α by the following
relation
dσT(α) energy radiated per unit time per unit solid angle
= . (15)
dΩ incident energy per unit time per unit area
Page 11
Thomson Scattering
Since the total incident energy is S, the differential cross-section for Thomson
scattering is
e4 (1 + cos2 α)
dσT(α) = 2 2 2 4
dΩ. (16)
16π ε0me c 2
In terms of the classical electron radius re = e2/4πε0mec2, this can be expressed
re2
dσT = (1 + cos2 α) dΩ. (17)
2
To find the total cross-section, we integrate over all angles α,
Z π 2
re 2 8π 2 e4
σT = (1 + cos α) 2π sin α dα = re = 2 2 4
. (18)
0 2 3 6πε0me c
σT = 6.653 × 10−29 m2. (19)

This is Thomson’s famous result for the total cross-section for scattering by
stationary free electrons and is justly referred to as the Thomson cross-section.
Page 12
Thomson Scattering
• The scattering is symmetric with respect to the scattering of angle α. Thus as
much radiation is scattered backwards as forwards.
• Another useful calculation is the scattering cross-section for 100% polarised
emission. We can work this out by integrating the scattered intensity (11) over
all angles.
e2|r̈ x|2 e4
!
dE
Z
− = sin2 θ 2π sin θ dθ = Sx . (20)
dt x 16π 2ε0c3 6πε2 2 4
0 me c
We find the same total cross-section for scattering as before because it does
not matter how the electron is forced to oscillate. The only important quantity is
the total intensity incident upon it and it does not matter how anisotropic the
radiation is. This result can be written in terms to the energy density of radiation
urad in which the electron is located,
X X
urad = ui = Si/c, (21)
i i
and hence
−(dE/dt) = σTcurad. (22)
Page 13
• Thomson scattering is one of the most important processes which impedes the
escape of photons from any region. We write down the expression for the
energy scattered by the electron in terms of the number density N of photons of
frequency ν so that
d(N hν)
− = σTcN hν. (23)
dt
There is no change of energy of the photons in the scattering process and so, if
there are Ne electrons per unit volume, the number density of photons
decreases exponentially with distance
dN dN
− = σTcNeN − = σT N e N
dt Z dx
N = N0 exp − σTNe dx . (24)
Thus, the optical depth of the medium to Thomson scattering is

Z
τ = σTNe dx. (25)
Page 14
• In this process, the photons are scattered in random directions and so they
perform a random walk, each step corresponding to the mean free path λT of
the photon through the electron gas where λT = (σTNe)−1.
• A distinctive feature of the process is that the scattered radiation is polarised,

even if the incident beam of the radiation is unpolarised. This can be
understood intuitively because all the E-vectors of the unpolarised beam lie in
the x − y plane. Therefore, in the case of observing the electron precisely in the
x − y plane, the scattered radiation is 100% polarised. On the other hand, if we
look along the z-direction, we observe unpolarised radiation. If we define the
degree of polarisation as,
Imax − Imin
Π= , (26)
Imax + Imin
and so by a simple calculation the fractional polarisation of the radiation is
1 − cos2 α
Π= 2
. (27)
1 + cos α
This is therefore a means of producing polarised radiation from an initially
unpolarised beam.
Page 15
A useful relativistic invariant

The energy loss rate by radiation dE/dt is a Lorentz invariant between inertial
frames.
Expert version. The total energy emitted in the form of radiation is the ‘time’
component of the momentum four-vector [E/c, p] and dt is the time component of
the displacement four-vector [dt, dr ]. Therefore, both the energy dE and the time
interval dt transform in the same way between inertial frames of reference and so
their ratio dE/dt is also an invariant.
Gentler version. In the instantaneous rest frame of the accelerated charged particle,
dipole radiation is emitted with zero net momentum, as may be seen from the polar
diagram of dipole radiation. Therefore its four-momentum can be written [dE 0/c, 0].
This radiation is emitted in the interval of proper time dt0 which has four vector
[dt0, 0]. We may now use the inverse Lorentz transformation to relate dE 0 and dt0 to
dE and dt.
dE = γ dE 0 dt = γ dt0 , (28)
and hence
dE dE 0
= 0
. (29)
dt dt
Page 16
Radiation of Accelerated Relativistic Electron

We can derive from this result the radiation rate as observed by the external
observer who measures the velocity and acceleration of the electron to be a and v
respectively, the proper acceleration measured in the instantaneous rest frame of
the electron being a0. Then, from the above results,
dE dE 0 e2|a0|2
= 0
= 3
. (30)
dt dt 6πε0c
To relate a0, a and v , it is simplest to equate the norms of the four-accelerations of
the accelerated electron in the frames S and S0. I leave it as an exercise to the
reader to show that
" 2 #
v·a

a20 = γ 4 a2 + γ 2 (31)
c
and so
e2γ 4
" 2 #
dE 2 + γ2 v · a

= a . (32)
dt in S 6πε0c3 c
Page 17
Radiation of Accelerated Relativistic Electron (2)

Another useful exercise is to resolve a parallel and perpendicular to v so that
a = akik + a⊥i⊥ (33)

and then to show that the radiation rate is
dE e2γ 4

= 2 2
|a⊥| + γ |ak| 2 . (34)
dt in S 6πε0c 3
I have shown how these relations are obtained in HEA1, Sect. 3.3.4. This is a useful
expression for obtaining the loss rate due to synchrotron radiation very quickly (see
later).
Page 18
Parseval’s theorem and the spectral distribution

of the radiation of an accelerated electron
We need to be able to decompose the radiation field of the electron into its spectral
components. Parseval’s theorem provides an elegant method of relating the
dynamical history of the particle to its radiation spectrum. We introduce the Fourier
transform of the acceleration of the particle through the Fourier transform pair, which
I write in symmetrical form: Z ∞
1
v̇ (t) = 1/2
v̇ (ω) exp(−iωt) dω (35)
(2π) −∞
Z ∞
1
v̇ (ω) = 1/2
v̇ (t) exp(iωt) dt. (36)
(2π) −∞
According to Parseval’s theorem, v̇ (ω) and v̇ (t) are related by the following
integrals:
Z ∞ Z ∞
|v̇ (ω)|2 dω = |v̇ (t)|2 dt. (37)
−∞ −∞
This is proved in all textbooks on Fourier anlaysis.
Page 19
Parseval’s Theorem
We can therefore apply this relation to the energy radiated by a particle which has
an acceleration history v̇ (t),
e2 e2
Z ∞ Z ∞ ∞
dE
Z
= | v̇ (t)| 2 dt = | v̇ (ω)| 2 dω. (38)
−∞ dt −∞ 6πε0 c3 −∞ 6πε0 c3
R∞ R∞
Now, what we really want is 0 . . . dω rather than −∞ . . . dω Since the acceleration
is a real function, another theorem in Fourier analysis tells us that
Z ∞ Z 0
|v̇ (ω)|2 dω = |v̇ (ω)|2 dω (39)
0 −∞
and hence we find
e2
Z ∞ Z ∞
Total emitted radiation = I(ω) dω = | v̇ (ω)| 2 dω. (40)
0 0 3πε0c3
Page 20
Parseval’s Theorem
Therefore
e2 2.
I(ω) = | v̇ (ω)| (41)
3πε0c3
Note that this is the total energy per unit bandwidth emitted throughout the period
during which the particle is accelerated. For a distribution of particles, this result
must be integrated over all the particles contributing to the radiation at frequency ω.
This is also a very good result which often gives physical insight into the shape of
the spectrum of emitted radiation.
Page 21
Bremsstrahlung
Bremsstrahlung is the radiation associated with the acceleration of electrons in the
electrostatic fields of ions and the nuclei of atoms. In X-ray and γ-ray astronomy, the
most important cases are those in which bremmstrahlung is emitted by very hot
plasmas at T ≥ 106 K, at which temperatures the hydrogen and helium atoms are
fully ionised. We use the tools already introduced to derive classically the
expressions for the bremsstrahlung emissivity of a hot plasma.
Virgo Cluster in X-rays (ROSAT) Coma Cluster in X-rays (ROSAT)
Page 22
Encounters between Charged Particles

Let us first study the ‘collision’ of a high energy
proton or nucleus with the electrons of a fully
ionised plasma. It is assumed that the nucleus is
undeviated in the encounter with the electron; b,
the distance of closest approach of the particle
to the electron, is called the collision parameter
of the interaction.
The total momentum impulse given to the
R
electron in the encounter is F dt. By
symmetry, the forces parallel to the line of flight
The charge of the high energy of the high energy particle cancel out and so we
particle is ze and its mass M . need only work out the component of force
perpendicular to the line of flight.
ze2 dx
F⊥ = 2
sin θ ; dt = . (42)
4πε0r v
Page 23

Changing variables to θ, b/x = tan θ, r = b/ sin θ and therefore
dx = (−b/ sin2 θ) dθ . (43)

v is effectively constant and therefore
ze2 2
Z ∞ Z π π
b sin θ ze
Z
F⊥ dt = − 2
sin θ dθ = − sin θ dθ (44)
−∞ 0 4πε0 b2 2
v sin θ 4πε bv 0
0
Therefore
ze2
momentum impulse p = (45)
2πε0bv
and the kinetic energy transferred to the electron is
p2 z 2e4
= 2 2 2 2
= energy lost by high energy particle. (46)
2me 8π ε0b v me
Page 24

We want the average energy loss per unit length and
so we need the number of collisions with collision
parameters in the range b to b + db and integrate over
collision parameters. The total energy loss of the high
energy particle, −dE, is:
(number of electrons in volume 2πb db dx)
× (energy loss per interaction)
z 2e4
Z b
max
= Ne 2πb db 2 2 2 2
dx
bmin 8π ε0b v me
where Ne is the number density of electrons. I have
included limits bmax and bmin to the range of collision
parameters in this integral. Then,
z 2e4N
!
dE e bmax
−= 2 2
ln . (47)
dx 4πε0v me bmin
This process is closely related to the ionisation losses
which we will meet again.
Page 25
Gaunt Factors
Notice how the logarithmic dependence upon bmax/bmin comes about. The closer
the encounter, the greater the momentum impulse, p ∝ b−2. There are, however,
more electrons at large distances (∝ b db) and hence, when we integrate, we obtain
only a logarithmic dependence of the energy loss rate upon the range of collision
parameters.
Why introduce the limits bmax and bmin?
The reason is that the proper sum is very much more complicated and would take
account of the acceleration of the electron by the high energy particle and include a
proper quantum mechanical treatment of the interaction. Our approximate methods
give rather good answers, however, because the limits bmax and bmin only appear
inside the logarithm and hence need not be known very precisely.
This is the simplest example of the type of calculation which needs to be carried out
in working out energy transfers and accelerations of electrons and protons in fully
ionised plasmas. The logarithmic term ln(bmax/bmin) appears in the guise of what
are often referred to as Gaunt factors and care has to be taken to use the correct
values of bmax and bmin in different physical conditions. Similar forms of Gaunt
factor appear in working out the spectrum of bremsstrahlung and the electrical
conductivity of a plasma.
Page 26
Spectrum and Energy Loss Rate of Bremsstrahlung

In the classical limit, bremsstrahlung is the emission of an electron accelerated in an
electrostatic encounter with a nucleus. Electrons lose more energy in
electron-electron collisions, but these do not result in the emission of dipole
radiation since there is no net electric dipole moment associated with these
encounters. Hence, the calculation
• Work out an expression for the acceleration of an electron in the electrostatic

field of the nucleus. The roles of the particles in the calculation above are
reversed – the electron is moving at a high speed past the stationary nucleus.
• Fourier transform of the acceleration of the electron and use Parseval’s theorem
to work out the spectrum of the emitted radiation.
• Integrate this result over all collision parameters and worry about suitable limits
for bmax and bmin.
• In the case in which the electron is relativistic, transform back into the laboratory
frame of reference.
• For a Maxwellian gas, integrate over the Maxwell distribtion.
• For a non-thermal distribution, integrate over the velocity or energy distribution.
Page 27
Outline Calculation
Both the relativistic and non-relativistic cases

begin in the same way and so work out both
cases simultaneously. The accelerations along
the trajectory of the electron, ak, and
perpendicular to it, a⊥, in its rest-frame are
given by
eEx γZe2vt
ak = v̇x = − =
me 4πε0me[b2 + (γvt)2]3/2
eEz γZe2b
a⊥ = v̇z = − =
me 4πε0me[b2 + (γvt)2]3/2
where Ze is the charge of the nucleus (see
HEA1).
Page 28
Outline Calculation
The radiation spectrum of the electron in an encounter with a charged nucleus is

then
e2 h 2 2
i
I(ω) = |ak(ω)| + |a⊥(ω)|
3πε0c3
2 6 2
" ! !#
Z e ω 1 2 ωb 2 ωb
= K
3 m2 γ 2 v 2 γ 2 0 γv
+ K1 (48)
24π 4ε30 c e γv
where K0 and K1 are modified Bessel functions of order zero and one. This is the
intensity spectrum which results from a single encounter between an electron and a
nucleus with collision parameter b.
Page 29
The Results
• The impulse perpendicular to the direction of travel contributes the greater

intensity, even in the non-relativistic case γ = 1.
• The perpendicular component results in significant radiation at low frequencies.
• The spectrum is flat because the acceleration perpendicular to the line of flight
is a brief impulse. The Fourier transform of a delta function is a flat spectrum.
• The turn-over corresponds roughly to the frequency which is the inverse of the
duration of the collision.
Page 30
Bremsstrahlung
Thus, at high frequencies, there is an exponential cut-off to the spectrum
Z 2e6
" # !
1 2ωb
I(ω) =
3 3 3 2 3 2
+ 1 exp − . (49)
48π ε0c me γv γ γv
The exponential cut-off tells us that there is little power emitted at frequencies
greater than ω ≈ γv/b.
The low frequency spectrum has the form

Z 2e6 1
I(ω) = 4 3 3 2 2 2
=K. (50)
24π ε0c me b v
To an excellent approximation, the low frequency spectrum is flat up to frequency
ω = γv/b, above which the spectrum falls off exponentially.
Page 31
Bremsstrahlung
Finally, we integrate over all collision parameters which contribute to the radiation at
frequency ω. If the electron is moving relativistically, the number density of nuclei it
observes is enhanced by a factor γ because of relativistic length contraction. Hence,
in the moving frame of the electron, N 0 = γN where N is the number density of
nuclei in the laboratory frame of reference. The number of encounters per second is
N 0v and since, properly speaking, all parameters are measured in the rest frame of
the electron, let us add superscript dashes to all the relevant parameters. The
radiation spectrum in frame of the electron is therefore
Z b0
max
I(ω 0) = 2πb0γN vK 0 db0 (51)
b0min
Z 2e6γN b0max
!
1
= ln . (52)
3 3 3 2
12π ε0c me v b0min
Page 32
Non-relativistic and Thermal Bremsstrahlung

First, we evaluate the total energy loss rate by bremsstrahlung of a high energy but
non-relativistic electron. We neglect the relativistic correction factors and hence
obtain the low frequency radiation spectrum
Z 2e6N 1
I(ω) = ln Λ (53)
12π 3ε3 3 2
0 c me v
where Λ = bmax/bmin. We have to make the correct choice of limiting collision
parameters bmax and bmin.
For bmax, we note that we should only integrate out to those values of b for which
ωb/v = 1. For larger values of b, the radiation at frequency ω lies on the exponential
tail of the spectrum and we obtain a negligible contribution to the intensity.
For bmin, at high velocities, v ≥ (Z/137)c, the quantum restriction,

bmin ≈ h̄/2mev, is applicable and can be derived from Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle (see HEA1). This is the appropriate limit to describe, for example, the X-ray
bremsstrahlung of hot intergalactic gas in clusters of galaxies. Thus, for high
velocities, Λ = 2mev 2/h̄ω. There is, as usual, a cut-off at high frequencies
ω ≥ v/b.
Page 33
The Full Answer

Let us compare our result with the full answer which was derived by Bethe and
Heitler using a full quantum mechanical treatment of the radiation process. The
electron cannot give up more than its total kinetic energy in the radiation process
and so no photons are radiated with energies greater than ε = h̄ω = 1 2
2 mev .
The intensity of radiation from a single electron of energy E = 1

2 me v 2 in the
non-relativistic limit is
2 1/2
" #
8 mec 1 + (1 − ε/E)
I(ω) = Z 2αre2 vN ln 1/2
(54)
3 E 1 − (1 − ε/E)
where α = e2/4πh̄ε0c ≈ 1/137 is the fine structure constant and

re = e2/4πε0mec2 is the classical electron radius. The constant in front of the
logarithm in this expression is exactly the same as that in (53). In addition, in the
limit of low energies ε E, the term inside the logarithm reduces to 4E/ε.
Page 34
Thermal Bremsstrahlung
In order to work out the bremsstrahlung, or free-free emission, of a gas at
temperature T , we integrate the expression (53) over a Maxwellian distribution of
electron velocities
mev 2
3/2 !
me

Ne(v) dv = 4πNe v 2 exp dv. (55)
2πkT 2kT
The algebra can become somewhat cumbersome at this stage. We can find the
correct order-of-magnitude answer if we write 1
2 m e v 2 = 3 kT in expression (53).
2
Then, the emissivity of a plasma having electron density Ne becomes in the low
frequency limit,
Z 2e6N Ne me 1/2

I(ω) ≈ √ 3 3 3 2 g(ω, T ) (56)
12 3π ε0c me kT
where g(ω, T ) is a Gaunt factor, corresponding to ln Λ, but now integrated over
velocity.
At high frequencies, the spectrum of thermal bremsstrahlung cuts off exponentially

as exp(−h̄ω/kT ), reflecting the population of electrons in the high energy tail of a
Maxwellian distribution at energies h̄ω kT .
Page 35
The total energy loss rate of the plasma may be found by integrating the spectral
emissivity over all frequencies. In practice, because of the exponential cut-off, we
find the correct functional form by integrating (56) from 0 to ω = kT /h̄, that is,
−(dE/dt) = (constant) Z 2T 1/2gN Ne (57)

where ḡ is a frequency averaged Gaunt factor. Detailed calculations give the
following answers:
Z 2e6
1/2
1 π me 1/2 hν

κν = 2 3 3 2
g(ν, T )N Ne exp − (58)
3π 6 ε0c me kT kT
= 6.8 × 10−51Z 2T −1/2N Ne g(ν, T ) exp(−hν/kT ) W m−3Hz−1 (59)
where the number densities of electrons Ne and of nuclei N are given in particles
per cubic metre. At frequencies h̄ω kT , the Gaunt factor has only a logarithmic
dependence on frequency.
Page 36
A suitable form for X-ray wavelengths is:
√
3 kT

X-ray g(ν, T ) = ln , (60)
π hν
The functional forms of the logarithmic term can be readily derived from the the
above considerations.
The total loss rate of the plasma is

dE

− = 1.435 × 10−40Z 2T 1/2gN Ne W m−3. (61)
dt brems
Detailed calculations show that the frequency averaged Gaunt factor ḡ lies in the
range 1.1 − 1.5 and a good approximation is ḡ = 1.2. A compilation of a large
number of useful Gaunt factors for a wide range of physical conditions is given by
Karzas and Latter (1961).
Page 37
Example - X-ray Emission of Clusters of Galaxies

If p is the pressure of the gas and % its density,
both of which vary with position within the
XMM-Newton X-ray Image of cluster, the requirement of hydrostatic
the cluster of galaxies Abell equilibrium is
1413 (Pratt and Arnaud 2002). dp GM (≤ r)%
=− 2
. (62)
dr r
The pressure is related to the local gas density %
and temperature T by the perfect gas law
%kT
p= , (63)
µmH
where mH is the mass of the hydrogen atom
and µ is the mean molecular weight of the gas.
For a fully ionised gas with the standard cosmic
abundance of the elements, a suitable value is
µ = 0.6.
Page 38
Example - X-ray Emission of Clusters of Galaxies

X-ray spectrum in fifth annulus
Differentiating with respect to r and substituting,

we find
!
%kT 1 d% 1 dT GM (≤ r)%
+ =− 2
. (64)
µmH % dr T dr r
Reorganising,
Average X-ray emissivity as a
kT r2
" #
d(log %) d(log T )
function of radius M (≤ r) = − + .
GµmH dr dr
(65)
Thus, by measuring the temperature of the gas

as a function of radius and the bremsstrahlung
emissivity of the gas, the mass within radius r
can be found.
Page 39
The Mass Distribution in Abell 1413
Both the temperature distribution and number density of electrons need to be

deprojected to find the spatial distribution as a function of radius. This is carried
through the pair of Abel integrals,
1 ∞ κν (r)r 4d ∞ Iν (a)a
Z Z
Iν (a) = dr κν (r) = da . (66)
2π a (r2 − a2)1/2 r dr r (a2 − r2)1/2
Page 40
Non-relativistic Bremsstrahlung Losses

To find the energy loss rate of a single high energy electron, we integrate (52) over
all frequencies. In practice, this means integrating from 0 to ωmax where ωmax
corresponds to the cut-off, bmin ≈ h̄/2mev. This angular frequency is
approximately
ωmax = 2π/τ ∼ 2πv/bmin ≈ 4πmev 2/h̄, (67)
that is, to order of magnitude h̄ω ≈ 1
2 me v 2 . This is just the kinetic energy of the
electron and is obviously the maximum amount of energy which can be lost in a
single encounter with the nucleus. We should therefore integrate (52) from ω = 0 to
ωmax ≈ meνv 2/2h̄ and thus,
dE ωmax Z 2e6N 1 Z 2e6N v
Z
− ≈ 3 3 3 2
ln Λ dω ≈ 3 3 3
ln Λ (68)
dt brems 0 12π 0c me v 24π 0c me h̄
Note that the total energy loss rate of the electron is proportional to v, that is, to the
square root of the kinetic energy E: −dE/dt ∝ E 1/2.
In practical applications of this formula, it is necessary to integrate over the energy

distribution of the particles.
Page 41
Relativistic Bremsstrahlung Losses

The formulae we have derived are correct in the rest frame of the electron, namely,
Z b0max
I(ω 0) = 2πb0(γN )vK 0 db0 (69)
b0min
where we have written the number density of nuclei γN because of length

contraction. Since the collision parameters b0 are perpendicular to the direction of
motion, it follows that, since y = y 0, the same collision parameters appropriate for
the laboratory frame of reference can be used. I have given a discussion of the
relevant collision parameters in HEA1 and I will not repeat that discussion here. It
suffices to note that we can write the emission spectrum in the frame of the electron
Z 2e6N γ 1
I(ω 0) = 3 3 3 2
lnΛ. (70)
12π ε0c me v
Notice that there is at best a very weak dependence upon frequency ω and so we
again obtain the characteristic flat bremsstrahlung intensity spectrum.
Page 42
Relativistic Bremsstrahlung Losses

On transforming this spectrum to the laboratory frame of reference, we note that the
bandwidth changes as ∆ω = γ∆ω 0 and so the spectrum becomes
Z 2e6N 1
I(ω) = 3 3 3 2
ln Λ (71)
12π ε0c me v
where the integral extends up to energies E = h̄ω = γmec2, where γ 1. Thus,
the rate of loss of energy of the relativistic electron is
dE E/h̄ Z 2e6Nḡ
Z
− = I(ω) dω = 3 3 4
E. (72)
dt rel 0 12π ε0c h̄
Notice that the dependence of the energy loss rate changes from E 1/2 to E
between the non-relativistic and relativistic cases.
Page 43
The Galactic Gamma-ray Emission

The diagram shows the γ-ray spectrum of our
Galaxy as well as theoretical estimates of the
emission by Stecker (1977). At energies ε > 70
MeV, the dominant emission mechanism is the
decay of neutral pions created in collisions
between cosmic rays and the nuclei of atoms
and molecules of the interstellar gas. This
spectrum peaks at about 70 MeV and so there
must be another mechanism which contributes
at the lower energies. Relativistic
bremsstrahlung may be the dominant source of
emission at these energies. The spectrum
labelled ‘brems’ is derived from an extrapolation
of the relativistic electron spectrum in our
Galaxy to energies 1 < E < 1000 MeV.

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The radiation of an accelerated charged particle

J.J. Thomson’s treatment (1906, 1907)

There must be a component of the electric field

The radiation of an accelerated charged particle (3)

Eθ /Er = ∆v t sin θ/c∆t. (2)

Er = q/4πε0r 2 where r = ct, (3)

The radiation of an accelerated charged particle (4)

The radiation of an accelerated charged particle (5)

The Properties of Dipole Radiation

Example - Thomson Scattering

r̈x = eEx/me r̈y = eEy /me. (10)

σT = 6.653 × 10−29 m2. (19)

Thus, the optical depth of the medium to Thomson scattering is

• A distinctive feature of the process is that the scattered radiation is polarised,

A useful relativistic invariant

Radiation of Accelerated Relativistic Electron

Radiation of Accelerated Relativistic Electron (2)

a = akik + a⊥i⊥ (33)

Parseval’s theorem and the spectral distribution

Virgo Cluster in X-rays (ROSAT) Coma Cluster in X-rays (ROSAT)

Encounters between Charged Particles

Encounters between Charged Particles

dx = (−b/ sin2 θ) dθ . (43)

Encounters between Charged Particles

Why introduce the limits bmax and bmin?

Spectrum and Energy Loss Rate of Bremsstrahlung

• Work out an expression for the acceleration of an electron in the electrostatic

Both the relativistic and non-relativistic cases

The radiation spectrum of the electron in an encounter with a charged nucleus is

• The impulse perpendicular to the direction of travel contributes the greater

• The perpendicular component results in significant radiation at low frequencies.

The low frequency spectrum has the form

Non-relativistic and Thermal Bremsstrahlung

For bmin, at high velocities, v ≥ (Z/137)c, the quantum restriction,

The Full Answer

The intensity of radiation from a single electron of energy E = 1

where α = e2/4πh̄ε0c ≈ 1/137 is the fine structure constant and

At high frequencies, the spectrum of thermal bremsstrahlung cuts off exponentially

−(dE/dt) = (constant) Z 2T 1/2gN Ne (57)

= 6.8 × 10−51Z 2T −1/2N Ne g(ν, T ) exp(−hν/kT ) W m−3Hz−1 (59)

The total loss rate of the plasma is

Example - X-ray Emission of Clusters of Galaxies

Example - X-ray Emission of Clusters of Galaxies

Differentiating with respect to r and substituting,

Thus, by measuring the temperature of the gas

The Mass Distribution in Abell 1413

Both the temperature distribution and number density of electrons need to be

Non-relativistic Bremsstrahlung Losses

In practical applications of this formula, it is necessary to integrate over the energy

Relativistic Bremsstrahlung Losses

where we have written the number density of nuclei γN because of length

Relativistic Bremsstrahlung Losses

The Galactic Gamma-ray Emission

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